limitations are understandable as codes and standards are based on best practice and
when a consensus on best practice is absent then codes remain brief. However, engineering practice require acceptable solutions for many subjects not covered by the
existing codes. ISO 23469 (2005) use similar approach to EN 1998-5 (2004).
This volume provides information on the basic mechanisms and factors affecting
the behaviour of ground and buried structures in cyclic conditions in order to help
engineering judgement. The analyses are based on well known engineering principles and methods that are familiar to many readers. The accuracy and precision
of the simple analyses are demonstrated for actual case histories instead of using
numerical analyses and laboratory testing, which have their disadvantages such as
complexity, high cost and long duration. The equations provided in this volume are
suitable for hand calculations.
M. Srbulov
EN 1998-5 (2004) Eurocode 8 – design of structures for earthquake resistance, part 5: foundations, retaining structures and geotechnical aspects. European Committee for Standardization,
ISO 23469 (2005) Bases for design of structures – seismic actions for designing geotechnical
works. International Organization for Standardization
Terzaghi K (1925) Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalisher grundlage. Deuticke, Vienna, Austria
I was honoured and privileged to work with Professor Nicholas Ambraseys as his
assistant (i.e. associate after the completion of my PhD in 1994) on a number
of research projects supported by the Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council of the United Kingdom and by the EPOCH program of the Community
of European Countries at Imperial College in London (UK) during the period
1991–1997. The simplified approach used in our research is directly applicable to
routine engineering practice. My initial involvement with earthquake engineering
was a starting point for further work concerning soil dynamics and ground vibration related issues while working on a number of projects worldwide for Mott
Dr E.T.R. Dean of Caribbean Geotechnical Design Limited (Trinidad) and Soil
Models Limited (UK) reviewed several of my papers and was of great help with
his detailed and precise comments for the improvement of initial versions of the
papers. He kindly reviewed the initial version of this volume and made a significant
contribution towards the improvement of the clarity and readability of the text.
Several of my former colleagues influenced my professional carrier and hence
this volume. Professor Milan Maksimovic persuaded me to switch profession from
concrete structures to geotechnics right after my graduation. He pioneered studies of soil mechanics paid by Energoprojekt Co. at Imperial College in the U.K.
The MSc soil mechanics study in 1984/85 enabled me to obtain the position of
a research assistant later. Professor Petar Anagnosti (former principal geotechnical
engineer of Energoprojekt Co. and former vice president of the International Society
for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering) and Mr Aleksandar Bozovic (former technical director of Energoprojekt Co. and former chairman of the committee
on seismic aspects of dam design of the International Commission of Large Dams)
encouraged me to apply for the position of a research assistant at Imperial College.
The editor of European Earthquake Engineering and Ingegneria Sismica journals
Professor Duilio Benedetti accepted kindly for publication 20 of my papers related
to geotechnical earthquake engineering in the period 1995 to end of 2010. Numerous
publications of my papers encourage me to work more in the field of geotechnical
earthquake engineering and related topics such as ground vibration. Dr. Massimo
Tognetti from Patron Editore provided publisher’s consent to use material from my
papers published in the journals European Earthquake Engineering and Ingegneria
Sismica.
Ms Petra D. van Steenbergen – a senior publishing editor for geosciences with the
publisher Springer showed interest in my proposals for writing books and arranged
for the awards of the contracts with the help from Ms Cynthia deJonge.
The idea for writing books came from my wife Radmila, who had no time to do
it herself but, instead, provided encouragement and stimulation.
1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . .
National . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Graphs . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Formulas . . . . . . . . . .
Using Computer Software . . . . .
Using Small Scale Physical Models
Using Large Scale Prototypes . . .
1.4 General Comments on Simple Analyses . . .
Application and Users . . . . . . .
Input Data and Time Involved . . .
Cost and Risks . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Main Ground Motion Sources and Properties . . .
2.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earthquake Magnitude . . . . . . . .
Principal Earthquake Hazards . . . .
2.3 Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction and Demolition . . . .
Blasting in Construction and Mining
3 Typical Ground Motions, Recording, Ground Investigations
and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main Ground Wave Types and Effects
Main Types . . . . . . . . .
Main Effects . . . . . . . .
3.3 Instruments and Recording . . . . . .
Geophones . . . . . . . . .
Accelerometers . . . . . .
3.4 Processing of Records . . . . . . . .
Filtering . . . . . . . . . .
Baseline Correction . . . .
Site Investigation . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface (Non-intrusive) . .
Deep (Intrusive) . . . . . .
3.6 Laboratory Testing of Soil Samples .
Shear Strength . . . . . . .
Stiffness . . . . . . . . . .
Soil Permeability . . . . . .
5 Fast Sliding of Non-liquefied Soil . . . . . . . .
5.2 Mechanism and Factors . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Co-seismic Stage . . . . . . . . .
Post-seismic Stage . . . . . . . .
5.4 Simple Model for Post-seismic Stage . . .
5.5 Case Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maidipo Slide in China . . . . .
Catak Slide in Turkey . . . . . .
Usoy Slide in Tajikistan . . . . .
Vajont Slide in Italy . . . . . . .
Higashi Takezawa Slide in Japan
5.6 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . .
4 Soil Properties Used in Simple Analyses
4.2 Shear Strength and Stiffness . . . .
Non-cohesive Soil . . . .
Cohesive Soil . . . . . .
4.3 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Flow of Liquefied Sandy Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Mechanism and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Simple Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Potential of Liquefaction of Soil Slopes . . . . . . .
Flow of Liquefied Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Case Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lower San Fernando Dam in California . . . . . . .
Sheffield Dam in California . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calaveras Dam in California . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fort Peck Dam in Montana – USA . . . . . . . . .
North Dike of Wachusett Dam in
Massachusetts – USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
La Marquesa Dam in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
La Palma Dam in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Route 272 Embankment in Higashiarekinai – Japan
Vlietepolder Deposit, Zeeland Province
in Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.10 Helsinki Harbour Fill in Finland . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.11 Lake Merced Bank in California . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.12 Hachiro-Gata Road Embankment in Akita – Japan .
6.5.13 Lake Ackerman Road Embankment in
Michigan – USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.14 Aberfan Coal Mine Waste in Wales – UK . . . . . .
6.6 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Massive Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Mechanism and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bearing Capacity of Soil Under Wall Base . . .
Stability Against Sliding at Wall Base . . . . . .
Stability Against Overturning Around the
External Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stability Against Deep Seated Soil Slip . . . . .
7.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Empirical by Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical by Computer Software . . . . . . . .
Experimental on Small Scale Models . . . . . .
7.4 Simple Models and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Increment of Active Soil Lateral Force
Co-seismic Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Post-seismic Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quay Walls at Kobe Port in Japan . . . . .
Quay Wall at Kalamata Harbour in Greece
Quay Wall at San Antonio Port in Chile . .
7.6 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 Slender Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stability Against Forward Rotation . . . . . . . . .
Stability Against Backward Rotation . . . . . . . .
Flexural Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capacity of Strut or Tie Against Break . . . . . . .
Pull Out Capacity of Tie or Anchor . . . . . . . . .
Empirical by Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical by Computer Software . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental on Prototypes and Small Scale Models
8.4 Simple Model and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Increment of Active Soil Lateral Force . .
Case Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Embedded Wall of Cut and Cover Sepolia
Station in Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anchored Wall at Kerameikos Station in Greece . .
Sheet Pile Quay Walls in Akita Port in Japan . . . .
9 Shallow Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bearing Capacity of Soil Under Foundation . . . . .
Stability Against Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stability Against Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . .
Settlement During and After Earthquake . . . . . .
Empirical Using Formulas and Charts . . . . . . . .
Numerical Using Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental on Small Scale Models and Prototypes
9.4 Simple Models and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earthquake Affected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinery Affected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Settlement Caused by Soil Vibration . . . . . . . .
Kawagishi-cho Apartment Building
Foundation Failure in Japan . . . . . . . . . . .
Terveler Building Foundation Failure in
Adapazari – Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas Turbine Foundation Vibration in Gabon . .
Settlement of Foley Square Building
Foundation Caused by Pile Driving at
Manhattan in New York City – USA . . . . . .
Settlement of a Quay Wall in Kobe Caused by
the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake in Japan
9.6 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piled Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Mechanism and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kinematic Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inertial Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplified Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rigorous Numerical Analyses . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Small Scale Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4 Full Scale Test Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Simple Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kinematic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inertial Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Case Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ten Storey Building in Mexico City . . . . . .
10.5.2 Twelve Storey Building in Yokohama – Japan
10.5.3 Imperial Valley County Services Building
in California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dumbarton Bridge in California . . . . . . . .
10.5.5 Northwest Connector in California . . . . . .
10.5.6 Painter Street Bridge in California . . . . . . .
10.5.7 Meloland Road Overpass in California . . . .
10.5.8 Ohba-Ohashi Road Bridge in Japan . . . . . .
10.5.9 Landing Road Bridge in New Zealand . . . .
10.5.10 Yachiyo Bridge in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.11 Hanshin Expressway in Kobe – Japan . . . . .
10.6 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Mechanism and Factors . . . . .
11.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Empirical Based on Formulas and Graphs . . . . . .
11.3.2 Numerical Analyses Using Computer Programs . .
11.3.3 Experimental on Small Scale Models and Prototypes
11.4 Simple Methods and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Case Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1 Cut and Cover Daikai Station in Japan . . . . . . .
11.5.2 Bolu Highway Twin Shotcrete Supported
Bench Pilot Tunnels in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.3 Duzce Pipelines in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground Vibration Caused by Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Transportation and Ground Compaction . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.2 Mechanism and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.3 Existing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.4 Simple Model and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . .
Case History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Pile Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.5 Case History from a Limestone Quarry in Istanbul
12.5 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
equivalent friction angle at the base of a sliding block
inclination to the horizontal of an equivalent block, angle along
tunnel circumference
normalized blow count from the standard penetration tests
rotational acceleration, velocity
ground horizontal acceleration, velocity
cross section area, (o) coefficient
horizontal acceleration, (p) peak, (top) at the ground surface,
fault rupture area
peak horizontal ground acceleration at ground surface/depth in
area of pile cap for a pile group or twice the cross section area
of a single pile
nominal amplitude of a vibrating roller
translational slide toe length, coefficient
structural height above its foundation, foundation width
diameter of an equivalent circular foundation
foundation base inclination factors
width of a vertical slice into which a potential sliding mass
a correction coefficient, coefficient of viscous damping, (‘) soil
cohesion in terms of effective stresses
coefficient of an embedded foundation
shear strength of fine grained soil (clayey) including rate effect
in undrained condition
ü, u̇
a(p)h(top),g
apeak,surface,depth
Apilecap
B
bq,γ ,c
c
dp,h
dq,γ ,c
E(s)a,(s)p
F
FN,R(T),O
Fp(np),d,r,s,b
gq,γ ,c
dynamic stiffness coefficient in rotation
diameter of the middle of a tunnel lining, average diameter of a
horizontal distance between forces or places, minimal distance
from location of interest to the surface projection of a fault (or
epicentral distance where the location of a causative fault has not
been reported), pile diameter, wall embedment depth
an average diameter of soil particles
distance to blast location
earthquake source to observation site distance
design ground displacement
external pile diameter
pile wall thickness for hollow piles
peak horizontal ground displacement
foundation depth factors
maximum surface displacement of a tectonic fault, depth
of a vibration source
soil void ratio, eccentricity of mass centre of gravity with respect
to a pile cap underside level, embedment depth of a cylinder,
eccentricity of the resultant force on footing area
Young’s modulus, (p) pile
lateral (s) static active (a) and passive (p) force on a wall
theoretical free-fall energy of a hammer
actual energy delivered by hammer
frequency of ground motion
factor of safety against sliding of translational landslide,
initial, (f) final
resultant horizontal acting force over pile cap area due
to kinematic interaction
(N) normal and strike-slip, (R) reverse (T thrust),
(O) unspecified faulting type indicator
various factor of safety for a wall
factor of safety against soil failure
average equivalent (or maximum) ground shear modulus
ground surface inclination factors
specific gravity of soil solids, equivalent linear soil shear modulus
height drop of centre of displaced soil mass, soil layer thickness,
rectangular tunnel wall height
iq,γ ,c
K(s)a,(s)p,o
ky,x
Lp(n,1,2),a
thickness of a translational slide, retained depth of soil behind a
wall, depth of water in front of a wall, height of the centre of a
mass, soil depth
drop height of a mass
distance from a foundation level to the level of soft layer below
polar moment of mass inertia around the centroid, (o) with
respect to its base
factors for foundation load inclination
mass moment of inertia of structure with respect to the top of a
second moment of cross sectional area
depth of water level below the ground surface behind a wall
coefficient of material damping, ratio between horizontal and
vertical overburden stress
static stiffness coefficient, constant
coefficient of static (s), active (a), passive (p), at rest (o) lateral
ratio between the critical horizontal acceleration at which the
factor of safety against soil failure is 1 and the gravitational
ratio between the peak horizontal ground acceleration and the
structural stiffness in horizontal direction
coefficient of punching shear, of lateral effective stress acting on
ratios between the vertical and horizontal inertial and the
stiffness coefficient in rocking
static stiffness coefficient in rotation
flow path length of the centre of displaced soil mass, pile
depth/length, length of a translational slide
length of a tectonic fault area
critical length for buckling
pile shaft length
lever arm of a lateral force (p) passive, (n) net, (a) active side
bending moment at pile top due to horizontal displacement Δ
bending moments at pile tops due to inertial effects
body wave magnitude of an earthquake
tamper mass
local (Richter) earthquake magnitude
MΔ,θ
N
Npiles
Nq,γ ,c
Pw,n,p,a
mass (s) of a structure
surface wave magnitude of an earthquake
bending moment at the top of wall/column of a rectangular tunnel
due to differential horizontal ground drift Δ and wall/column
bending moment in a tunnel lining in perpendicular direction
to the tunnel axis
resultant overturning moment, base reaction moment
axial force on a sliding surface, (‘) submerged
equivalent number of uniform stress cycles
cone penetration test factor
vibration mode number
pile end bearing coefficient
bearing capacity factor of a shallow foundation
number of standard deviations,
so called pressure height of fluid
horizontal interaction force between soil and foundation, axial
force on the interface between two sliding blocks
critical force to cause buckling of a strut
maximum force amplitude
soil plasticity index
line vertical load acting on a vertical slice
axial force in pile from static and inertial load, axial force acting
on the interface, imbalanced water lateral force, lateral force on a
wall (n) net, (p) passive, (a) active
axial force in a tunnel lining in perpendicular direction to the
surcharge at foundation level, (f) ultimate bearing stress
resistance force caused by turbulence (collision of particles) and
viscosity (rate effects), vertical component of the resultant force
at wall base, radius of a circular slip surface, average radius of a
circular cylinder/tunnel
radius of embedded (equivalent) cylinder, vertical shaft radius
resistance force of a pile group with at least two piles in direction
stress reduction factor with depth
sq,γ ,c
Sω,θ
TΔ,θ
ub,1,2
uw
v2 /
vp,h
vt,l, avr
minimum horizontal distance at which Reyleigh waves appear at
the surface from body waves
resultants of horizontal and vertical forces respectively acting on
axial pile stiffness, ground type coefficient
horizontal structural acceleration
average slip of a tectonic fault during an earthquake
foundation shape factors
radial and tangential displacements of a circular cylinder
soft and stiff soil sites indicators
dynamic stiffness coefficient, in horizontal direction – ω, in
rotation - θ
shear force on a sliding surface, duration of sliding of a
translational landslide, period of horizontal ground vibration,
(C,D) periods of structural vibration
transversal force at pile top due to horizontal displacement Δ
transversal forces at pile tops due to inertial effects
equivalent fundamental period of structural and ground vibration
fundamental period of horizontal ground vibration
Period of vibration of a soil layer
fundamental period of rocking structural and ground vibration
fundamental period of horizontal structural vibration
transversal force at the top of wall/column of a rectangular tunnel
shear force in a tunnel lining in perpendicular direction to the
slope and toe displacements of a translational slide
amplitude of horizontal displacements, (b) maximum amplitude
of base horizontal displacements, (1) in one direction – down
slope, (2) in two directions – of a level ground
radial horizontal displacement of a vertical shaft before soil yield
pore water pressure at the base of a vertical slice, (s) above steady
state water level for a partially submerged slope
depth below wall top
vertical force acting at the foundation underside
fluid kinetic energy height
velocity of particle sedimentation in water
peak horizontal ground velocity
wave velocity, (t) transversal, (l) longitudinal, (avr) averaged
equivalent block weight or of displaced flow mass
width of a foundation
width of a vibrating drum
Ws
yr,z
ΔMθ
Δw Δt-1
Δσ v,z
γ s,w
mass of explosive
width of a tectonic fault area
total weight of a vertical slice (above steady state water level),
(‘)submerged weight of part of a vertical slice below steady state
saturated weight of part of a vertical slice below steady state
horizontal, slant distance
distance from impact
distance along the ground surface from a roller
liver arms of the horizontal components of external and inertial
forces respectively with respect to the centre of a trial circular slip
surface with the radius R
elevation of fluid above a reference datum, height of truncated
part of a cone
second moment of inertia of trapped mass of soil beneath a
foundation in rotation when the Poisson’s ratio >1/3
equivalent horizontal displacement of ground surface,
differential horizontal soil displacement along tunnel height
additional vertical stress at a depth z due to foundation load
horizontal harmonic force
ground cohesion mobilization factor along pile shaft
angle of inclination to the horizontal of an equivalent block and
soil cohesion mobilisation factor (s) the base of a vertical slice
angle of rotation of pile cap, angle of inclination to the horizontal
of the interface between slip and toe surfaces along slope
friction angle between soil and pile cap in coarse grained soil
(silt, sand, gravel), angle of inclination to the horizontal of the toe
of a slip surfaces along slope, (b) between wall back and soil
friction angle between ground and pile shaft
soil friction angle, (1) in static condition
unit weight of soil (s) and water
(average) shear strain (over pile length), soil unit weight, (d) dry
inclination to the horizontal of soil surface at the back of a wall
A mean annual rate of exceedance of an earthquake magnitude
shear modulus of the Earth’s crust
σ’m
σ’n
σ v
τ (hv),max
τ /σ’v
ω
back of wall inclination to the vertical (positive from back to
angle of inclination to the horizontal of the slip surfaces along
slope, rotation of the structure and its foundation, rotation of a
wall/column of rectangular tunnel
ground unit density
effective axial stress
axial stress acting on the sliding surface along slope
confining effective pressure
stress, v –vertical, (‘) – effective, r – radial, t – tangential
soil shear strength (hv) in horizontal to vertical plane,
angle of pile inclination to the vertical, also between horizontal
and the gravitational accelerations
Engineers prefer to use codes for design of structures subjected to cyclic and
dynamic loads. However, design codes are very brief concerning the seismic
response of underground structures (foundations, tunnels, pipelines) and when they
provide recommendations on the best practice these recommendations are limited
to usual types of structures (buildings) and ground conditions. The users of British
Standards are aware that compliance with them does not necessarily confer immunity from relevant statutory and legal requirements. Often engineers need to seek
advice and help from specialists in soil dynamics. Because the issues in soil dynamics are rather complex, the specialist use simple considerations and methods not
least for checking of the results of more complex analyses. Hence, engineers can use
simple considerations and methods for assessment of severity of a problem before
engaging specialists for solution of the problem.
The aim of this volume is to provide information on the basic mechanisms and
factors affecting the behaviour of ground and buried structures in cyclic conditions
in order to help engineering judgement. The analyses are based on well known engineering principles and methods that are familiar to many readers. The accuracy and
precision of the simple analyses are demonstrated for actual case histories instead
of using numerical analyses and laboratory testing, which have their disadvantages
such as complexity, high cost and long duration. The equations provided in this
volume are suitable for hand calculations.
1.2.1 National
Increasing globalization and sharing of information has led to the gradual replacement of many national codes by international ones, generally supported by countryspecific provisions where deemed necessary. The national codes are usually subject
oriented concerning the effects of earthquakes, machinery, construction, mining and
M. Srbulov, Practical Soil Dynamics, Geotechnical, Geological and Earthquake
Engineering 20, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1312-3_1,
transport industries. The national codes or annexes to international codes usually
contain location specific data such as the levels of earthquake excitation, allowable
noise and vibration limits and references to other relevant national legislations.
Examples of rather comprehensive national codes are American and European
standards available for soil dynamic testing (ASTM D3999, 4015, 4428, 5777, 7128,
7400) and design in seismic condition (IBC 2009, EN 1998-1, 5). National codes
exist concerning ground and structural vibration issues (e.g. ANSI S2.47, S3.18
and 3.29, US DOT-293630-1, BS 5228-2, 6472, 7385-2, DIN 4024-1 and 2, 4150-3¸
45669-1, 45672-1, AS 2187.2, OENORM S9020, CSA Z107.54, SS <DIGITS>, NS
8141, TS 10354 according to Skipp, 1998, and others).
The International Standards Organization (ISO), with the headquarters in Geneva,
published a number of standards related to the issues of ground and structural vibrations and their effects on humans and structures (e.g. ISO 2631/1 to 3, 4866, 6897,
8041, 8569, 9996, 10811-1 and 2, 10815, 14837-1, 23469 etc.). The international
standards will replace national standards when the level of local development and
treatments of code subjects become acceptable to the users.
1.3 Existing Methods
1.3.1 Using Graphs
When the major factors that affect an event do not exceed three then the effects of
the factors on the results of an event can be plotted on a graph in two-dimensions.
Frequent plots include:
ground acceleration/velocity/displacement attenuation relationships
Fourier and response spectral acceleration/velocity/displacement relationships
mean annual rate of exceedance of earthquake magnitudes
boundaries between liquefied and non-liquefied sandy soil
soil stiffness and damping ratio change with strain
cyclic stress ratio effect on the number of cycles to failure
amplification factor change with the tuning ratio
1.3.1.1 Examples of Attenuation Relationships for Peak Ground Motion
and Permanent Co-seismic Displacement
Ambraseys et al. (2005) proposed the following relation between the peak horizontal ground acceleration aph in m/s2 , the earthquake moment magnitude Mw , and
the minimal distance d from the location of interest to the surface projection of a
fault (or epicentral distance where the location of the causative fault has not been
log10 (ap,h ) = 2.522 − 0.142 · Mw + (−3.184 + 0.314 · Mw ) · log10 d 2 + 7.62
+ S + F,
where S = 0.137 for soft soil sites (with the transversal wave velocity range between
180 and 360 m/s to a depth of 30 m), S = 0.05 for stiff soil sites (with the transversal
wave velocity range between 360 and 750 m/s to a depth of 30 m) and 0 otherwise,
F = −0.084 for normal and strike-slip faulting earthquakes, FT = 0.062 for reverse
(thrust) faulting earthquakes, F = −0.044 for unspecified faulting earthquakes and
0 otherwise. The standard deviation is 0.222–0.022 Mw . One standard deviation is
added when it is expected that the effect of one of the following factors may increase
the peak acceleration above the average value.
Wave bouncing from Moho surface
Peak horizontal acceleration
The average peak horizontal accelerations of rock and soft soil from unspecified
faulting earthquakes are shown in Fig. 1.1.
According to Fig. 1.1, the average peak horizontal acceleration of soft soil sites
can reach 7.7 m/s2 while on rock 5.6 m/s2 for the moment magnitude Mw = 8
indicating the importance of local soil amplification of bedrock acceleration.
Akkar and Bommer (2007) proposed the following attenuation relationship
between the peak horizontal ground velocity vp,h in cm/s, the earthquake moment
Fig. 1.1 The average peak horizontal accelerations of rock (continuous lines) and soft soil sites
(dashed lines) from unspecified faulting according to Equation
magnitude MW , and the minimal distance d from the location of interest to the surface projection of the fault (or the epicentral distance where the location of the
causative fault has not been reported)
log10 (vp,h ) = −1.26 + 1.103 · Mw − 0.085 · MW 2 + (−3.103 + 0.327 · Mw )·
log10 d 2 + 5.52 + S + F,
180 and 360 m/s to a depth of 30 m), S = 0.079 for stiff soil sites (with the
transversal wave velocity range between 360 and 750 m/s to a depth of 30 m) and 0
otherwise, F = −0.083 for normal and strike-slip faulting earthquakes, F = 0.0116
for reverse (thrust) faulting earthquakes and 0 otherwise. The standard deviation is
0.344–0.04 Mw . One standard deviation is added when it is expected that the effect
of one of the following factors may increase the peak acceleration above the average
The average peak horizontal velocities of rock and soft soil from unspecified
Figure 1.2 indicates that the average peak horizontal velocity of soft soil sites can
reach 97 cm/s while on rock 59 cm/s for the moment magnitude Mw = 8 indicating
the importance of local soil amplification of bedrock velocity.
Fig. 1.2 The average peak horizontal velocity of rock (continuous lines) and soft soil sites (dashed
lines) from unspecified faulting according to Equation
Bommer and Elnashai (1999) proposed the following attenuation relation
between peak horizontal ground displacement dp,h in cm, the surface wave magnitude Ms , and the minimal distance d to the surface projection of the fault (or
epicentral distance where the location of the causative fault has not been reported):
log10 (dp,h ) = −1.757 + 0.526 · Ms − 1.135 · log10 d2 + 3.52 + S + 0.32 · P,
where, S = 0.114 for soft soil sites (with the transversal wave velocity range between
transversal wave velocity range between 360 and 750 m/s to a depth of 30 m) and
0 otherwise, P is a variable that takes a value of 0 for mean peak displacement and
1 for 84-percentile values of exceedance of the mean peak displacement. One standard deviation is added when it is expected that the effect of one of the following
factors may increase the peak acceleration above the average value.
Based on the above equation, the average peak horizontal displacements for rock
and soft soil are shown in Fig. 1.3.
According to Fig. 1.3, the average peak horizontal displacement of soft soil sites
can reach 108 cm while on rock 65 cm for the surface wave magnitude Ms = 8
indicating the importance of local soil amplification of bedrock displacement.
Ambraseys and Srbulov (1994, 1995), among others, provided the attenuation
relationships of co-seismic permanent displacements depending on earthquake
Peak horizontal displacement
Fig. 1.3 The average peak horizontal displacement of rock (continuous lines) and soft soil sites
magnitude, earthquake source distance and the ratio between the critical
acceleration for slope instability and the peak horizontal acceleration of ground.
The attenuation relationships have been derived using least square regression performed on the permanent ground displacements, which are calculated using double
integration in time of the difference between the base acceleration and the critical
acceleration. The following assumptions and limitations apply:
• Constant critical acceleration ratio is independent on the amount and rate of
• Earthquake surface wave magnitude Ms range 5 to 7.7.
• Earthquake source distances to 50 km.
• Acceleration records caused by thrust (46%), normal (26%) and strike slip
faults (Fig. 2.5) with the mean depth of the events 10 ± 4 km.
• One-way horizontal component of displacement only for slopes. Down slope dis− −
placement is calculated by dividing the horizontal component with cosα, α is
inclination to the horizontal of the equivalent block.
• Horizontal ground acceleration was considered only.
The attenuation relationship for one-way (down slope only) permanent horizontal component of displacements on sloping ground is according to Ambraseys and
Srbulov
1 − kc kp
log10 (u1 ) = −2.41 + 0.47 · Ms − 0.01 · rf + log10 ⎝   1.02 ⎠ + 0.58 · p,
and for two-way displacement on level ground is
log10 (u2 ) = −2.07 + 0.47 · Ms − 0.012 · rf + log10 1 − kc kp
+ 0.6 · p,
where u1,2 are in cm, rf = (h2f + df2 )0.5 , hf is the hypocentral depth, df is the source
distance, kc is the ratio between the critical horizontal acceleration at which the
factor of safety of slope stability is 1 and the gravitational acceleration, kp is the ratio
between the peak horizontal ground acceleration and the gravitational acceleration,
p is the number of standard deviations. The results of these relationships are shown
in Fig. 1.4 for three earthquake magnitudes and three source-to-site distances.
1.3.1.2 Examples of Fourier Spectra and Response Spectral Acceleration,
Velocity and Displacement Relationships
Jean Baptise Joseph, baron de Fourier observed first in 1822 that any periodic function can be represented by a series of sinusoidal and co sinusoidal waves (forming
orthogonal pairs) with different phases and amplitudes, which are harmonically
related. A plot of Fourier amplitudes versus frequency is called a Fourier amplitude
Slope distance 5 km
Slope distance 25 km
Level ground distance 5 km
Level ground distance 25 km
Fig. 1.4 Average ± one standard deviation of co-seismic displacements of slopes and level ground
according to Equations (1.4) and
spectrum. The peak value of the spectrum is used to determine the predominant
frequency of free vibration of ground.
Response spectra are graphs showing maximum response (peak acceleration,
velocity or displacement) of a series of elastic single degree of freedom oscillators (SDOFO) on a rigid base to the ground vibration time histories as a function of
the natural periods (or frequencies) of vibration of the oscillators for a given amount
of material damping. SDOFO can oscillate in one mode only and its behaviour is
described in details by Kramer (1996) among others.
The response spectra are used to determine the response of a structure with
known period of vibration to the base excitation. Examples of the spectra for a time
history of acceleration shown in Fig. 1.5 are shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7.
The calculations of Fourier and response spectra can be performed using Excel
workbooks provided on <URL> as the appendices to the
book by Srbulov (2010).
1.3.1.3 Example of Mean Annual Rate of Exceedance of Earthquake
Gutenberg and Richter (1944) gathered data for the earthquakes in southern
California over a period of many years and divided the number of exceedance of
each magnitude by the length of the time period to define a mean annual rate of
exceedance λ of an earthquake magnitude. The reciprocal value of the annual rate of
Acceleration (dm/s2).
Fig. 1.5 Example acceleration time history
Fourier amplitude
Fig. 1.6 Fourier amplitude spectrum of the time history shown in Fig. 1.5
Spectral acceleration (dm/s2),
velocity (cm/s), displacement
Fig. 1.7 Elastic response spectra of acceleration, velocity and displacement for 5% of the critical
damping for different structural periods and the time history shown in Fig. 1.5
exceedance for a particular magnitude is commonly referred to as the return period
of earthquakes exceeding that magnitude. The example of Gutenberg–Richter relationship is based on data by Ambraseys and Sarma (1999) for the 1018 earthquakes
from Iran (26◦ to 40◦ North and 44◦ to 64◦ East) with the range of surface wave magnitudes from 4.5 to 7.4 over the period of 79 years (1900 to 1979). Figure 1.8 depicts
a mean annual rate of exceedance versus the surface wave magnitudes obtained by
Ambraseys and Sarma (1999).
log10 (λ) = 4.7 − 0.8 · Ms 4.5 ≤ Ms ≤ 7.1
log10 (λ) = 11.27 − 1.72 · Ms 7.1 ≤ Ms ≤ 7.4 ,
where Ms is the surface wave magnitude based on the amplitude of Rayleigh waves
with a period of about 20 s.
Surface wave magnitude, Ms
Fig. 1.8 A mean annual rate of exceedance of Iranian earthquakes in the period 1900–1979
1.3.1.4 Example of Boundaries Between Liquefied and Non-liquefied
Empirical procedures for analysis of potential of liquefaction of sandy soil mainly
follow the work of Seed et al. (1985). The procedures are based on:
• a cyclic stress ratio τ/σ  v ,
• normalized blow count (N1 )60 from the standard penetration tests (SPT),
• an empirical chart obtained from the past case histories.
According to Seed and Idriss (1971), the cyclic stress ratio, for magnitude
M = 7.5 earthquakes, is calculated according to the following formula for effective
overburden pressure of 100 kPa
ap,h σv
= 0.65 ·
· rd ,
σ v
g σ v
where .τ is the shear stress caused by an earthquake, ap,h is the peak horizontal
ground acceleration, g is the gravitational acceleration, σ v and σ  v are the total and
effective overburden pressure, rd is a stress factor with depth. Different proposals
exist for the stress factor with depth rd because of its large scatter (e.g. Cetin et al.,
2004). EN 1998-5 (2004) adopts rd = 1.
A measured SPT blow count N can be normalized to an overburden pressure of
100 kPa according to Liao and Whitman (1986), and can be corrected to an energy
ratio of 60% (the average ratio of the actual energy Em delivered by hammer to the
theoretical free-fall energy Eff ) and is denoted (N1 )60 .
(N1 )60 = NSPT · 100
· Em , σ  v is in kPa
σ  v 0.6 · Eff
(EN 1998 − 5 : 2004),
 < 2,
= 0.75 · NSPT at depths ≤ 3m,

where σ  v is the effective overburden pressure at the depth where N is recorded
from SPT’s blow count. Other corrections to N are applied, such as for the borehole diameter, rod length and sampler type (e.g. Skempton, 1986; Cetin et al.,
Boundaries between liquefiable and non-liquefiable (silty) sand are published by
NCEER and are periodically updated in the light of experience (Youd and Idriss,
2001). The boundaries are shown in Fig. 1.9 for earthquake magnitude M = 7.5,
effective overburden pressure of 100 kPa, nearly horizontal ground surface and
depths to about 20 m below the ground surface.
Different magnitude scaling factors are used (e.g. Cetin et al., 2004). EN 1998-5
(2004) uses the magnitude correction, i.e. divider of the right hand side of Equation
(1.7), suggested by Ambraseys (1988) as shown in Table 1.1.
35% fines with dia. < 0.002 mm
< 5% fines with dia. < 0.002 mm
τ/σ'v
Fig. 1.9 Boundaries between liquefaction prone and resistant soil depending on applied shear
stress ratio (τ/σ  v ) for earthquake magnitude M = 7.5, effective overburden pressure 100 kPa and
nearly horizontal ground surface
Table 1.1 Magnitude correction factors
according to Ambraseys (1988) and EN 1998-5
1.3.1.5 Examples of Soil Stiffness and Damping Ratio Change with Strain
Laboratory tests have shown that soil stiffness and damping (energy dissipation) is
influenced by cyclic strain amplitude, density and acting mean principal effective
stress of coarse grained soil, plasticity index and over consolidation ratio of fine
grained soil, and number of loading cycles (e.g. Seed and Idriss, 1970, Hardin and
Drnevich, 1972, Vucetic and Dobry, 1991, Ishibashi, 1992, etc.). Examples of soil
shear modulus and damping ratio dependence on shear strain, soil plasticity index
and mean effective confining pressure are shown on Fig. 1.10.
1.3.1.6 Example of Cyclic Stress Ratio Effect on the Number
of Cycles to Failure
Soil shear strength in cyclic condition depends on number of cycles, cyclic stress
or strain amplitude and for fine grained soil on frequency due to the rate effect. An
example of shear strain (change in initial right angle) and effective stress (total less
pore water pressure) change with a number of cycles is shown in Fig. 1.11.
When cyclic tests are repeated for a number of cyclic stress ratios during stress
controlled tests then graphs showing the effect of cyclic stress ratios on a number of
cycles at failure can be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.12.
PI = 50%
PI = 0 & MECP = 1 kPa
PI = 0 & MECP = 200 kPa
PI = 50%
PI = 0
Fig. 1.10 Dependence of shear modulus and damping ratio on shear strain, soil plasticity index
(PI, %) (thick lines from Vucetic and Dobry, 1991) and mean effective confining pressure
for non-plastic soil
1.3.1.7 Example of Amplification Factor Change with the Tuning Ratio
The horizontal motion of a single degree of freedom oscillator (SDOFO) to base
shaking in horizontal direction is described by the following equation of motion
based on the Newton’s second law of motion
m · d 2 u dt2 + c · du dt + k · u = −m · d2 ub dt2 ,
where m is the mass, c is the coefficient of viscous damping, k is the coefficient of
elastic damping, u is the amplitude of horizontal displacement of SDOFO, ub is the
amplitude of base horizontal displacements. The amplification factor for harmonic
motion of a SDOFO (e.g. Clough and Penzien, 1993) is:
1 + (2βt ξ )2
d2 ub dt2
(1 − βt 2 ) + (2βt ξ )2
2· k·m
where β t is the tuning ratio, ωd is the circular frequency of an input motion,
ωo is the circular frequency of the output motion = k1/2 m−1/2 , ξ is the damping ratio as a portion of the critical damping, which prevents oscillations. The
amplification factor for different damping ratios and tuning factors are shown in
Fig. 1.11 Example of change in shear strain and vertical effective stress acting on a sample of silt
during stress controlled simple shear test
1.3.2 Using Formulas
Engineering codes prefer specifying formulas in addition to graphs and tables for
engineering use. The use of formulas is limited to simple cases. However, the use of
formulas is simple and convenient for parametric analyses to investigate the effect
of influential parameters on the result.
Fig. 1.12 Example of relationships between cyclic stress ratio acting on a sample of silt and the
number of cycles to failure during stress controlled simple shear tests
0.01 damping ratio
Fig. 1.13 Amplification factor dependence on the tuning ratio
1.3.2.1 Example for Soil Wave Velocity from the Results of Standard
A number of formulas exist for calculation of transversal wave velocity based on the
results of field tests and index soil properties. For example, Japan Road Association
(2002) allows the use of the following formulas for transversal wave velocity vt in
vt = 100 · NSPT 1/3 ,
1 ≤ NSPT ≤ 25 in clay,
vt = 80 · NSPT 1/3 ,
1 ≤ N ≤ 50 in sand
where NSPT is the number of blow counts of the standard penetration test (e.g.
ASTM D1586, EN 1997-2). The longitudinal wave velocity vl can be calculated
2−2·ν
vl = vt ·
where ν is Poisson’s ratio (between axial deformations in two perpendicular
directions under load in one direction).
1.3.2.2 Examples for Maximum Soil Shear Modulus and Its Ratio
A number of formulas exist for calculation of the maximum shear modulus Gmax =
ρv2t , where ρ is soil unit density and vt is transversal wave velocity. Well known is
the empirical relationship according to Seed and Idriss (1970).
Gmax = 1000 · K · σ  m 0.5 ,
where K is a constant dependent on soil relative density Dr , K = 0.586 + 16.5Dr
for 30 ≤ Dr ≤ 90, σ  m is the mean principal effective stress (lb ft–2 ).
Laboratory test data suggest that Gmax can be expressed as:
Gmax = 625 · F(e) · OCRk · pa 1−n · σ  m n ,
where F(e) = (0.3 + 0.7e2 )−1 , according to Hardin (1978), F(e) = e−1.3 according
to Jamiolkowski et al. (1991), e is void ratio, OCR is the over consolidation ratio, pa
is atmospheric pressure in the units of σ  m that is the mean principal effective stress,
the stress exponent n is often taken equal to 0.5, the exponent k = −0.00004PI 2 +
0.0095PI + 0.0014, for 0 ≤ PI ≤ 100 and k = 0.5 for PI > 100, PI is soil plasticity
index in percent.
Lin et al. (2000) performed a test program with measurements of transversal
wave velocity by the down-hole method and large-scale dynamic triaxial tests and
resonant-column tests of gravely deposit from Taichung area of Taiwan. They found
that the shear modulus ratio G/Gmax of the gravely cobble deposits does not decrease
below a value of about 0.5 for shear strain greater than 10–4 , in contrast to sandy
soil. They suggested the following relationship for Gmax :
Gmax = 305 · exp(0.0025 · σ3  ),
where σ 3  is confining effective pressure in kPa and Gmax is in MPa.
Ishibashi and Zhang (1993) proposed the following relationship between shear
modulus G and its maximum value Gmax for fine grained soil:
G Gmax = K · σ  m m
0.000102 + n 0.492
K = 0.5 · 1 + tanh ln
m = 0.272 · 1 − tanh ln
· exp −0.0145 · PI 1.3
⎨ 3.37 × 10−6 · PI 4.404 for 0 < PI ≤ 15 ⎪
for 15 < PI ≤ 70 ⎪
⎪ 7.0 × 10 · PI
for PI > 70
2.7 × 10 · PI
where σ  m is the mean principal effective stress, γ is shear strain, PI is soil plasticity
1.3.2.3 Examples for Amplitudes of Vibration of a Horizontal Soil Layer
For a uniform isotropic soil layer overlying rigid bedrock subjected to a harmonic
horizontal motion, the ratio of the amplitudes of at depth acceleration apeak,depth
divided by the surface apeak,surface is (e.g. Kramer, 1996);
apeak,surface
 "2 ,
apeak,depth
cos2 ω · H vt + ξ ·
where ω is the circular frequency of ground shaking, H is the layer thickness, vt is
transversal wave velocity and ξ is damping ratio.
Srbulov (2003) used the formula for the circular frequency ωn and period Tn of
the nm th mode of free vibration of an infinite soil layer, with constant soil properties
over an interval of shear strain, to back analyze the ratio between peak surface and
at depth acceleration.
2 · π ·
where H is soil layer thickness, G is shear modulus, ρ is unit soil density. The results
indicated that the peak acceleration occurred in the first vibration mode in majority
of the cases analyzed but that the peak ground acceleration could occur in other
vibration modes up to the 6th mode. The amplitudes of first three vibration modes
of a horizontal soil layer are shown in Fig. 1.14.
1.3.2.4 Examples for Stiffness of Embedded and Piled Foundation
Wolf (1994), for example, summarised the following static stiffness and viscous
damping coefficients shown in Table 1.2. Static stiffness coefficient is the ratio
between applied force and caused displacement and viscous damping coefficient
is the ratio between applied force and caused velocity of movement.
1.3.2.5 Example for Kinematic Soil-Pile Interaction
Nikolaou et al. (2001) suggested the following formula obtained by data fitting for
bending moment M in a pile due to kinematic soil pile interaction caused by different
pile and soil stiffness
= 0.042 · ap,h · ρ1 · H1 · d3 ·
 0.30  0.65  0.50
where ap,h is the peak horizontal acceleration at the soil surface in the free field,
ρ 1 is unit density of top soil layer, H1 is the thickness of the top soil layer, L is
pile length, d is pile diameter, Ep is pile Young modulus, E1 is Young modulus of
top soil later, v2,1 are transversal wave velocities of the bottom and top soil layer
Fig. 1.14 Normalised
horizontal displacements at a
time instant for the first three
modes of vibration of a
Table 1.2 Static stiffness and viscous coefficients for embedded (equivalent) cylindrical foundations and piles
Embedded static stiffness, K
8 · G · ro
2−ν · 1 + ro
1−ν · 1 + 0.54 · ro
8 · G · ro 3
3 · (1−ν) · 1 + 2.3 · ro + 0.58 ·
coefficient, co
0.68 + 0.57 ·
0.8 + 0.35 · reo
0.15631 · reo
Pile static stiffness, K
2 · ro · E ·
Ep 0.21
3.8 · ro · E · 2·rl
1.2 · ro 3 · E · Ep
Notes: G – soil shear modulus, ν is soil Poisson’s ratio, e is embedment depth, ro is the radius of
(equivalent) cylinder, E is soil Young modulus, Ep is pile Young modulus, l is a half thickness of a
soil layer. The viscous damping coefficient C = ro vt −1 co of a dashpot, vt is soil transversal wave
1.3.3 Using Computer Software
A large number of commercial computer software exists based on boundary/finite/discrete elements and finite difference methods. The software considers
parts of a domain and the connections between them together with the fulfilment
of boundary and initial conditions. Besides frequent lack of knowledge concerning
boundary and initial conditions, which can be minimised by using distant and transmitting boundaries, the major problem is specifying and verifying correct numerical
model of complex soil behaviour in cyclic condition. Possible problems with procedure convergence and solution uniqueness can be overcome by using appropriate
methods. However, chaotic behaviour in non-linear dynamics is caused by physical
and not numerical reasons and cannot be avoided. Baker and Gollub (1992), among
others, state that two conditions are sufficient to cause chaotic motion:
1. the system has at least three independent variables
2. the variables are coupled by non-linear relationships.
Examples of phase diagrams
for a chaotic and harmonic motion are shown in Fig. 1.15.
An example of computed displacement vectors by finite elements method used
to analyse the vibration of a compressor on rubber bearings and piled foundation is
1.3.4 Using Small Scale Physical Models
The models can be tested either under actual gravitational field (1g) using shaking
tables when model mass is large or under up to 200 times larger than the gravitational acceleration when model mass is a few tones. Modern apparatus include
Meteorological mast top
Fig. 1.15 Examples of phase diagrams of calculated chaotic motion of a meteorological must
under wave and wind actions and of a harmonic oscillator
Fig. 1.16 An example of computed displacement vectors by finite elements method used to analyse the vibration in a cross section of a compressor on rubber bearings and piled foundation
electronics and robotic machinery; hence they are complex, time consuming and
costly and are, therefore, reserved mainly for research and special structures or
ground conditions. Example sizes of a shaking table and geotechnical centrifuge
apparatus are shown in Figs. 1.17 and 1.18. More details on centrifuge modelling is
provided by Taylor (1994), among others.
1.3.5 Using Large Scale Prototypes
Besides unintended failures during earthquakes or damages of actual structures
by construction, transport and mining activities, large scale testing of undamaged
prototypes in cyclic condition is not frequent. The exceptions are standardized highstrain dynamic (STATNAMIC) testing of piles (ASTM D4945) and measurements
Fig. 1.17 An example of a
shaking table apparatus
(adapted from peer.berkeley.
edu/news/1999july/geotech.
geotechnical centrifuge with a
9 m radius and 4.5 t model to
accelerate to 50 g (adapted
from peer.berkeley.edu/news/
1999july/geotech.html)
Fig. 1.19 Setup for a weight
dropping trial used to
measure peak particle
velocities with distance
of peak particle velocity/acceleration (and time histories of vibration) caused
by falling weight or vibration sources (machine, train, pile driving, blasting).
Figure 1.19 illustrates a setup used in a weight dropping trial to measure peak
particle velocities with distance.
1.4 General Comments on Simple Analyses
1.4.1 Application and Users
Simple analyses are intended for obtaining better insight into the significance of
main parameters affecting a problem, for assessing of severity of a problem and
for rough check of the results of more complex methods. They may serve as final
considerations if their results indicate that there is no need for more detailed and
complex analyses. Simple analyses should be considered as rough tools to obtain
results when resources, time and cost are limited such as for preliminary and concept
designs, and similar situations.
The users of simple analyses should know the limitations and accuracy of the
methods and be knowledgeable in the subject and exercise sound engineering
judgement when using the results.
1.4.2 Input Data and Time Involved
Simple analyses require minimum of input data (which should be reliable and accurate as much as possible) and minimum of time for their implementation without
use of computers. However, the user must always make a judgment about the applicability of simplified analyses with respect to a considered problem and avoid over
simplification as well as unjustified increase in complexity if available input data
1.4.3 Cost and Risks
The cost of using simple analyses is minimal as no software or hardware is required.
Possible risk is over confidence of a user who may not have sufficient knowledge
and experience in practice to judge about the applicability and usefulness of the
results and about limitations of simple analyses.
The simple analyses are useful for practicing engineers, and for both specialists
and novices in the field. The analyses do not require use of computers or testing
equipment. The key requirements for use of simple analyses are:
1. Understanding of a problem
2. Having an idea about possible range of the outcomes.
3. Know limitations of the method used.
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Ambraseys NN, Sarma SK (1999) The assessment of total seismic moment. J Earthquake Eng
Ambraseys NN, Srbulov M (1994) Attenuation of earthquake induced ground displacements.
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Earthquake Eng 14:59–71
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ANSI S2.47 (1990) Vibration of buildings – guidelines for the measurement of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on buildings. American National Standards Institute, Acoustical Society
of America, New York, NY, Secretariat for Committees 51, 52 and 53
ANSI S3.18 (1979) Guide for the evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibrations.
American National Standards Institute, Acoustical Society of America, New York, NY,
Secretariat for Committees 51, 52 and 53
National Standards Institute, Acoustical Society of America, New York, NY, Secretariat for
AS 2187.2 (2005) Explosives – storage and use, part 2: use of explosives. Council of Standards
ASTM D1586 Standard test method for standard penetration test (SPT) and split-barrel sampling
of soils. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. American National Standards Institute
ASTM D3999-91 Standard test methods for the determination of the modulus and damping properties of soils using the cyclic triaxial apparatus. Annual Book of ASTM Standards 04.08,
ASTM D4015-92 Standard test method for modulus and damping of soils by the resonant-column
method. Annual Book of ASTM Standards 04.08, American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM D4428/D 4428 M-00 Standard test methods for crosshole seismic testing. Annual Book of
ASTM Standards 04.08, American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM D4945-08 Standard test method for high-strain dynamic testing of piles. Annual Book of
ASTM D5777-00 Standard guide for using the seismic refraction method for subsurface investigation. Annual Book of ASTM Standards 04.08, American Society for Testing and Materials
investigation. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM D7400-08 Standard test methods for downhole seismic testing. Annual Book of ASTM
Baker GL, Gollub JP (1992) Chaotic dynamics, an introduction. Cambridge University Press,
Bommer JJ, Elnashai AS (1999) Displacement spectra for seismic design. J Earthquake Eng 3:1–32
part 2: vibration. British Standards Institution
BS 6472 (1992) Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings (1 Hz to 80 Hz).
BS 7385-2 (1993) Evaluation and measurement for vibration in buildings, part 2: guide to damage
levels from ground borne vibration. British Standard Institution
Cetin KO, Seed RB, Kiureghian AD, Tokimatsu K, Harder LH Jr, Kayen RE, Moss RES
Standard penetration test-based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil
liquefaction potential. ASCE J Geotechn Geoenviron Eng 130:1314–1340
Clough RW, Penzien J (1993) Dynamics of structures, 2nd edn. McGraw Hill, New York, NY
CSA Z107.54-M85 (R2001) Procedure for measurement of sound and vibration due to blasting
operations. Canadian Standards Association, Canada
DIN 4024-1 (1988) Maschinenfundamente; Elastische Stützkonstruktionen für Maschinen mit
rotierenden Massen. Deutsche Industries Norm
DIN 4024-2 (1991) Maschinenfundamente; Steife (starre) Stützkonstruktionen für Maschinen mit
periodischer Erregung. Deutsche Industries Norm
DIN 4150-3 (1999) Erschütterungen im Bauwesen – Teil 3: Einwirkungen auf bauliche Anlage
Norm Ausgabe, Deutsch, Deutsche Industries Norm
DIN 45669-1 (1995) Messung von Schwingungsimmissionen; Teil 1: Schwingungsmesser;
Anforderungen, Prüfung. Deutsche Industries Norm
DIN 45672-1 (1991) Schwingungsmessungen in der Umgebung von Schienenverkehrswegen; Teil
1: Messverfahren. Deutsche Industries Norm
EN 1997-2 (2007) Eurocode 7 – geotechnical design, part 2: ground investigation and testing.
EN 1998-1 (2004) Eurocode 8 – design of structures for earthquake resistance, part 1: general rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings. European Committee for Standardization,
Gutenberg B, Richter CF (1944) Frequency of earthquakes in California. Bull Seismol Soc Am
34:1985–1988
Hardin BO (1978) The nature of stress-strain behaviour of soils. In: Proceedings of earthquake
engineering and soil dynamics symposium, vol 1, ASCE, Pasadena, CA, pp 3–89
Hardin BO, Drnevich VP (1972) Shear modulus and damping in soil: design equations and curves.
ASCE J Soil Mech Foundations Div 98:667–692
IBC (2009) International Building Code. International Code Council, Washington, DC
Ishibashi I (1992) Discussion to: Effect of soil plasticity on cyclic response, by M. Vucetic and R.
Dobry. ASCE J Geotechn Eng 118(5):830–832
Ishibashi I, Zhang X (1993) Unified dynamic shear moduli and damping ratios of sand and clay.
Soils Foundations 33(1):182–191
ISO 2631/2 (1989) Evaluation of human exposure to whole body vibration, part 2: continuous and shock induced vibration in buildings (1–8 Hz). International Organization for
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exposure to whole body z-axis vertical vibration in frequency range 0.1–1.63 Hz. International
ISO 4866 (1990) Evaluation and measurement for vibration in buildings. Part 1: guide for measurement of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on buildings. International Organization
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especially buildings and off-shore structures to low frequency horizontal motion (0.063 to
1 Hz). International Organization for Standardization, Geneva
ISO 8041 (1990) Human response to vibration – measuring instrumentation. International
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and vibration effects on sensitive equipment in buildings. International Organization for
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systems – part 1: general guidance. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva
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to practice. In: Proceedings Geo-Coast ’91, Yokohama, Japan, pp 1–41
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analysis and field measurements. Geotechnique 51(5):425–440
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grenseverdier for å unngå skade på byggverk. Standard Norge
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impulsförmige Immissionen. Nationale Festlegungen, Austria
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surface and at depth. Eur Earthquake Eng XVII(1):59–67
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examples. Springer, New York, NY
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byggnader Fastställd. Swedish Standard Institute
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Earthquakes and their effects represent the greatest and most frequent influential
factor for ground and structural damage. Less damaging and frequent factor of
structural damage and effect on people and processes are the industrial activities.
Scope of this chapter is to point to and briefly describe the main ground motion
sources and their properties that are considered in the following chapters of this
Earthquakes are caused most frequently by quick slip over tectonic faults but also by
volcano activity, large landslides, large cave collapse, atomic explosions and large
meteorite impact. Earthquakes are chaotic in nature
and the prediction of their sizes and return periods are uncertain. Known factors that
affect seismic hazard at a location are:
• earthquake magnitude
• the source to site distance (epicentral between a site and Earth’s surface projection of an earthquake hypothetical centre at depth or to the surface of tectonic
fault that caused an earthquake)
• rate of occurrence
• duration of ground shaking (i.e. number of pulses above a threshold level of
• source and wave path (fault types shown in Fig. 2.5 and rupture directivity and
fling step effect i.e. strong ground motion in the perpendicular and the same
direction of rupture propagation of a tectonic fault)
• sediment basin edge and depth (seismic wave focusing by basin edges as optic
lenses do to light rays and the edge confining effect as throwing a yo-yo ball
• local soil layers
• topography
• space and time clustering (seismic gaps i.e. periods of minimal seismic activity
• seismic wave bounce from the Moho surface (which is the boundary between
Earth’s crust and mantle)
Detail description of the effects of each individual factor is provided in
specialized literature (e.g. Stewart et al., 2001). A brief summary and treatment of
the effects of factors are provided by Srbulov (2008), among others.
2.2.1 Earthquake Magnitude
Earthquake magnitude is a major factor that affects earthquake hazards at a location.
Dependence of earthquake magnitude on the causative fault area and the average slip
of fault enabled establishment of empirical correlations between the fault parameters and earthquake magnitude. Wells and Coppersmith (1994) provided empirical
relationships between the moment magnitude Mw (in the range 6–7), the surface
rupture length Lr (km), the fault rupture area Afault (km2 ), and the maximum surface
displacement Ds (m) for different fault types. The ratio between fault area and its
length gives an indication of its depth below the thickness of non-seismogenic zone
(0–5 km).
= 5.16 + 1.12 · log Lr,strike−slip ± 0.28 · nd
= 5.00 + 1.22 · log Lr ,reverse ± 0.28 · nd
= 4.86 + 1.32 · log Lr,normal ± 0.34 · nd
= 5.08 + 1.16 · log Lr,all ± 0.28 · nd
= 3.98 + 1.02 · log Astrike−slip ± 0.23 · nd
= 4.33 + 0.90 · log Areverse ± 0.25 · nd
= 3.93 + 1.02 · log Anormal ± 0.25 · nd
= 4.07 + 0.98 · log Aall ± 0.24 · nd
= 6.81 + 0.78 · log Ds,strike−slip ± 0.29 · nd
= 6.52 + 0.44 · log Ds,reverse ± 0.52 · nd
= 6.61 + 0.71 · log Ds,normal ± 0.34 · nd
= 6.69 + 0.74 · log Ds,all ± 0.40 · nd
where nd is the number of standard deviations according to Wells and Coppersmith
(1994). Field studies of fault rupture length and the maximum surface displacement
are important for inference of the sizes of past earthquakes. A number of other
studies have been performed for different regions, e.g. for the Eastern Mediterranean
region by Ambraseys and Jackson (1998).
Ambraseys (1990), for example, derived the following relationships between
various common earthquake magnitude scales:
0.77 · mb − 0.64 · ML = 0.73
0.86 · mb − 0.49 · Ms = 1.94 ,
0.80 · ML − 0.60 · Ms = 1.04
where mb is body wave magnitude, ML is local magnitude, Ms is surface wave
Chen and Chen (1989) provided the following relationships between log10
and the surface wave magnitude Ms that is based on the logarithm of maximum
amplitude of Rayleigh waves with a period of about 20 s. The seismic moment
Mo = Lf Wf Sf μ, where Lf and Wf are the length and width of a tectonic fault area,
Sf is the average slip on the fault during an earthquake in metres (which is typically
about 5×10−5 Lf for intraplate earthquakes, Scholz et al., 1986), μ is shear modulus
of the Earth’s crust. The total seismic energy released at the hypocentre during an
earthquake is also estimated in Joules (J) as log E = 11.8 + 1.5Ms (Gutenberg and
Richter, 1956). The energy released by the 1960 Chilean earthquake with magnitude
9.5 could be of the order of 1019 J (Johnston, 1990).
log10 (Mo ) = Ms + 12.2 for Ms ≤ 6.4
log10 (Mo ) = 1.5 · Ms + 9.0 for 6.4 < Ms ≤ 7.8
log10 (Mo ) = 3.0 · Ms − 2.7 for 7.8 < Ms ≤ 8.5
When log10 (Mo ) = 1.5Mw + 10.7 by Hans and Kanamori (1979) is replaced
into Equation (1.3), it is possible to obtain the correlation between the moment
magnitude Mw and the surface wave magnitude Ms and then from Equation
between Ms , the local magnitude ML (better known as Richter magnitude that is
based on logarithm of the maximum amplitude from a Wood-Anderson seismometer
located 100 km from the epicentre of the earthquake) and the body magnitude mb
that is based on the logarithm of amplitude of longitudinal body waves with period
2.2.2 Principal Earthquake Hazards
severity and repeatability of ground shaking at a location causing inertial forces
ground deformation and failure
ground surface rupture by tectonic fault
structural failures: (a) caused by ground failure, (b) causing ground failure,
(c) caused by interaction between a structure and ground shaking
• rupture of pipelines, cables, and lifelines; consequences include gas explosion,
lack of water supply for fire fighting, lack of access to help casualties etc.
While the inertial forces always occur, tsunamis are relatively rare.
2.2.2.1 Severity and Repeatability of Ground Shaking
Severity and repeatability of ground shaking is frequently expressed in terms of
peak horizontal ground acceleration for a specified return period in years or for a
percentage of probability of exceedance within a period of interest.
Amplitudes of ground acceleration in both the horizontal and vertical direction could exceed the gravitational acceleration, the predominant period of ground
acceleration can vary in the range from 0.15 s on rock to 0.8 s on loose to medium
dense cohesionless soil or soft to firm cohesive soil (e.g. EN 1998-1, 2004), and the
acceleration duration can vary from a few seconds for small earthquake magnitudes
and rock sites to several tens of seconds for large earthquake magnitudes and soft
soil sites.
Examples of sources containing information on severity and repeatability of
ground shaking are:
program (GSHAP, 1999)
• European-Mediterranean seismic hazard map produced by European
Seismological Commission (2003)
• Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance, Part 1: General rules,
seismic actions and rules for buildings
• Uniform Building Code (1997), now replaced by the International Building Code
• Building Center of Japan: The seismic code: guidelines for structural calculations
• The United States Geological Survey – USGS (<URL>
eqdata.html for time histories of ground motion and <URL>
neis/epic/epic.html for earthquake data)
• The Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center – PEER (<URL>
berkeley.edu/smcat/)
nndc/struts/form?t=101650&s=1&d=1)
• European Earthquake Data Base
• Kyoshin Network K-NET
• National seismic codes
Older publications and seismic codes contain information on earthquake intensity rather than magnitude. The intensity is qualitative description of the effects
of earthquakes at a particular location depending on damage caused to structures
and ground and human reaction. In case that no other information is available at a
location, then the peak horizontal ground acceleration can be estimated based on
earthquake intensity as shown in Fig. 2.1.
2.2.2.2 Ground Deformation and Failure
Earthquakes can trigger all types of slope failures, from disrupted slides and falls to
coherent slides and lateral spreads, Fig. 2.2.
Maximum horizontal acceleration
Fig. 2.1 Relationship between maximum horizontal acceleration and earthquake intensity
Fig. 2.2 Some types of slope failures: (a) disrupted landslide, (b) coherent landslide, (c) lateral
spread
Slope failures are identified by anomalous topography, including arcuate or linear
scarps, backward-rotated masses, benched or hummocky topography, bulging toes,
and pounded or deranged drainage. Unusual vegetation type or age also is common.
Submarine failures can be identified with the aid of marine remote-sensing techniques. However, slope failures can also be caused by other factors such as rainfall,
erosion at the toe, loading at the crest, weathering, tectonics, ground water level
change and artesian pressures.
Keefer (1984) studied the effects of 40 historical earthquakes on slope failures
and the results of his finding are given in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 shows that earthquake
Table 2.1 Types, frequency and minimum triggering magnitudes of earthquakes to cause slope
Type of slope failure
Rock falls, disrupted soil slides
Soil lateral spreads
Soil slumps, soil block slides
Soil avalanches
Rapid soil flows, rock slumps
Sub aqueous landslides
Slow earth flows
Rock block slides
Minimum triggering
earthquake magnitude ML
Maximum epicentral distance
Disrupted landslides
Coherent landslides
Fig. 2.3 The maximum epicentral distances to various slope failures dependent on earthquake
occurred. A combined graph is shown in Fig. 2.3 from which it follows that no
slope failures are expected beyond 120 km epicentral distance even from earthquakes with magnitudes up to 8 and that disrupted landslides are more prone to
earthquake effects than coherent landslides, spreads and flows.
2.2.2.3 Soil Liquefaction
Earthquakes can cause liquefaction of saturated granular soil in loose to medium
dense state with prevented drainage, but other causes of liquefaction exist too.
Fig. 2.4 An aerial view of
sand volcano caused by sand
liquefaction (adapted from
<URL>)
Obermeier (1996) noted that, among other factors causing liquefaction are rapid
sedimentation and loading, artesian conditions, slumping, chemical weathering and
periglacial environment. He also describes the effect of soil liquefaction observed
when a low permeability layer exists over liquefied soil. If the ground surface of the
cap layer is slightly inclined then the top layer exhibits cracks, uneven surface due
to differential settlement and some lateral movement. If the ground surface of the
cap layer is nearly horizontal and the thickness of the top layer is less than 10 m
then sand volcanoes, shown in Fig. 2.4, can be formed facilitated by the existence
of previous desiccation cracks, rotten tree roots and channels burrowed by animals.
The expelled sandy soil spreads around and forms a layer. When such layers are
buried by new deposits, they leave a permanent record of the past event. If sand
volcanoes are prevented by greater thickness of the overlaying layer or tree roots
provide sufficient reinforcement to hold the top layer intact then sills
are formed within upper sandy layers.
2.2.2.4 Ground Surface Rupture by Tectonic Fault
Structures should not be located across known active tectonic faults because their
large movements will cause failure of the structure. There is no unique definition
of fault activity. Commonly, it has been accepted that active faults caused disruption of strata during the last 10,000 years (Holocene age), 100,000 years (from late
Pleistocene age) or even Quaternary age deposits covering the last about two million
Geomorphic changes arise due to tectonic fault rupture of the Earth’s surface or
by warping or folding of surfaces because of fault movement. Geomorphic changes
can also be caused by climate changes (glaciation for example), weathering and
erosion/ deposition processes, volcanism, tsunamis, slope failures etc.
• The primary geomorphic indicator of paleoearthquakes on normal faults
(Fig. 2.5a) is a fault scarp. Normal fault scarps vary from mountain front
thousands of meters high cut in bedrock, to decimetre scale scarplets that displace
Fig. 2.5 Types of tectonic fault movements: (a) normal, (b) reverse, (c) strike-slip, (d) oblique
Quaternary alluvium and colluviums (Stewart and Hancock, 1990). Overlaps,
step-overs and gaps are common in normal fault surface ruptures. Range-front
morphology can be controlled by factors other than uplift rate, such as climate,
lithology and tectonic structure (McCalpin, 1996).
• The primary geomorphic indicators of paleoearthquakes on reverse
faults (Fig. 2.5b) are surface displacements around the faults (frequently bifurcated towards the surface), growth of surface folds and changes in the elevation
of the land surface. Convergent tectonic plate margins are the largest and most
widespread compressional tectonic environments. Local compressional tectonic
environments are found at restraining bends or stopovers along transform and
strike-slip faults, along transpersive strike-slip faults, in fold and thrust belts in
some back arc regions and some in continental interiors. Two types of secondary
faults are associated with thrust faults. The crest of active surface anticlines are
commonly cut by normal faults and grabens that trend along the fold crest parallel
to the fold axis. Sudden bending of thick-bedded sequences of sediments is often
accompanied by slip along bedding planes in the fold limbs. This slip generates
slip faults that are rooted in the axis of folds and extend through the fold limbs
(e.g. Carver and McCalpin, 1996).
• Strike-slip faults (Fig. 2.5c) produce characteristic landforms including linear
valleys, offset of deflected streams, shutter ridges, sag ponds, pressure ridges,
benches, scarps and small horsts and grabens (Keller, 1986). In many cases the
fault trace is composed of a wide zone of alternating tension gashes
and mole tracks (compressional) that trend obliquely with respect to overall fault
But tectonic faults can also create underground barriers for oil reservoirs and
preferential paths for ground streams.
2.2.2.5 Tsunamis
Tsunamis are water waves generated by impulsive geological phenomena such as
earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions. Although the waves may have very
small amplitude in the open ocean (less than a meter), where their wavelength makes
them unnoticeable except to sensitive ocean-bottom pressure sensors, the slowing
down of such waves in shallow water near coastlines leads to a dramatic increase in
amplitude and shortening of their wavelength and eventual breaking. This process
is known as shoaling. (e.g. Ambraseys and Synolakis, 2010).
Ground vibrations can be caused by various reasons but this volume is only dealing
with the types of vibrations caused by the industry.
High speed trains are capable of causing soil peak particle velocity of 60 mm/s at
the vibration frequency of 14 Hz (e.g. Bahrekazemi, 2004), which means the peak
particle acceleration of 60 × 2 × π × 14 × 1000−1 ∼ 5.3 m/s2 or 0.53g. The total
duration of the vibration due to a high speed train passage is between 2 and 5 s. The
energy (load times settlement) applied on the ballast under rail slipper from each
axle of a high speed train carriage is of the order of 0.6 kJ.
Measured peak particle velocities from road traffic was less than 10 mm/s on soft
to medium stiff clay with the vibration frequency range from about 10 to 20 Hz (e.g.
Barneich, 1985). However, the peak particle velocity caused by heavy construction
vehicles on poorly maintained roads with pot holes can reach more than 100 mm/s
(e.g. Srbulov, 2010). The pulse duration is less than a second. The energy released
at the impact could be up to about 5 kJ.
2.3.2 Construction and Demolition
Pile driving could cause soil peak particle velocities in vicinity of a pile being driven
up to almost 1 m/s (e.g. Wiss, 1981) but more frequently of the order of 100 mm/s.


We currently have multiple job openings for a Carpenter, Property Services Carpenter and a Painter. These positions are long term, full-time and year-round.
Donald P. Blake Jr., Inc. is a general contracting company with approximately 35 employees. We pride ourselves in our high-end residential new construction and renovation, commercial construction and construction management services and property services. As a growing company, we would like to welcome additional field staff, as the newest members of our team.
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Knowledge of a variety of paint finishes is preferred
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Anne A. Pecora Dearly Beloved Wife of the la  and Beloved Friend of Many. Melrose Park. Funeral Thursday 9 A.M. from the funeral home to Sacred Heart Church Mass 10 A.M. Int. St. Joseph Cemetery. Please visit Anne's memorial at carbonarafuneralhome.netDec. 27, 2016.
I only met Mrs. Pecora a few times and each and every time she was sweet, elegant & a true lady who made sure that you were at ease & relaxed in her home.
Our thoughts & prayers go out to Thomas & the rest of the Pecora family & all that knew & loved her.
My memory of Mrs. Pecora is of an elegant, dignified lady with soft good humor about the world. She was an exemplar of a good mother. Her pride in her Sicilian heritage was close to her heart. My deepest condolences to my friend Thomas and all his family at this challenging time. Non dimenticherò mai la signora Pecora...


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A few weeks ago I went to the library across town. I don't go their often, as it's not only all the way across town, there's no easy way to get there. It's a small library, but they have a fantastic mystery section. So every once in a while I head out and stock up-getting more books than I can possibly read, and renew, renew, renew. That being said, I'm reading my way through those books, before I start the ones in my own library.
Don't forget to read my previous blog post, The Coffeehouse Mystery Series, and leave a comment on that post. One reader will be randomly chosen to win an autographed copy of Holiday Buzz by Cleo Coyle. Comment by midnight (Eastern Standard Time) December 2 (that's Saturday night/Sunday morning) 2012 to be eligible. Posted by
Coffee has its own culture. The inviting coffeehouse with comfy seating, mood music, and knowledgeable baristas welcomes you in. You hear about needing that morning cup of coffee, we know all about coffee breaks, and who hasn't heard of Starbucks?! It is all around us. Coffee is a part of life for millions, probably billions, of people worldwide.
I admit it, I don't like coffee. However, that doesn't stop me from loving the Coffeehouse Mystery series by Cleo Coyle.
Clair Cosi had a job she loved and was happy with her husband and daughter. Drugs and a question of fidelity caused Clair to leave her husband and career in New York City to raise her daughter in New Jersey. Years go by and our series opens. Clair's indomitable ex-mother-in-law has hired her to run her historic coffeehouse, The Village Blend, in Greenwich Village in New York City. Since this is a mystery series, a murder soon occurs and Clair begins to investigate. On What Grounds is the book that introduces us to Clair Cosi and begins the series.
Throughout the series we learn that Madame, Clair's ex-mother-in-law and owner of the Village Blend, would like nothing better than for Clair and Matteo (her son) to get back together and has a few schemes to help them out. Thanks to the murders (it is a series, after all) Clair gets to know NYPD detective Mike Quinn...and their meetings become not entirely professional. Clair and Matteo's daughter has also grown up and is facing life decisions of her own. Through it all, coffee plays a major role; in the background, in the setting, and at times, in the mystery itself.
If you're looking for a character driven series with atmosphere, you've found the right place. The Coffeehouse Mystery series welcomes you to the Village Blend, tempting you with special coffee and desserts. As you read, you find yourselves becoming friends with the characters. You want to know more about these people and as you progress through the series you learn more and become more involved. The Village Blend welcomes you and I welcome you to give this series a try.
There are currently 11 entries in the Coffeehouse series with the 12th being released this Tuesday, December 4, 2012. In honor of this latest release Cleo Coyle has graciously donated an autographed copy of Holiday Buzz (Coffeehouse Mystery #12) to a reader of Cozy Up With Kathy. Would you like to win this bookmidnight, December 2, 2012 (that's Saturday night/Sunday morning). At that time, I'll randomly choose one winner and announce it for that day's blog.
In the meantime, grab a cup of coffee and a Coffeehouse mystery and enjoy!
To learn more about Cleo Coyle check out her website: http://coffeehousemysteries.com/
You can also find her at http://www.mysteryloverskitchen.com/ on Tuesdays.
Facebook: www.Facebook.com/CleoCoyle
Twitter: @CleoCoyle (www.Twitter.com/CleoCoyle)
Pinterest: www.Pinterest.com/CleoCoyle
I'm just about to start Naughty in Nice by Rhys Bowen. We travel back in time to the early 1930's in this, the 5th installment in the Royal Spyness mysteries.
I have garden designs in my head. I love pouring through seed catalogs, gardening magazines, and Pinterest, looking at all the lovely plants and imagining them in my yard. While I enjoy reading and dreaming about my garden, I don't actually do much with it. Sadly, I tend to neglect my houseplants and most die of thirst. As for the yard, I tend to let things fend for themselves. Perhaps that's why I enjoy the gardening cozy mystery. I get to think about the garden while others do all the work!
Gardening cozies feature, of course, gardeners. Most are professionals working as landscape designers, florists, or people having other, similar careers. Many of these books also include gardening tips.
Looking for an educated look at plants? Want a unique gardening shop in which to putter around? Check out The Peggy Lee Garden mysteries by Joyce and Jim Lavene. Peggy Lee is a botanist who owns a garden shop in Charlotte, North Carolina. I love the scent that engulfs you when you enter a florist shop. If you can't make it to your local florist, why not try a fictional one? Kate Collins pens the Flower Shop mysteries. Set in New Chapel, Indiana the series features Abby Knight, owner of Bloomers Florists. Bretta Solomon also owns a flower shop, the Flower Shop, in River City, Missouri in the series by Janis Harrison.
Nina Quinn is a landscape designer with a difference-she does surprise garden makeovers in the Nina Quinn mystery series by Heather Webber.
In Virginia, near Washington DC we find Louise Eldridge, an organic gardener who becomes the host of a PBS gardening show on TV in the series by Ann Ripley. While Louise is close to Washington DC and politics (her husband is a CIA agent) Casey Calhoun is even closer. She's a gardener for the White House in The White House Gardener mysteries by Dorothy St. James.
Garden Clubs are great ways for gardeners to get together. They're also a way to find murderers. Alisa Craig gives us the Grub-and-Stakers series which takes place in Lobelia Falls, Ontario, Canada while Susan Wittig Albert takes us back to the 1930's in Darling, Alabama with the Darling Dahlias.
I'm coming to the conclusion of Death on a Platter by Elaine Viets. This book is the 7th entry in the Josie Marcus Mystery Shopper series. Josie is a single mom with a who lives in the lower flat of her mom's house in Maplewood, St. Louis. Josie works as a mystery shopper, rating different types of businesses. In this book Josie has to rate restaurants serving traditional St. Louis fare for a food tour. In addition to enjoying the book, I also learned some facts about St. Louis food. Shopping tips are also included.
Years ago I didn't follow too many mystery series. I'd read the latest and then anguish for a year until the next installment was published. That was then. This is now. I follow too many series with great new ones I'd like to try continually popping up.
More and more cozy mysteries also seem to be published. There's something for everyone. If you have as many interests as I do, this spells trouble. Knowing how important it is for the first book in the series to do well, I've recently bought many "First in the Brand New Series" books...but if I keep buying them, what happens when the second and third books come out of the series I bought first? Honestly, some get forgotten. Then I see the title mentioned and I realize I'm a book or two behind. Especially when I don't start the series as soon as it's published.
There's also the "missing book" issue. Since I can't afford to buy all the books I read, I rely on the library. However, they oftentimes don't have all the books in the series-so I get stuck, since I read them in order. That's what happened to me with a few series I really like.
With so many new books being written, almost all of which are great reads, I sometimes wonder if it's too much of a good thing. But I'll happily keep reading. Posted by
I'm currently reading Beef Stolen-Off, the second installment of the Clueless Cook mysteries by Liz Lipperman. Jordan seems to be a bit more food knowledgeable this time...at least so far. She knows what Kobe beef is (whereas she didn't have a clue about fois gras last time!) Recipes are included.
Humor makes life fun and interesting and I love when mysteries are able to make me laugh as well. While humor can be found everywhere, there are some cozies that just flaunt it. Don't underestimate these books. While fun is front and center, characterization and plot are not forgotten. The mystery is still there. While some may be categorized in different subgenres as well, these laugh out loud books all belong to another one of my subgenres-the humor cozy. One of the funniest books I've read is Alpine for You, the first Passport to Peril mystery by Maddy Hunter and she continues to make me laugh in each new installment. Emily Andrew, her grandmother, and a group of senior citizens from Iowa travel the world in this delightful series. It should come as no surprise that Laura Levine writes a very funny series. After all, she was a writer for The Bob Newhart Show, Laverne and Shirley and other sitcoms. The Jaine Austen series takes us to Los Angeles where we meet freelance writer Jaine Austen and her cat Prozac.
Bubbles Yablonsky is a hair dresser striving to be a journalist in Lehigh, Pennsylvania in the Bubbles Books by Sarah Stohmeyer. I still giggle about her attending Two Guys Community College. (Anyone of a certain age from this part of the country will know why.)
If you're looking for laughs along with murder be sure to check out these series. Posted by
Lipperman,


SLORDand office is focusing on the monitoring of European policies and instruments to support R&D with emphasis on the new programme for research and innovation – HORIZON 2020.
Rue du Luxembourg 3 (4. poschodie)
Daniel Straka


{Romper-Mossimo for Target, Green jacket-H&M, Vest-Audrey, Belt-A&F, Heels-JCrew, Handbag-Chloe, Sunglasses-DVF, Rings-Tiffany & thrifted}
Unfortunately, cute little strapless chambray rompers don't meet dress code requirements at work. But I'm all in for the look in the appropriate setting - a weekend day lounging around the apartment, a trip to the beach, or street fair in Palm Springs. Choosing a life in San Francisco means living life in layers. Expect the unexpected when it comes to this weather. Most days begin gray and foggy, but
if when the haze burns off, a day in the City can be pretty spectacular.
Your romper looks very cute!
Ah dressing for work...must be the funnest activity ever (sarcasm) :P I think you still look pretty cute.
San Francisco is one of my favorite cities! But when I went there it went from warm to windy and foggy. I definitely see what you mean about layers. Adorable romper!


The young Boys in Green will take on Israel, who finished second in Group B, over two legs between September 19-27 following the draw in Nyon, Switzerland this afternoon. Ireland will play the first leg at home with match details to be confirmed in the coming days. - t's- their "Israel will be a tough opponent, there'"- that in itself is motivation for us.
"We'an't "
UPDATE | U21s back in training ahead of Italy
U21 | Ireland U21s secure first ever play-off spot
REPORT | Ireland U21 3-1 Montenegro U21


because it's a tough read but because it needs your concentration and chemo brain didn't allow for me to concentrate when I started it the first time. It's another historical novel, based in Manchester. It deals with the lives of women in the 19th century as the rights they have are changing and evolving. It's not the happiest book ever written, the main characters don't have a very happy existence, but it was a compelling read!
Now, I bought this book based on the reviews I read of it being amazing, but I have to say, it wasn't the book I thought it would be. It wasn't this great book of the ages I'd heard it was. Maybe I just didn't connect with the characters. Now, don't get me wrong, its not that I hated the book, but I just didn't LOVE it and I found it hard to get in to. But I did like the suspense of not knowing what had happened, and I liked the insights about what goes on it a teenage girls brain.
Tell me, what are you reading at the mo? Anything I have to add to the to-read pile? </s> According to the actress, The Good Fight wrote a great appearance for her Good Wife character, Alicia Florrick—but she was “shocked” when the network wouldn’t pony up more than the standard guest-star rate.
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