Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: Our knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources: first the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: Muslim astronomers of the "Golden Period" made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: The instruments were used to read the time of the Sun rising and fixed stars. al-Zarqali of Andalusia constructed one such instrument in which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the Saphea.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: Abu Rayhan Biruni designed an instrument he called "Box of the Moon", which was a mechanical lunisolar calendar, employing a gear train and eight gear-wheels. This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine. This work of Al Biruni uses the same gear trains preserved in a 6th century Byzantine portable sundial.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of sundials, which they inherited from their Indian and Greek predecessors. Khwarizmi made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. One of the most striking examples was built in the fourteenth century by the "muwaqqit" (timekeeper) of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, ibn al-Shatir.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: The earliest known description of a planetary equatorium is contained in early 11th-century treatise by Ibn al‐Samḥ, preserved only as a 13th-century Castillian translation contained in the "Libros del saber de astronomia" ("Books of the knowledge of astronomy"); the same book contains also a 1080/1081 treatise on the equatorium by al-Zarqālī.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

Context: There are examples of cosmological imagery throughout many forms of Islamic art, whether that be manuscripts, ornately crafted astrological tools, or palace frescoes, just to name a few. Islamic art maintains the capability to reach every class and level of society.

Question: من هو أول عالم فلك عربي ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Being a society of independent city-states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole; instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city an individual hailed from (e.g. "Sidonian" for Sidon, "Tyrian" for Tyre, etc.) If the Phoenicians "did" possess an etymon to denote the land overall, some scholars believe that they would have used "Canaan" and therefore referred to themselves as "Canaanites".

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Since little has survived of Phoenician records or literature, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Amarna letters report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring Amorites and Hittites were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Early into the Iron Age, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on Cyprus, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and Malta, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Phoenician hacksilver dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions. Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with Tyrian purple. Homer's "Iliad," which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: As a mercantile power concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed their autonomy.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, Sargon II besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor Sennacherib suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by Esarhaddon, who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the Median Empire.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian King, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC), and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605–c. 562 BC). In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, which resisted for thirteen years, but ultimately capitulated under "favorable terms".

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other empire areas, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their coins.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: In the mid-fourth century BC, King Tennes of Sidon led a failed rebellion against Artaxerxes III, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians. The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts. Polybius recounts how the Seleucid King Demetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre. The adaptation to Macedonian rule was likely aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives."

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: During the Seleucid Dynastic Wars (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under the control and influence of the Jews, who revolted and succeeded in defeating Seleucids in 164 BC.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Seleucid Kingdom, including Phoenicia, was seized by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 82 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the region.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The people now known as Phoenicians, similar to the neighboring Israelites, Moabites and Edomites, were a Canaanite people. Canaanites are a group of ancient Semitic-speaking peoples that emerged in the Levant in at least the third millennium BC. Phoenicians did not refer themselves as such but rather are thought to have referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning Canaanites.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility," with evidence of indigenous Sardinians integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have settled in the area of modern Lebanon.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: In 2016, the skeleton of 2,500 year old Carthaginian man excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia was found bearing the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: In a 2020 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the Bronze Age interrupted by three significant admixture events during the Iron Age, Hellenistic, and Ottoman period, each contributing 3–11 percent of non-local ancestry to the admixed population.<ref name="doi_10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008"></ref>

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the Minoan civilization on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the Mycenaean civilization (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece. Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums, and wine beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea west of Ascalon, Israel. Pottery kilns at Tyre and Sarepta produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought Nubian gold.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with Tyrian purple, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the hypobranchial gland of the "Murex" marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC. The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in Mogador, in present-day Morocco.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain, and may have taught winemaking to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships. During the Bronze Age, they developed the keel. Pegged mortise-and-tenon joints proved effective enough to serve as a standard until late into the Roman Empire.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the bireme, around 700 BC. An Assyrian account describes Phoenicians evading capture with these ships. The Phoenicians are also credited with inventing the trireme, which was regarded as the most advanced and powerful vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, and was eventually adopted by the Greeks.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The amphora, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre. The first example of admiralty law also appears in the Levant. The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: In 2014, a roughly 50-foot Phoenician trading ship was found near Gozo island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on Cyprus and Crete, gradually moving westward towards Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland in Genoa and Marseilles. The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage, which was exercised directly through appointed magistrates. Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenician city-states were fiercely independent in both domestic and foreign affairs. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the most powerful city.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of Ahiram of Byblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power". In the sixth century BC, during the period of Babylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the Roman consul, known as (shophets), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander. When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenician language was a member of the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic languages. Its descendant language spoken in the Carthaginian Empire is termed Punic. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. Augustine of Hippo.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but the process of commercial exchange. The legendary Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece. However, it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to Crete, whence it gradually diffused northwards.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests. They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music. In most contexts, however, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as draped from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicia were generally common to those of their neighbors in Canaan, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the ancient Semitic world. Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices. Unfortunately, the Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: Canaanite religious mythology does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called El (𐤀𐤋, "god"). The son of El was Baal (𐤁𐤏𐤋, "master", "lord"), a powerful dying-and-rising storm god. Other gods were called by royal titles, such as Melqart, meaning "king of the city", or Adonis for "lord". Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state. Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was Astarte, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


Phoenicia

Context: The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels. Hundreds of figurines and fragments have been recovered from the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels. Since the Phoenicians were predominantly seafaring people, it is speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown.

Question: متى سقطة الحضارة الفينيقية ؟


History of Mauritania

Context: The original inhabitants of Mauritania were the Bafour, presumably a Mande ethnic group, connected to the contemporary Arabized minor social group of "Imraguen" ("fishermen") on the Atlantic coast.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: The territory of Mauritania was on the fringe of geographical knowledge of Libya in classical antiquity. Berber immigration took place from about the 3rd century. Mauritania takes its name from the ancient Berber kingdom and later Roman province of Mauretania, and thus ultimately from the Mauri people, even though the respective territories do not overlap, historical Mauritania being considerably further north than modern Mauritania.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th and 8th centuries did not reach as far south, and Islam came to Mauritania only gradually, from about the 11th century, in the context of the wider Islamization of the Sudan and medieval Trans-Saharan slave trade.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: The European colonial powers of the 19th century had little interest in Mauritania. The French Republic was mostly interested in the territory for strategic reason, as a connection between their possessions in North and in West Africa. Mauritania thus became part of French West Africa in 1904, but colonial control was mostly limited to the coast and the Saharan trade routes, and there were territories nominally within French West Africa which were not reached by European control as late as 1955.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: The Sahara has linked rather than divided the peoples who inhabit it and has served as an avenue for migration and conquest. Mauritania, lying next to the Atlantic coast at the western edge of the desert, received and assimilated into its complex society many waves of these migrants and conquerors.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: What is now Mauritania was a dry savanna area during classical antiquity, where independent tribes like the Pharusii and the Perorsi (and the Nigritae near the Niger river) did a seminomadic life facing a growing desertification.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: Romans did explorations toward this area and probably reached, with Suetonius Paulinus, the area of Adrar. There is evidence (coins, fibulas) of Roman commerce in Akjoujt and Tamkartkart near Tichit.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: Berbers moved south to Mauritania beginning in the 3rd century, followed by Arabs in the 8th century, subjugating and assimilating Mauritania's original inhabitants. From the 8th through the 15th century, black kingdoms of the western Sudan, such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, brought their political culture from the south.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: The divisive tendencies of the various groups within Mauritanian society have always worked against the development of Mauritanian unity. Both the Sanhadja Confederation, at its height from the 8th to the 10th century, and the Almoravid Empire, from the 11th to the 12th century, were weakened by internecine warfare, and both succumbed to further invasions from the Ghana Empire and the Almohad Empire, respectively.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: President Moktar Ould Daddah, originally assisted to the post by the French, rapidly reformed Mauritania into an authoritarian one-party state in 1964, with his new Mauritanian constitution. Daddah's own Parti du Peuple Mauritanien (PPM) became the ruling organization. The President justified this decision on the grounds that he considered Mauritania unready for western-style multi-party democracy. Under this one-party constitution, Daddah was reelected in uncontested elections in 1966, 1971 and 1976.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: With Haidallah's ambitious political and social reform program undone by continuing instability, regime inefficiency and a plethora of coup attempts and intrigues from within the military establishment, the CMSN chairman turned increasingly autocratic, excluding other "junta" officers from power, and provoking discontent by frequently reshuffling the power hierarchy to prevent threats to his position.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: On December 12, 1984, Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya deposed Haidallah and declared himself Chairman of the CMSN. Like other rulers before him, he promised a swift transfer to democracy, but then made little of these promises.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in 1991 which put an end to formal military rule. However, Ould Taya's election wins were dismissed as fraudulent by both opposition groups and external observers. In 1998, Mauritania became the third Arab country to recognize Israel, despite strong internal opposition.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: In 2001, elections incorporated more safeguards against voter fraud, but opposition candidate (and former leader) Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidallah was nevertheless arrested prior to election day on charges of planning a coup, released the same day and rearrested after the election. Attempted military coups and unrest instigated by Islamist opponents of the regime marred the early years of the 21st century, and the Taya regime's heavy-handed crackdowns were criticized by human rights groups.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: On August 3, 2005, the Mauritanian military, including members of the presidential guard, seized control of key points in the capital of Nouakchott, performing a coup against the government of President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya who was out of the country attending the funeral of Saudi King Fahd. The officers released the following statement:

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: "The national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority, which our people have suffered from during the past years." (BBC)

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: Taya was never able to return to the country and remains in exile. The new junta called itself the "Military Council for Justice and Democracy", and democracy and rule of law. Col. Ely Ould Mohamed Vall emerged as leader at an early stage. Dissidents were released, and the political climate relaxed. A new constitution was approved in June 2006. Elections were held in March 2007, Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi was elected president and Vall stood down.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


History of Mauritania

Context: In August 2019, Mohamed Ould Ghazouani was sworn in as Mauritania’s tenth president since its independence from France in 1960. His predecessor Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz ruled the country for 10 years. The ruling party Union for the Republic (UPR) was founded by Aziz in 2009.

Question: متى تاسست موريتانيا؟


Invasion of Portugal (1807)

Context: Junot was selected because he had served as Portugal's ambassador in 1805. He was known as a good fighter and an active officer, but he possessed only ordinary talents as a strategist and a general. Napoleon promised his subordinate a dukedom and a Marshal's baton if his assignment was carried out with total success.

Question: متى قامت الجيوش الفرنسية بغزو البرتغال؟


Invasion of Portugal (1807)

Context: According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junot's invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 men in three Spanish columns. General Taranco and 6,500 troops were ordered to march from Vigo to seize Porto in the north. Captain General Solano would advance from Badajoz with 9,500 soldiers to capture Elvas and its fortress. General Caraffa and 9,500 men were instructed to assemble at Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo and cooperate with Junot's main force.

Question: متى قامت الجيوش الفرنسية بغزو البرتغال؟


Invasion of Portugal (1807)

Context: British intervention occurred in early August when General Sir Arthur Wellesley and 9,000 soldiers landed in Mondego Bay leading to the subsequent Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro.

Question: متى قامت الجيوش الفرنسية بغزو البرتغال؟


Football in Hungary

Context: Hungary's capital Budapest has seven professional football teams, six of them have won the Hungarian 1st division. Until July 2012 teams based in Budapest have won the Hungarian Championship 96 times and teams from other cities have won it 14 times.

Question: متى تم تأسيس إتحاد كرة القدم المجري ؟


Football in Hungary

Context: The Hungarian football clubs have several international successes. Ferencvárosi TC won the 1964–65 edition of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and was runner-up in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1974–75 season and the Cup of Fairs in 1968, while Újpest FC reached the final of the Fair Cup in 1969, Videoton FC UEFA Cup in 1985, and the MTK Budapest to that of the Recopa in 1964.

Question: متى تم تأسيس إتحاد كرة القدم المجري ؟


Football in Hungary

Context: The table below lists all Budapest clubs in the top three tiers of the Hungarian football league system: from the top division (the Nemzeti Bajnokság I), down to the Nemzeti Bajnokság III. League status is correct for the 2012–13 season.

Question: متى تم تأسيس إتحاد كرة القدم المجري ؟


Football in Hungary

Context: The Hungarian national team, in its different categories, is controlled by the Hungarian Football Federation.

Question: متى تم تأسيس إتحاد كرة القدم المجري ؟


Football in Hungary

Context: The Hungarian team played their first official game on 12 October 1902 in Vienna against Austria, a match that was resolved with a 5–0 win for the Austrians. Hungary has played in nine FIFA World Cups and two European Championships. The best result of Hungary national team was when they reached the FIFA World Cup final twice; they lost to Italy in 1938, and lost again to West Germany in 1954. Since then, Hungary's performance has diminished.

Question: متى تم تأسيس إتحاد كرة القدم المجري ؟


ASNOVA

Context: ASNOVA (; abbreviation for , "Association of New Architects") was an Avant-Garde architectural association in the Soviet Union, which was active in the 1920s and early 1930s, commonly called 'the Rationalists'.

Question: متى تأسست رابطة المعماريين الجدد؟


Telescope

Context: The reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors to collect and focus light, was invented within a few decades of the first refracting telescope. In the 20th century, many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared telescopes in the 1960s. The word "telescope" now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: The word "telescope" was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. In the "Starry Messenger", Galileo had used the Latin term .

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: The earliest existing record of a telescope was a 1608 patent submitted to the government in the Netherlands by Middelburg spectacle maker Hans Lipperhey for a refracting telescope. The actual inventor is unknown but word of it spread through Europe. [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] heard about it and, in 1609, built his own version, and made his telescopic observations of celestial objects.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:60-inch Telescope.JPG|thumb|left|upright|The 60-inch Hale (debuted in 1908) considered to be the first modern large research reflecting telescope.]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from [[radio telescope|radio]] to [[gamma-ray telescope|gamma-rays]]. The first purpose built radio telescope went into operation in 1937. Since then, a large variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:JWST Full Mirror.jpg|thumb|upright|The primary mirror assembly of [[James Webb Space Telescope]] under construction. This is a [[segmented mirror]] and it is coated with gold to reflect (orange-red) visible light, through near-infrared to the mid-infrared]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments. Most detect [[electromagnetic radiation]], but there are major differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light (electromagnetic radiation) in different frequency bands.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: With photons of the shorter wavelengths, with the higher frequencies, glancing-incident optics, rather than fully reflecting optics are used. Telescopes such as [[TRACE]] and [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] use special mirrors to reflect [[extreme ultraviolet]], producing higher resolution and brighter images than are otherwise possible. A larger aperture does not just mean that more light is collected, it also enables a finer angular resolution.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Telescopes may also be classified by location: ground telescope, [[space telescope]], or [[flying telescope]]. They may also be classified by whether they are operated by [[astronomer|professional astronomers]] or [[amateur astronomer]]s. A vehicle or permanent campus containing one or more telescopes or other instruments is called an [[observatory]].

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:Kepler CCD matrix.jpg|thumb|Modern telescopes typically use [[Charge-coupled device|CCDs]] instead of film for recording images. This is the sensor array in the [[Kepler (spacecraft)|Kepler spacecraft]].]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: A [[Fresnel imager]] is a proposed ultra-lightweight design for a space telescope that uses a [[Fresnel lens]] to focus light.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Beyond these basic optical types there are many sub-types of varying optical design classified by the task they perform such as [[astrograph]]s, [[comet seeker]]s and [[solar telescope]]s.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:FAST Radio Telescope (captured from video).jpg|thumb|The [[Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope|Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope]] in Guizhou, China, is the world's largest [[filled-aperture radio telescope]]]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Very Large Array]] at Socorro, New Mexico, United States.]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Radio telescopes are [[Directional antenna|directional]] [[radio antennas]] that typically employ a large dish to collect radio waves. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the [[wavelength]] being observed.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Unlike an optical telescope, which produces a magnified image of the patch of sky being observed, a traditional radio telescope dish contains a single receiver and records a single time-varying signal characteristic of the observed region; this signal may be sampled at various frequencies. In some newer radio telescope designs, a single dish contains an array of several receivers; this is known as a [[Focal-plane array (radio astronomy)|focal-plane array]].

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using [[Optical interferometry#Astronomical optical interferometry|optical interferometers]] (arrays of optical telescopes) and [[aperture masking interferometry]] at single reflecting telescopes.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Radio telescopes are also used to collect [[microwave radiation]], which has the advantage of being able to pass through the atmosphere and interstellar gas and dust clouds.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as [[Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence|SETI]] and the [[Arecibo Observatory]] to search for extraterrestrial life.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:Heao b.jpg|thumb|[[Einstein Observatory]] was a space-based focusing optical X-ray telescope from 1978. ]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:CGRO s37-96-010.jpg|thumb|left|The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory is released into orbit by the Space Shutte in 1991, and it would operate until the year 2000]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Higher energy X-ray and [[Gamma-ray]] telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use [[coded aperture]] masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually installed on Earth-orbiting [[satellite]]s or high-flying balloons since the [[Earth's atmosphere]] is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. An example of this type of telescope is the [[Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope]].

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: The detection of very high energy gamma rays, with shorter wavelength and higher frequency than regular gamma rays, requires further specialization. An example of this type of observatory is [[VERITAS]].

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: A discovery in 2012 may allow focusing gamma-ray telescopes. At photon energies greater than 700 keV, the index of refraction starts to increase again.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:Hegra and not bob tubbs 2001.jpg|thumb|The reflectors of [[HEGRA]] detect flashes of light in the atmosphere, thus detecting high energy particles]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Astronomy is not limited to using electromagnetic radiation. Additional information can be obtained by detecting other signals, with detectors analogous to telescopes. These are:

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: A telescope mount is a mechanical structure which supports a telescope. Telescope mounts are designed to support the mass of the telescope and allow for accurate pointing of the instrument. Many sorts of mounts have been developed over the years, with the majority of effort being put into systems that can track the motion of the stars as the Earth rotates. The two main types of tracking mount are:

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: By the 21 century, although not a structure a type of control system called a [[GoTo (telescopes)|GoTo]] telescope was more popular. In this case a computer software system can in part or whole direct the telescope to a certain coordinate in the sky.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to [[astronomical seeing]].

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:Atmospheric electromagnetic opacity.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.75|A diagram of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: Different types of telescope, operating in different wavelength bands, provide different information about the same object. Together they provide a more comprehensive understanding.

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Telescope

Context: [[File:800crab.png|thumb|center|upright=2.75|Six views of the [[Crab nebula]] supernova remnant, viewed at different wavelengths of light by various telescopes]]

Question: من هو مخترع التلسكوب؟


Asus

Context: Asus is the world's 5th-largest PC vendor by unit sales as of January 2021. Asus appears in "BusinessWeek" "InfoTech 100" and "Asia's Top 10 IT Companies" rankings, and it ranked first in the IT Hardware category of the 2008 Taiwan Top 10 Global Brands survey with a total brand value of $1.3 billion.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Asus has a primary listing on the Taiwan Stock Exchange under the ticker code "2357" and formerly had a secondary listing on the London Stock Exchange under the ticker code "ASKD".

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: The company is usually referred to as Asus or Huáshuò in Chinese (, literally "Eminence by the Chinese"). According to the company website, the name "Asus" originates from Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. Only the last four letters of the word were used in order to give the name a high position in alphabetical listings.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: As its marketing taglines, Asus has used "Rock Solid. Heart Touching" (2003–2009) and subsequently "Inspiring Innovation Persistent Perfection" (2009–2013). Since 2013, the company's tagline has been "In Search of Incredible."

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Asus

Context: In September 2005, Asus released the first PhysX accelerator card. In December 2005, Asus entered the LCD TV market with the TLW32001 model. In January 2006, Asus announced that it would cooperate with Lamborghini to develop the VX laptop series.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: On 9 March 2006, Asus was confirmed as one of the manufacturers of the first Microsoft Origami models, together with Samsung and Founder Technology. On 8 August 2006, Asus announced a joint venture with Gigabyte Technology. On 5 June 2007, Asus announced the launch of the Eee PC at COMPUTEX Taipei. On 9 September 2007, Asus indicated support for Blu-ray, announcing the release of a BD-ROM/DVD writer PC drive, BC-1205PT. ASUS subsequently released several Blu-ray based notebooks.

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Asus

Context: On 9 December 2008, the Open Handset Alliance announced that Asus had become one of 14 new members of the organization. These "new members will either deploy compatible Android devices, contribute significant code to the Android Open Source Project, or support the ecosystem through products and services that will accelerate the availability of Android-based devices."

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Asus

Context: In October 2010, Asus and Garmin announced that they would be ending their smartphone partnership as a result of Garmin deciding to exit the product category. The two companies had produced six Garmin-ASUS branded smartphones over the prior two years.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: In December 2010, Asus launched the world's thinnest notebook, the Asus U36, with Intel processor voltage standard (not low voltage) Intel Core i3 or i5 with a thickness of only 19 mm.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: In January 2013, Asus officially ended production of its Eee PC series due to declining sales caused by consumers increasingly switching to tablets and Ultrabooks.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Asus had manufacturing facilities in Taiwan (Taipei, Luzhu, Nangang, Guishan), mainland China (Suzhou, Chongqing), Mexico (Ciudad Juárez) and the Czech Republic (Ostrava). The Asus Hi-Tech Park, located in Suzhou, covers .

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Asus operates around 50 service sites across 32 countries and has over 400 service partners worldwide.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Asus' products include 2-in-1s, laptops, tablet computers, desktop computers, smartphones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), servers, computer monitors, motherboards, graphics cards, sound cards, DVD disc drives, computer networking devices, computer cases, computer components and computer cooling systems.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: One of Asus main lineup is the Vivo lineup consisting of laptops (VivoBooks), All-in-Ones (Vivo AiO), desktops (VivoPC), Stick PCs (VivoStick), Mini PCs (VivoMini), smartwatches (VivoWatch), computer mouse (VivoMouse) and tablets (VivoTab).

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Asus also launched many Android-based smartphones, predominantly with Intel rather than ARM processors and often with two sim slots. Asus is currently very influential in big mobile markets like India, China, and other Asian countries. It is known as the ZenFone series. Prior to the ZenFone line, Asus has released feature phones such as the Asus v70 and smartphones running on Windows Mobile during the mid-2000s.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Additionally, Asus also produced some hybrid devices with smartphones that can be docked in a tablet screen, known as Padfone series. The product lineup are:

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Most of Asus' smartphones are powered by Intel Atom processors with the exceptions of few Padfone series and some ZenFone 2 models that use Qualcomm Snapdragon, though later phones in the series now either use Qualcomm Snapdragon or Mediatek systems on-chip.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Discontinued series previously offered by Asus includes the EeeBook Series, K Series, X Series, E Series, Q Series, B Series, V Series, P Series, F Series, A Series and G Series.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: From its launch in October 2007 and until the line was discontinued in January 2013, the Eee PC netbook garnered numerous awards, including Forbes Asia's Product of the Year, Stuff Magazine's Gadget of the Year and Computer of the Year, NBC.com's Best Travel Gadget, Computer Shopper's Best Netbook of 2008, PC Pro's Hardware of the Year, PC World's Best Netbook, and DIME magazine's 2008 Trend Award Winner.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: On 6 March 2009, Asus debuted its Eee Box B202, which PCMag saw as "the desktop equivalent of the ASUS EeePC", (the "Asus Eee Box" computer line was later renamed in 2010 to "ASUS EeeBox PC").

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Asus

Context: Essentio is a line of desktop PCs. the line consisted of the CG Series (designed for gaming), the CM series (for entertainment and home use) and the CS and CP slimline series.

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Asus

Context: "Republic of Gamers" is a brand used by Asus since 2006, encompassing a range of computer hardware, personal computers, peripherals, and accessories oriented primarily toward PC gaming. The line includes both desktops and high-spec laptops such as the Asus ROG Crosshair V Formula-Z Motherboard or the Asus ROG Strix G G731GT AU059T Laptop.

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Asus

Context: AMD graphics cards were marketed under the "Arez" brand due to the Nvidia GeForce Partner Program. However, when the GeForce Partner Program was cancelled, the AMD cards were renamed back to the ROG branding.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: In 2013 ASUS launched the RAIDR Express, a PCI express based RAID 0 SSD subsystem with two SSDs on one PCB.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: At Computex 2018, Asus unveiled and announced ROG-branded gaming smartphone to compete against ZTE's nubia Red Magic, Xiaomi's Black Shark, and the Razer Phone. The ROG Phone will have a special version of the Snapdragon 845 CPU that can be overclocked, vapor cooling, an external heatsink fan with the USB-C and headphone connectors on its bottom, three different docks, and will be released in Q3 2018.

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Asus

Context: In March 2021 Asus Launched the ASUS ROG PHONE 5 Series based on Qualcomm SM8350 Snapdragon 888 (5 nm), Octa-core processor.

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Asus

Context: In January 2022, Asus announced the ROG Flow Z13 during the ROG's CES 2022 launch event. Equipped with the high-performance Intel's Core i9 processor and NVIDIA's GeForce RTX 3050 Ti graphic performance, making the biggest innovation breakthroughs on tablet markets. It is the world's first RTX 30 series computer in tablet form factor.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: "The Ultimate Force" is a brand used by Asus since about 2010. The TUF Gaming brand is for Asus affordable, mid-range gaming products.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: Asus entered the box-PC market with the Vivo PC line in November 2013. ASUS VivoPCs come without a pre-installed Windows operating system.

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Asus

Context: On 23 October 2013 ASUS launched two models of VivoPCs in India. VivoPC was initially announced with Intel Celeron processor equipped VM40B model. But in India, the company released VivoPC along with a new model called VC60 which is equipped by Intel Core series processors.

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Asus

Context: In 2013, Asus released the MB168B, a USB 3.0-powered, portable external monitor. The base model shipped with a resolution of , while the MB168B+ had a resolution of . At the time of its release, the MB168B+ was the only 1080p portable monitor. According to Asus, it is the "world's slimmest and lightest USB monitor".

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Asus

Context: Asus motherboards sometimes include a Q-Connector which sits in between the motherboard front panel connectors and the front panel cables. The Q-Connector is marked with bigger text than the front panel connectors on the motherboard, as well as protruding from the motherboard, limiting obstruction from heatsinks and other connectors.

Question: متى تاسست شركة اسوس؟


Asus

Context: The Q-connector allows the many front-panel connections to be removed as a single unit for maintenance. This greatly reduces the risk of incorrect connections when reassembling.

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Asus

Context: Asus ROG has been an active advocate for esports, having established some of their very own professional gaming teams.

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Asus

Context: In January 2021, ROG announced the establishment of a new esports academy in India, with plans to scout and train up professional gamers for the PC game. The initiative will provide shortlisted gamers with coaching, gaming equipment, and stipends to prepare them for competitive esports tournaments on both the national and international levels.

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Asus

Context: In 2000, Asus launched Green ASUS, a company-wide sustainable computing initiative overseen by a steering committee led by Jonney Shih, the Chairman of Asus. According to the company, Asus pursues green policies in "Design, Procurement, Manufacturing, and Marketing."

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Asus

Context: In 2006, Asus obtained IECQ (IEC Quality Assessment System for Electronic Components) HSPM (Hazardous Substance Process Management) certification for its headquarters and for all of its manufacturing sites.

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Asus

Context: In 2007, Oekom Research, an independent research institute specialising in corporate responsibility assessment, recognized Asus as a "highly environmental friendly company" in the "Computers, Peripherals and Office Electronics Industry".

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Asus

Context: In October 2008, Asus received 11 Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) Gold Awards for its products, including four of its N-Series notebooks, namely the N10, N20, N50, and N80. In the following month, it received EU Flower certification for the same N-Series notebooks at an award ceremony held in Prague. In December 2008, Det Norske Veritas conferred the world's first EuP (Energy-using Product) certification for portable notebooks on these machines.

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Asus

Context: program in collaboration with Intel and with Tsann Kuen Enterprise Co. The program collected more than 1,200 desktop computers, notebooks and CRT/LCD monitors, refurbished them and donated them to 122 elementary and junior high schools, five aboriginal communities and the Tzu Chi Stem Cell Center.

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Asus

Context: In April 2019, ESET disclosed that a group known as BlackTech had performed targeted attacks with malware known as Plead, distributed via the updater for the Asus WebStorage service. ESET stated that the group was likely using a man-in-the-middle attack via a vulnerability in routers, in combination with the updater using an unencrypted HTTP connection.

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Asus

Context: In January 2022, Asus recalled some of its Z690 Maximus Hero motherboards due to a manufacturing flaw, where a RAM capacitor was installed backwards—causing them to burn out associated MOSFETs and prevent the motherboard from detecting memory.

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Golan Heights

Context: Israeli settlement in the Golan began soon after the war. Merom Golan was founded in July 1967 and by 1970 there were 12 settlements. Construction of Israeli settlements began in the remainder of the territory held by Israel, which was under military administration until Israel passed the Golan Heights Law extending Israeli law and administration throughout the territory in 1981.

Question: من هو الرئيس السوري الذي خسر جولان لصالح إسرائيل؟


Golan Heights

Context: The UN Human Rights Council issued a Resolution on Human Rights in the Occupied Syrian Golan on 23 March 2018 that included the statement "Deploring the announcement by the Israeli occupying authorities in July 2017 that municipal elections would be held on 30 October 2018 in the four villages in the occupied Syrian Golan, which constitutes another violation to international humanitarian law and to relevant Security Council resolutions, in particular resolution 497 (1981)".

Question: من هو الرئيس السوري الذي خسر جولان لصالح إسرائيل؟


Golan Heights

Context: Once annexing the Golan Heights in 1981, the Israeli government offered all non-Israelis living in the Golan citizenship, but until the early 21st century fewer than 10% of the Druze were Israeli citizens; the remainder held Syrian citizenship. The Golan Alawites in the village of Ghajar accepted Israeli citizenship in 1981. In 2012, due to the situation in Syria, young Druze have applied to Israeli citizenship in much larger numbers than in previous years.

Question: من هو الرئيس السوري الذي خسر جولان لصالح إسرائيل؟


Peru

Context: Peru has a population that includes Mestizos, Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages, Aymara, or other Indigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The name of the country may be derived from "Birú", the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama City, in the early 16th century. Spanish conquistadors, who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World. When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated "Birú" or "Perú".

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name "Birú" was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias de Ávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 "Capitulación de Toledo", which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination "Viceroyalty of Peru", which became the "Peruvian Republic" after its independence until 1979, adopting its current name of "Republic of Peru".

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in Chavín de Huantar. After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Moche.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Simon Bolivar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolivar and San Martin gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolivar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martin retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: With the help of Antonio José de Sucre, they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Alto Peru. Alto Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: From the 1840s to the 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise. Peru embarked on a railroad-building program that helped but also bankrupted the country.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election. The new Peruvian president Castillo appointed Guido Bellido, a member of Free Peru Party, as prime minister. That same time, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence on its 200th anniversary.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru uses a multi-party system for congressional and general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adopted economic liberalism, progressivism, right-wing populism (specifically Fujimorism), nationalism, and reformism.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The most recent general election was held on 11 April 2021 and resulted in Free Peru winning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority. A presidential runoff between Pedro Castillo and Keiko Fujimori took place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru is divided into 26 units: 24 departments, the Constitutional Province of Callao and the Province of Lima (LIM) — which is independent of any region and serves as the country's capital. Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional" government composed of the regional governor and the regional council.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Provinces, such as the province of Lima, are administered by a municipal council, headed by a mayor. The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influence local politics.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Some areas of Peru are defined as metropolitan areas which overlap district areas. The largest of them, the Lima metropolitan area, is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Over recent decades, Peru's foreign relations has historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia, particularly through the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the World Trade Organization, the Pacific Alliance, Mercosur, and the Organization of American States (OAS).

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru is an active member of several regional trade blocs and is one of the founding members of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a member of international organizations such as the OAS and the United Nations. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served as United Nations Secretary General from 1981 to 1991.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Additionally, Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing the crisis in Venezuela through the establishment of the Lima Group.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces—the Armed Forces of Peru—comprise the Peruvian Navy (MGP), the Peruvian Army (EP), and the Peruvian Air Force (FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020. Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Since the end of the crisis in Peru in 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense. In the 2016—2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina. More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used in civil defense. In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strict quarantine measures placed during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The largest lake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The largest reservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic, and is one of the megadiverse countries.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic), over 500 species of mammals, over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes. The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma, jaguar and spectacled bear. The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano, an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass, flounder, anchovies, tuna, crustaceans, and shellfish, and is home to many sharks, sperm whales, and whales.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru also has an equally diverse flora. The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti, apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The Highlands above the tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus, drought-resistant plants such as ichu, and the largest species of bromeliad – the spectacular Puya raimondii.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustain moss, orchids, and bromeliads, and the Amazon rainforest is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants. Peru had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: With about 31.2 million inhabitants in 2017, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America. The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050. According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population at the time of seven million residents.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: , 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas. Major cities include the Lima metropolitan area (home to over 9.8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census. There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru. Peru has a life expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the World Bank.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves as mestizo, 22.3% identified themselves as Quechua, 5.9% identified themselves as white, 3.6% identified themselves as black, 2.4% identified themselves as Aymara, 2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% didn't declare their ethnicity.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with Indigenous peoples. After independence, there was gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, and Italy. Peru freed its black slaves in 1854. Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in areas where they predominate, Quechua and other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, Quechua by 13.9%, and Aymara by 1.7%, while other languages are spoken by the remaining 1.8%.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree of syncretism with Indigenous traditions. As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 14.1% as Evangelical, 4.8% as Protestant, Jewish, Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses, and 5.1% as nonreligious.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi, Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities from pre-Columbian remain widespread; Inti Raymi, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and patron saint.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: According to Article 50 of the Peruvian Constitution, Roman Catholicism is the official religion, and Roman Catholicism is mandatory in all state schools.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%). Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. The National University of San Marcos, founded on 12 May 1551, during the Viceroyalty of Peru, is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and European traditions, though it has also been influenced by various Asian and African ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of "Indigenismo" in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peruvian art has its origin in the Andean civilizations. These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before the arrival of the Spanish. Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis cultures developed on the south coast of Peru. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture, Moche, in the Lambayeque region. The Moche culture produced impressive architectural works, such as the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna and the Huaca Rajada of Sipán. They were experts at cultivation in terraces and hydraulic engineering and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Another urban culture, the Wari civilization, flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries in Ayacucho. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such as Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla and Wari Willka.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urban Tiwanaku empire rose by the borders of Lake Titicaca. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developing bronze, which enabled them to make the necessary tools.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in the Chimú Culture. The Chimú built the city of Chan Chan in the valley of the Moche River, in La Libertad. The Chimú were skilled goldsmiths and created remarkable works of hydraulic engineering.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The Inca Civilization, which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities like Cusco, architectural remains like Sacsahuamán and Machu Picchu and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the Italians Mateo Pérez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: The term Peruvian literature not only refers to literature produced in the independent Republic of Peru, but also to literature produced in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the country's colonial period, and to oral artistic forms created by diverse ethnic groups that existed in the area during the pre-Columbian period, such as the Quechua, the Aymara and the Chanka people.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Due to the Spanish expedition and discovery of the Americas, the explorers started the Columbian exchange which included food unheard of in the Old World, including potato, tomato, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, and chilies. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Modern Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking. Common dishes include "anticuchos", "ceviche", and "pachamanca". Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-origin bandurria. Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins and harps, also of European origin, are also played.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America, "Piratas en el Callao". This film is set in the historical port city of Callao, which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by the Peruvian company Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later: "Dragones: Destino de Fuego".

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: In February 2006, the film "Madeinusa", produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed by Claudia Llosa, was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed by Magaly Solier and the traumas of post-civil war Peru.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


Peru

Context: Llosa, who shared elements of Gabriel García Márquez's magic realism, won an award at the Rotterdam Film Festival. Llosa's second feature, The Milk of Sorrow ("La Teta Asustada"), was nominated for the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated. The Milk of Sorrow ("La Teta Asustada"), won the Golden Bear award at the 2009 Berlinale.

Question: أين تقع البرو؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: James, son of Alphaeus is often identified with James the Less, who is only mentioned four times in the Bible, each time in connection with his mother. () refers to "Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses", while () and () refer to "Mary the mother of James".

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: Since there was already another James (James, son of Zebedee) among the twelve apostles, equating James son of Alphaeus with "James the Less" made sense. (James son of Zebedee was sometimes called "James the Greater").

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: Jerome identifies James, son of Alpheus with James the Less writing in his work called "The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary" the following:

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: Papias of Hierapolis, who lived circa 70–163 AD, in the surviving fragments of his work "Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord" relates that Mary, wife of Alphaeus is mother of James the Less:

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: Modern Biblical scholars are divided on whether this identification is correct. John Paul Meier finds it unlikely. Amongst evangelicals, the "New Bible Dictionary" supports the traditional identification, while Don Carson and Darrell Bock both regard the identification as possible, but not certain.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: In two small but potentially important works ascribed by some to Hippolytus, "On the Twelve Apostles of Christ" and "On the Seventy Apostles of Christ," he relates the following:

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: It is important to remember that James, the brother of Jesus had the same death; he was stoned to death by the Jews too. This testimony of "Hippolytus", if authentic, would increase the plausibility that James the son of Alphaeus is the same person as James the brother of Jesus.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: These two works of "Hippolytus" are often neglected because the manuscripts were lost during most of the church age and then found in Greece in the 19th century. As most scholars consider them spurious, they are often ascribed to "". The two are included in an appendix to the works of Hippolytus in the voluminous collection of Early Church Fathers.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: According to the surviving fragments of the work "Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord" by Papias of Hierapolis Cleophas and Alphaeus are the same person, Mary wife of Cleophas or Alphaeus would be the mother of James, the brother of Jesus, and of Simon and Judas (Thaddeus), and of one Joseph.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: Thus, James, the brother of the Lord would be the son of Alphaeus, who is the husband of Mary of Cleophas or Mary the wife of Alphaeus. However, the Anglican theologian J.B. Lightfoot maintains that the fragment in question is spurious.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: As reported by the Golden Legend, which is a collection of hagiographies compiled by Jacobus de Voragine in the thirteenth century:

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: Alphaeus is also the name of the father of the publican Levi mentioned in . The publican appears as Matthew in , which has led some to conclude that James and Matthew might have been brothers. The four times that James son of Alphaeus is mentioned directly in the Bible (each time in the list of the Apostles) the only family relationship stated is that his father is Alphaeus. In two lists of the Apostles, the other James and John are listed as brothers and that their father is Zebedee.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: A James was arrested along with some other Christians and was executed by King Herod Agrippa in his persecution of the church (). However, the James in has a brother called John. James, son of Zebedee has a brother called John () and we are never explicitly told that James son of Alphaeus has a brother. Robert Eisenman and Achille Camerlynck both suggest that the death of James in Acts 12:1–2 is James, son of Zebedee and not James son of Alphaeus.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


James, son of Alphaeus

Context: In Christian art, James the Less is depicted holding a fuller's club. Tradition maintains that he was crucified at Ostrakine in Lower Egypt, where he was preaching the Gospel.

Question: هل كان يعقوب الكبيرمن تلاميذ المسيح الإثني عشر؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The 1965 Soviet economic reform, sometimes called the Kosygin reform () or Liberman reform, was a set of planned changes in the economy of the USSR. A centerpiece of these changes was the introduction of profitability and sales as the two key indicators of enterprise success. Some of an enterprise's profits would go to three funds, used to reward workers and expand operations; most would go to the central budget.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The economic reforms emerged during a period of great ideological debate over economic planning. More mathematical, "cybernetic", viewpoints were at first considered deviant from orthodox Marxist economics, which considered the value of good to derive strictly from labor. This doctrine, elaborated in such works as Stalin's 1952 book, "Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR", described the price system as a capitalist relic which would eventually disappear from communist society.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Another tendency in economic planning emphasized "normative value of processing", or the importance of needs and wants in evaluating the value of production.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Kosygin criticized the inefficiency and inertia of economic policy under the previous administration. He presented a plan, including the ideas expressed by Liberman and Nemchinov, to the Communist Party Central Committee Plenum in September 1965. The Central Committee's acceptance of the plan became crucial for practical implementation of theoretical ideas.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: According to official rationale for the reform, the increasing complexity of economic relations reduced the efficacy of economic planning and therefore reduced economic growth. It was recognized that the existing system of planning did not motivate enterprises to reach high rates of production or to introduce organizational or technical innovations. There were no incentives for that.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Given more freedom to deviate publicly from party orthodoxy, newspapers offered new proposals for the Soviet economy. Aircraft engineer O. Antonov published an article in "Izvestia" on November 22, 1961, with the title "For All and For Oneself"—advocating more power for enterprise directors.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: These proposals were controversial, and criticized especially as regressions towards a capitalist economic system. Critics also argued that reliance on profitability would skew the proportions in which different goods were produced.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: [...] the time has come to discard the obsolete forms of economic management based on directive norms, and to pass over to a simpler, cheaper and more efficient type of control of the activities of enterprises. This control must be patterned so that the personnel of an enterprise find it economically profitable to organize that work along lines that are profitable to the national economy as well.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Unlike Liberman in 1962, Trapeznikov suggested that the need for reform had been embraced by party decisionmakers and would soon become a reality. In the following month, "Pravda" published six more articles from academicians, planners, and managers advocating reform. The last of these came from Liberman. This time, criticism was muted.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The reform was administered by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers. It consisted of five "groups of activities":

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Formerly, bonuses had come from the same fund as wages. Now, enterprise managers had slightly more discretion over how to allocate them. They could move some amounts of money between the bonus fund and the social welfare fund. They also had more power to influence wages by classifying different workers.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: In practice, the bonuses had the greatest impact on the payment of elite personnel (technicians and "employees" as opposed to "workers"), thereby counteracting the effect of Khrushchev-era wage reforms.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: An experimental system introduced at some enterprises offered extra bonuses for specific achievements—not just as a portion of total profits. For example, engineers using fuel more efficiently (during a shortage) could receive large premia calculated as a percentage of the money they saved.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Along with more direct responsibility for the wage fund, enterprises also gained the power to fire workers. In fact, the reform gave new incentive for layoffs, which in some cases could increase profitability. (When these occurred, the workers did not have a 'social safety net' in place in the form of unemployment insurance and career assistance).

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: To encourage accurate planning, enterprises now would be punished for performing below "or above" their planned goals.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Enterprises would also pay rent for land and natural resources. The rationale for this practice was economic optimization. For example, land of differing quality required different inputs of manpower to achieve the same outputs, and thus should factor differently into the budget of an enterprise.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Bank loans, to be repaid later with interest, would be used to fund more investment projects—to incentive the careful use of funds and the speedy creation of profit. Five different interest rates would be set, ranging from preferential to normal to punitive.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: An additional capital charge—i.e., tax—would be assessed for each enterprise based on the capital it retained: working capital, equipment, and surplus stocks.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Enterprises were to submit annual plans, called "tekhpromfinplans (from () - technical and financial production plan)", stipulating production plans by quarter and month. Higher-ups would then approve these plans (or not) and allocate supplies and money. The enterprise then sells its products, within the constraints of the plan. It is empowered to reject or return (within ten days) unneeded inputs to the supplier.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The key change which represented "decentralization" was the delegation of responsibility over modernization investments. However, modernization plans remained subject to central approval, as well as approval from the bank which lent the money.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The amount of development expected under these auspices fell far short of expectations, as the necessary labour and materials were simply undersupllied. One response to this problem in 1969 was to shift more incentives to the contractors.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: For the "optimal planners" this limited decentralization was inadequate, and the new importance assigned to "profit" was incomplete because enterprises did not control enough of the factors which might affect it. As a deputy director of TSEMI commented in 1966:

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: We say: comrades, if you want to introduce profit, then it is necessary to reconstruct the whole system of prices, the system of incentives, in short, to alter a great deal in the existing forms and methods of economic management. If this is not done, then the introduction of profit will bring about no effect whatsoever.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The plan also called for the cultivation of a new breed of managers; As Kosygin in "Pravda" (September 28, 1965):

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: ...initiative based on know-how, efficiency, a businesslike approach, a feeling for the new, and the ability to use production resources in each specific circumstance with maximum effectiveness, herein is the essence of the new demands.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The 1965 reforms somewhat altered the role of the Party in economic administration. Local officials were to oversee operations from a distance to ensure compliance with the spirit of the reforms.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The plan called for more detailed and scientific central planning, including annual targets. These plans would be calculated using computer systems.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Distribution of supplies and products would take place in different ways. Central planners would allocate certain scarce and vital goods. For others, enterprises could form "direct ties" within which they developed a contractual exchange relationship.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The Eighth Five-Year Plan would have instantiated some of the proposed reforms. (The Five-Year Plan dealt with a broad range of issues, with more of a focus on people's overall living conditions. It was expected to be implemented within the Party.)

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: However, central planners were not satisfied with the impact of the reform. In particular, they observed that wages had increased without a commensurate rise in productivity. Many of the specific changes were revised or reversed in 1969–1971.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The reforms somewhat reduced the role of the Party in micromanaging economic operations. The backlash against economic reformism joined with opposition to political liberalization to trigger the full-blown invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: Soviet officials and press nevertheless continued to advance the idea of the 1965 reform. Kosygin commented on June 10, 1970:

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


1965 Soviet economic reform

Context: The essence of the reform is, while perfecting centralized planning, to raise the initiative and interest of enterprises in the fullest use of production resources and to raise the efficiency of production in order to unify the interests of workers, enterprises, and society as a whole by means of the system of economic stimuli.

Question: من هو رئيس الإتحاد السوفيتي عام 1965 ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The monarchy of Spain or Spanish monarchy (), constitutionally referred to as The Crown (), is a constitutional institution and the highest office of Spain. The monarchy comprises the reigning monarch, his or her family, and the royal household organization which supports and facilitates the monarch in the exercise of his duties and prerogatives. The Spanish monarchy is currently represented by King Felipe VI, Queen Letizia, and their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias, and Infanta Sofía.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: As of 2021, the official budget for the Spanish monarchy is 8.4 million euros, one of the lowest public expenditures for the institution of monarchy in Europe. However, other expenses of the Royal House are assumed by different government departments.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: With the death of the childless Charles II, the succession to the throne was disputed. Charles II had designated his sister Maria Theresa's grandson, Philip of France, Duke of Anjou, as his heir. The possible unification of Spain with France, the two big European powers at the time, sparked the Spanish War of Succession in the 18th century, culminating in the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714), which preserved the European balance of power.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Philip V was the first member of the House of Bourbon (Spanish: "Borbón") to rule Spain. That dynasty still rules today under Felipe (Philip) VI.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: In the mid-eighteenth century, particularly under Charles III of Spain, the Spanish crown embarked on an ambitious and far-reaching project to implement major reforms in the administration of Spain and the Spanish empire. These changes, collectively known as the Bourbon Reforms, attempted to rationalize administration and produce more revenue from the overseas empire.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: In September 1873, the First Spanish Republic was founded. A coup d'état restored the Bourbon dynasty to the throne in 1874.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: After sixteen years without monarchy or kingdom, in 1947, Spain was made a Kingdom again by General Franco, who claimed to rule Spain as "Head of state of the Kingdom of Spain" through the Law of Succession. However, without a king on the throne, he ruled through a coalition of allied organizations from the Spanish Civil War including, but not limited to, the Falange political party, the supporters of the Bourbon royal family, and the Carlists, until his death in 1975.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Despite Franco's alliance with the Carlists, Franco appointed Juan Carlos I de Borbón as his successor, who is credited with presiding over Spain's transition from dictatorship to democracy by fully endorsing political reforms.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Impatient with the pace of democratic reforms, the new king, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as President of the Government in 1977.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟