Monarchy of Spain

Context: The next year the king signed into law the new liberal democratic Constitution of Spain, which was approved by 88% of voters. Juan Carlos' "quick wit and steady nerve" cut short the attempted military coup in 1981 when the king used a specially designed command communications center in the Zarzuela Palace to denounce the coup and command the military's eleven captains general to stand down.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: According to the Spanish Constitution voted in referendum, the sovereignty power emanates from the people, so it is the very same people who give the king the power to reign:

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The monarch "arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions" and assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The 1978 constitution confirms the title of the monarch is the "King of Spain", but that he may also use other titles historically associated with the Crown.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Following his abdication in 2014, Juan Carlos I and his wife Sofía retain courtesy titles of King and Queen of Spain.<ref name="Royal Decree 470/2014">Real Decreto 470/2014, de 13 de junio, por el que se modifica el Real Decreto 1368/1987, de 6 de noviembre, sobre régimen de títulos, tratamientos y honores de la Familia Real y de los Regentes. Boletin Oficial del Estado (BOE) no. 149, 19 June 2014, p. 46399-46400. (Reference: BOE-A-2014-6477)</ref>

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: During his reign between 1975 and 2014, King Juan Carlos awarded peerages to two of his former prime ministers who had retired from active politics: Adolfo Suárez, who was created 1st Duke of Suárez; and Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo who was created 1st Marquess of la Ría de Ribadeo. All successive politicians remain active within politics.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The Spanish satirical magazine "El Jueves" was fined for violation of Spain's "lèse majesté" laws after publishing an issue with a caricature of the Prince and Princess of Asturias engaging in sexual intercourse on their cover in 2007. In 2008, 400 Catalonia separatists burned images of the king and queen in Madrid, and in 2009 two Galician separatists were fined for burning effigies of the king.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: According to Article 57 the Crown of Spain is inherited by the successors of King Juan Carlos I de Borbón through "male preference primogeniture". While drafting the new constitution, lawyer and liberal congressman Joaquín Satrústegui (1909–1992) insisted that the phrase "the legitimate heir of the historic dynasty" be included in the text to underscore that the monarchy was an historic institution predating the constitution or the prior regime.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Male-preference cognatic primogeniture has been practiced in Spain since the 11th century in the various Visigothic successor states and codified in the "Siete Partidas", with women able to inherit in certain circumstances. However, with the succession of Philip V in 1700, the first of the Spanish Bourbons, women were barred from succession until Ferdinand VII reintroduced the right and designated his elder daughter Isabella as his heir presumptive by 1833.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Additionally, the king appoints the State Public Prosecutor on the advice of the government, according to Article 124. The king may grant clemency in accordance with the law, however the king may not authorize a general pardon of government ministers who have been found criminally liable or guilty of treason by the Criminal Article of the Supreme Court, according to Articles 62 and 102.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Constitutionally the king accredits Spanish ambassadors to international states and governments, and foreign representatives to Spain are accredited before him. However, the government of the day manages diplomatic policy on behalf of the monarch. Additionally, it remains the responsibility for the monarch to express the state's assent to international commitments and treaties, which must be in conformity with the Spanish constitution.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The role of the Crown in the Spanish Armed Forces is rooted in tradition and patriotism as demonstrated in the symbols and the history of the military. The role of the Spanish monarch in the chain of command of the forces is established by the constitution of 1978, and other statutory law – Acts of Parliament, Royal Decrees etc.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: However, Title IV of the constitution vests the administration of the armed forces and formulation of national defense policy with the President of the Government, a civil officer who is nominated and appointed by the king, confirmed by the elected Congress of Deputies and, as such, is representative of the Spanish people.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: "I have had to stand snubs and contempt, incomprehension and annoyances that you, thank God, have not known", reminded the king to his son in one letter. The private letters from father to son remain within the royal household, but were copied and released into the public domain without any approval or foreknowledge, according to a Zarzuela palace official who confirmed the letter's authenticity.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Opinion polls released in April 2012 revealed that the Spanish public generally forgave the king over the recent scandals, but wished for greater transparency of the monarchy.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: However, criticism grew increasingly strident towards many senior members of the royal family as investigations continued to dominate headlines throughout 2013. In an act to preserve Spanish constitutional stability Juan Carlos I abdicated the throne on 19 June 2014, in favor of his popular son, now reigning as King Felipe VI.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: In recent years, however, public opinion on the form of organization of the Head of State has become increasingly divided, with polls confirming a technical tie between monarchists and republicans since 2018.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: Despite being hailed for his role in Spain's transition to democracy, King Juan Carlos I and the monarchy's reputation began to suffer after controversies surrounding his family arose, exacerbated by the public controversy centering on an elephant-hunting trip he undertook during a time of financial crisis in Spain. Since August 2020, Juan Carlos has lived in self-exile from Spain over allegedly improper ties to business deals in Saudi Arabia.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: During the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain, it became known on 2 March 2021 that the two sisters of King Felipe, the Infantas Cristina and Elena, had travelled to the United Arab Emirates in order to receive the vaccine and avoid the waiting of the Spanish protocol.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The king, queen, and Infanta Cristina are all members of the Bilderberg Group, an informal think-tank centered on United States and European relations, and other world issues.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Monarchy of Spain

Context: The Head of the Household, Secretary General, and Head of the Military Chamber are considered senior management staff and are compensated at the level of senior government administration officials. In 2004, the royal household employed 100 staff members.

Question: من هو اول ملك لأسبانيا ؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: Barbados' total land area is , and it has a coastline of length. Sometimes compared to a pear or leg of mutton for its physical shape. Along the north–south axis Barbados has a maximum length of , and east–west maximum breadth of .

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: The south-eastern part of the island has undergone small scale oil and gas capturing from possibly as early as 1919 when the British Union Oil Company acquired over 75% of the drilling rights in Barbados. Similar to Trinidad and Tobago to the southwest, the territorial Atlantic Ocean surrounding Barbados has been found to contain fossil fuels, however ongoing research is being conducted to give estimates of actual quantities.

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: Barbados is in the Eastern Caribbean Time Zone. Barbados no longer observes Daylight Saving Time. It was last used between Sunday, 20 April 1980 at 2:00 AM and Thursday, 25 September 1980 at 2:00 AM. On 25 September of that year the clock was shifted from -3:00 to -4:00, where it has remained since.

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: Barbados is Caribbean: an island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: * United States comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC, about the size of San Antonio, Texas, or half the size of New York City

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: Infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides; periodic flooding, from storm surge and intense rainfall events; and occasional droughts, causing fires.

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: Pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: * Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: Guyana's and Barbados's offshore territorial claims overlap, and are also disputed with Venezuela, which itself claims ownership of the waters overlapping the first two. In 2008 Barbados sought to place the oil blocks on open market for oil exploration tender but faced a challenge by Venezuela's government in Caracas.

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Geography of Barbados

Context: In 2006 a local Barbadian group purporting to represent descendants of indigenous Caribbean peoples announced its claim to Culpepper Island, a small rocky outcrop on the eastern shore of Barbados.

Question: ما إحداثيات دولة باربادوس؟


Avian influenza

Context: In the 1990s, the world's poultry population grew 76% in developing countries and 23% in developed countries, contributing to the increased prevalence of avian influenza. Before the 1990s, HPAI caused high mortality in poultry, but infections were sporadic and contained. Outbreaks have become more common due to the high density and frequent movement of flocks from intensive poultry production.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Influenza A/H5N1 was first isolated from a goose in China in 1996. Human infections were first reported in 1997 in Hong Kong. Since 2003, more than 700 human cases of Asian HPAI H5N1 have been reported to the WHO, primarily from 15 countries in Asia, Africa, the Pacific, Europe, and the Middle East, though over 60 countries have been affected.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: The evolution of avian influenza virus has been influenced by genetic variation in the virus population due to genome segment reassortment and mutation. Also homologous recombination occurs in viral genes, suggesting that genetic variation generated by homologous recombination has also played a role in driving the evolution of the virus and potentially has affected virulence and host range.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: There are many subtypes of avian influenza viruses, but only some strains of five subtypes have been known to infect humans: H5N1, H7N3, H7N7, H7N9, and H9N2. At least one person, an elderly woman in Jiangxi Province, China, died of pneumonia in December 2013 from the H10N8 strain. She was the first human fatality confirmed to be caused by that strain.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Although it is possible for humans to contract the avian influenza virus from birds, human-to-human contact is much more difficult without prolonged contact. However, public health officials are concerned that strains of avian flu may mutate to become easily transmissible between humans. Some strains of avian influenza are present in the intestinal tract of large numbers of shore birds and water birds, but these strains rarely cause human infection.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Five manmade ecosystems have contributed to modern avian influenza virus ecology: integrated indoor commercial poultry, range-raised commercial poultry, live poultry markets, backyard and hobby flocks, and bird collection and trading systems including cockfighting. Indoor commercial poultry has had the largest impact on the spread of HPAI, with the increase in HPAI outbreaks largely the result of increased commercial production since the 1990s.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: The highly pathogenic influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is an emerging avian influenza virus that is causing global concern as a potential pandemic threat. It is often referred to simply as "bird flu" or "avian influenza", even though it is only one of many subtypes.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: H5N1 has killed millions of poultry in a growing number of countries throughout Asia, Europe, and Africa. Health experts are concerned that the coexistence of human flu viruses and avian flu viruses (especially H5N1) will provide an opportunity for genetic material to be exchanged between species-specific viruses, possibly creating a new virulent influenza strain that is easily transmissible and lethal to humans. The mortality rate for humans with H5N1 is 60%.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: The first known transmission of H5N1 to a human occurred in Hong Kong in 1997, when there was an outbreak of 18 human cases; 6 deaths were confirmed. None of the infected people worked with poultry. After culling all of the poultry in the area, no more cases were diagnosed. In 2006, the first human-to-human transmission likely occurred when 7 members of a family in Sumatra became infected after contact with a family member who had worked with infected poultry.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Although millions of birds have become infected with the virus since its discovery, 359 people have died from H5N1 in twelve countries according to World Health Organization reports as of August 10, 2012.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: The H5N1 outbreak in Thailand caused massive economic losses, especially among poultry workers. Infected birds were culled and slaughtered. The public lost confidence with the poultry products, thus decreasing the consumption of chicken products. This also elicited a ban from importing countries. There were, however, factors which aggravated the spread of the virus, including bird migration, cool temperature (increases virus survival) and several festivals at that time.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: A mutation in the virus was discovered in two Guangdong patients in February 2017 which rendered it more deadly to chickens, inasmuch as it could infect every organ; the risk to humans was not increased, however.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: A study published in 2012 in Science Magazine reported on research findings that allowed for the airborne transmission of H5N1 in laboratory ferrets. The study identified the 5 mutations necessary for the virus to become airborne and immediately sparked controversy over the ethical implications of making such potentially dangerous information available to the general public. The study was allowed to remain available in its entirety, though it remains a controversial topic within the scientific community.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Research regarding background and transmission is ongoing. It has been established that many of the human cases of H7N9 appear to have a link to live bird markets. As of July 2013, there had been no evidence of sustained human-to-human transmission, however a study group headed by one of the world's leading experts on avian flu reported that several instances of human-to-human infection were suspected.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: It has been reported that H7N9 virus does not kill poultry, which will make surveillance much more difficult. Researchers have commented on the unusual prevalence of older males among H7N9-infected patients. While several environmental, behavioral, and biological explanations for this pattern have been proposed, as yet, the reason is unknown. Currently no vaccine exists, but the use of influenza antiviral drugs known as neuraminidase inhibitors in cases of early infection may be effective.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: The number of cases detected after April fell abruptly. The decrease in the number of new human H7N9 cases may have resulted from containment measures taken by Chinese authorities, including closing live bird markets, or from a change in seasons, or possibly a combination of both factors. Studies indicate that avian influenza viruses have a seasonal pattern, thus it is thought that infections may pick up again when the weather turns cooler in China.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: In the four years from early 2013 to early 2017, 916 lab-confirmed human cases of H7N9 were reported to the WHO.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: On 9 January 2017, the National Health and Family Planning Commission of China reported to the WHO 106 cases which occurred from late November through December. 29, 2016. The cases are reported from Jiangsu (52), Zhejiang (21), Anhui (14), Guangdong (14), Shanghai (2), Fujian (2) and Hunan (1). 80 of these 106 persons have visited live poultry markets. Of these cases, there have been 35 deaths. In two of the 106 cases, human-to-human transmission could not be ruled out.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Affected prefectures in Jiangsu province closed live poultry markets in late December 2016, whereas Zhejiang, Guangdong and Anhui provinces went the route of strengthening live poultry market regulations. Travellers to affected regions are recommended to avoid poultry farms, live bird markets, and surfaces which appear to be contaminated with poultry feces. Similar sudden increases in the number of human cases of H7N9 have occurred in previous years during December and January.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Several domestic species have been infected with and shown symptoms of H5N1 viral infection, including cats, dogs, ferrets, pigs, and birds.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Attempts are made in the United States to minimize the presence of HPAI in poultry through routine surveillance of poultry flocks in commercial poultry operations. Detection of a HPAI virus may result in immediate culling of the flock. Less pathogenic viruses are controlled by vaccination, which is done primarily in turkey flocks (ATCvet codes: for the inactivated fowl vaccine, for the inactivated turkey combination vaccine).

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Avian influenza in cats can show a variety of symptoms and usually lead to death. Cats are able to get infected by either consuming an infected bird or by contracting the virus from another infected cat.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Proper reporting of an isolated case can help to prevent spread. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US) recommendation is that if a worker develops symptoms within 10 days of working with infected poultry or potentially contaminated materials, they should seek care and notify their employer, who should notify public health officials.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Vaccines for poultry have been formulated against several of the avian H5N1 influenza varieties. Control measures for HPAI encourage mass vaccinations of poultry though The World Health Organization has compiled a list of known clinical trials of pandemic influenza prototype vaccines, including those against H5N1. In some countries still at high risk for HPAI spread, there is compulsory strategic vaccination though vaccine supply shortages remain a problem.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: During the initial response to H5N1, a one size fits all recommendation was used for all poultry production systems, though measures for intensively raised birds were not necessarily appropriate for extensively raised birds. When looking at village-raised poultry, it was first assumed that the household was the unit and that flocks did not make contact with other flocks, though more effective measures came into use when the epidemiological unit was the village.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: Since traditional production systems require little investment and serve as a safety net for lower income households, prevention and treatment can be seen as less cost-effective than letting poultry die. Effective control not only requires prior agreements to be made with relevant government agencies, such as seen with Indonesia, they must also not unduly threaten food security.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Avian influenza

Context: *Current status of HPAI worldwide at OIE. WAHID Interface – OIE World Animal Health Information Database

Question: متى تم اكتشاف مرض انفلونزا الطيور لأول مرة؟


Intelligence quotient

Context: An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence. The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term "Intelligenzquotient", his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The many different kinds of IQ tests include a wide variety of item content. Some test items are visual, while many are verbal. Test items vary from being based on abstract-reasoning problems to concentrating on arithmetic, vocabulary, or general knowledge.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: L.L. Thurstone argued for a model of intelligence that included seven unrelated factors (verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, reasoning, and induction). While not widely used, Thurstone's model influenced later theories.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Eugenics, a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior and promoting those judged to be superior, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States during the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until US involvement in World War II.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Goddard was a eugenicist. In 1908, he published his own version, "The Binet and Simon Test of Intellectual Capacity", and cordially promoted the test. He quickly extended the use of the scale to the public schools (1913), to immigration (Ellis Island, 1914) and to a court of law (1914).

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: John B. Carroll (1993), after a comprehensive reanalysis of earlier data, proposed the three stratum theory, which is a hierarchical model with three levels. The bottom stratum consists of narrow abilities that are highly specialized (e.g., induction, spelling ability). The second stratum consists of broad abilities. Carroll identified eight second-stratum abilities. Carroll accepted Spearman's concept of general intelligence, for the most part, as a representation of the uppermost, third stratum.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: In 1999, a merging of the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and Horn with Carroll's Three-Stratum theory has led to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory (CHC Theory), with "g" as the top of the hierarchy, ten broad abilities below, and further subdivided into seventy narrow abilities on the third stratum. CHC Theory has greatly influenced many of the current broad IQ tests.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect (1967) model of intelligence used three dimensions, which, when combined, yielded a total of 120 types of intelligence. It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s, but faded owing to both practical problems and theoretical criticisms.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: IQ scales are ordinally scaled. The raw score of the norming sample is usually (rank order) transformed to a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15. While one standard deviation is 15 points, and two SDs are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that mental ability is linearly related to IQ, such that IQ 50 would mean half the cognitive ability of IQ 100. In particular, IQ points are not percentage points.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Outside influences such as low motivation or high anxiety can occasionally lower a person's IQ test score. For individuals with very low scores, the 95% confidence interval may be greater than 40 points, potentially complicating the accuracy of diagnoses of intellectual disability. By the same token, high IQ scores are also significantly less reliable than those near to the population median. Reports of IQ scores much higher than 160 are considered dubious.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Despite these objections, clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Research has revealed that the Flynn effect has slowed or reversed course in several Western countries beginning in the late 20th century. The phenomenon has been termed the "negative Flynn effect". A study of Norwegian military conscripts' test records found that IQ scores have been falling for generations born after the year 1975, and that the underlying nature of both initial increasing and subsequent falling trends appears to be environmental rather than genetic.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: IQ can change to some degree over the course of childhood. In one longitudinal study, the mean IQ scores of tests at ages 17 and 18 were correlated at r=0.86 with the mean scores of tests at ages five, six, and seven and at r=0.96 with the mean scores of tests at ages 11, 12, and 13.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The exact peak age of fluid intelligence or crystallized intelligence remains elusive. Cross-sectional studies usually show that especially fluid intelligence peaks at a relatively young age (often in the early adulthood) while longitudinal data mostly show that intelligence is stable until mid-adulthood or later. Subsequently, intelligence seems to decline slowly.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ. Their relative importance has been the subject of much research and debate.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The general figure for the heritability of IQ, according to an American Psychological Association report, is 0.45 for children, and rises to around 0.75 for late adolescents and adults. Heritability measures for "g" factor in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.9 in adulthood. One proposed explanation is that people with different genes tend to reinforce the effects of those genes, for example by seeking out different environments.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Family members have aspects of environments in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25–0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence, it is quite low (zero in some studies). The effect for several other psychological traits is similar. These studies have not looked at the effects of extreme environments, such as in abusive families.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of nonshared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment because of different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: A very large proportion of the over 17,000 human genes are thought to have an effect on the development and functionality of the brain. While a number of individual genes have been reported to be associated with IQ, none have a strong effect. Deary and colleagues (2009) reported that no finding of a strong single gene effect on IQ has been replicated. Recent findings of gene associations with normally varying intellectual differences in adults and children continue to show weak effects for any one gene.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: David Rowe reported an interaction of genetic effects with socioeconomic status, such that the heritability was high in high-SES families, but much lower in low-SES families. In the US, this has been replicated in infants, children, adolescents, and adults. Outside the US, studies show no link between heritability and SES. Some effects may even reverse sign outside the US.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Musical training in childhood correlates with higher than average IQ. However, a study of 10,500 twins found no effects on IQ, suggesting that the correlation was caused by genetic confounders. A meta-analysis concluded that "Music training does not reliably enhance children and young adolescents' cognitive or academic skills, and that previous positive findings were probably due to confounding variables."

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: It is popularly thought that listening to classical music raises IQ. However, multiple attempted replications (e.g.) have shown that this is at best a short-term effect (lasting no longer than 10 to 15 minutes), and is not related to IQ-increase.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier is less effective. Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, or sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Developed nations have implemented several health policies regarding nutrients and toxins known to influence cognitive function. These include laws requiring fortification of certain food products and laws establishing safe levels of pollutants (e.g. lead, mercury, and organochlorides). Improvements in nutrition, and in public policy in general, have been implicated in worldwide IQ increases.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Cognitive epidemiology is a field of research that examines the associations between intelligence test scores and health. Researchers in the field argue that intelligence measured at an early age is an important predictor of later health and mortality differences.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" states that wherever it has been studied, children with high scores on tests of intelligence tend to learn more of what is taught in school than their lower-scoring peers. The correlation between IQ scores and grades is about .50. This means that the explained variance is 25%. Achieving good grades depends on many factors other than IQ, such as "persistence, interest in school, and willingness to study" (p. 81).

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: It has been found that the correlation of IQ scores with school performance depends on the IQ measurement used. For undergraduate students, the Verbal IQ as measured by WAIS-R has been found to correlate significantly (0.53) with the grade point average (GPA) of the last 60 hours (credits). In contrast, Performance IQ correlation with the same GPA was only 0.22 in the same study.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Some measures of educational aptitude correlate highly with IQ tests for instance, reported a correlation of 0.82 between "g" (general intelligence factor) and SAT scores; another research found a correlation of 0.81 between "g" and GCSE scores, with the explained variance ranging "from 58.6% in Mathematics and 48% in English to 18.1% in Art and Design".

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The US military has minimum enlistment standards at about the IQ 85 level. There have been two experiments with lowering this to 80 but in both cases these men could not master soldiering well enough to justify their costs.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: It has been suggested that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value" and it "is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much". However, large-scale longitudinal studies indicate an increase in IQ translates into an increase in performance at all levels of IQ: i.e. ability and job performance are monotonically linked at all IQ levels.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: A 2002 study further examined the impact of non-IQ factors on income and concluded that an individual's location, inherited wealth, race, and schooling are more important as factors in determining income than IQ.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: In his book "" (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that, regardless of race, people with IQs between 70 and 90 have higher crime rates than people with IQs below or above this range, with the peak range being between 80 and 90.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The 2009 "Handbook of Crime Correlates" stated that reviews have found that around eight IQ points, or 0.5 SD, separate criminals from the general population, especially for persistent serious offenders. It has been suggested that this simply reflects that "only dumb ones get caught" but there is similarly a negative relation between IQ and self-reported offending. That children with conduct disorder have lower IQ than their peers "strongly argues" for the theory.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Multiple studies conducted in Scotland have found that higher IQs in early life are associated with lower mortality and morbidity rates later in life.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: There is considerable variation within and overlap among these categories. People with high IQs are found at all levels of education and occupational categories. The biggest difference occurs for low IQs with only an occasional college graduate or professional scoring below 90.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between ethnic and racial groups. While there is little scholarly debate about the "existence" of some of these differences, current scientific consensus tells us that there is no evidence for a genetic component behind them. The existence of differences in IQ between the sexes remains controversial, and largely depends on which tests are performed.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: Some research indicates that male advantages on some cognitive tests are minimized when controlling for socioeconomic factors. Other research has concluded that there is slightly larger variability in male scores in certain areas compared to female scores, which results in slightly more males than females in the top and bottom of the IQ distribution.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The existence of differences between male and female performance on math-related tests is contested, and a meta-analysis focusing on gender differences in math performance found nearly identical performance for boys and girls. Currently, most IQ tests, including popular batteries such as the WAIS and the WISC-R, are constructed so that there are no overall score differences between females and males.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: A 1996 task force investigation on intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there were significant variations in IQ across races. However, a systematic analysis by William Dickens and James Flynn (2006) showed the gap between black and white Americans to have closed dramatically during the period between 1972 and 2002, suggesting that, in their words, the "constancy of the Black-White IQ gap is a myth."

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: The effects of stereotype threat have been proposed as an explanation for differences in IQ test performance between racial groups, as have issues related to cultural difference and access to education.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: A diagnosis of intellectual disability is in part based on the results of IQ testing. Borderline intellectual functioning is the categorization of individuals of below-average cognitive ability (an IQ of 71–85), although not as low as those with an intellectual disability (70 or below).

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: In the United Kingdom, the eleven plus exam which incorporated an intelligence test has been used from 1945 to decide, at eleven years of age, which type of school a child should go to. They have been much less used since the widespread introduction of comprehensive schools.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: IQ classification is the practice used by IQ test publishers for designating IQ score ranges into various categories with labels such as "superior" or "average". IQ classification was preceded historically by attempts to classify human beings by general ability based on other forms of behavioral observation. Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based on IQ tests.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Intelligence quotient

Context: There are social organizations, some international, which limit membership to people who have scores as high as or higher than the 98th percentile (2 standard deviations above the mean) on some IQ test or equivalent. Mensa International is perhaps the best known of these. The largest 99.9th percentile (3 standard deviations above the mean) society is the Triple Nine Society.

Question: ؟ "IQ"متى كان أول  إختبار تقييم الذكاء


Oman

Context: Sultan Qaboos bin Said was the hereditary leader of the country which is an absolute monarchy, from 1970 until his death on 10 January 2020. According to the rules for succession to the sultanic throne of Oman, the son of the Sultan is usually announced as the new monarch. Sultan Qaboos bin Said did not have any children. The sultanic family announced that Qaboos bin Said had named his cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, as his successor in a letter, and the family confirmed him as the new Sultan of Oman.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman. Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. Sites such as Bat show professional wheel-turned pottery, excellent hand-made stone vessels, a metals industry and monumental architecture

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: . The Early (1300‒300 BC) and Late Iron Ages (100 BC‒300 AD) show more differences than similarities to each other. Thereafter, until the coming of Ibadi Islam, little or nothing is known.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: There is considerable agreement in sources that frankincense was used by traders in 1500 BC. The Land of Frankincense, a UNESCO World Heritage site, dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony to South Arabian civilizations.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: During the 8th century BC, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan, ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub (Yaman) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman. It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as "Magan" and in the Akkadian language "Makan", a name which links Oman's ancient copper resources. Mazoon, a Persian name used to refer to Oman's region, which was part of the Sasanian Empire.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In the 7th century AD, Omanis came in contact with and accepted Islam. The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma). Amer was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: However, in 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in Muscat, during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Later in the 17th century using is bases in Oman, Portugal took on the biggest battle ever taken in the Persian Gulf (Battle off Hormuz (1625)). The Portuguese force fought against a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company support by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In 1955, the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its Balochistan province, while Gwadar remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US$3 million. Gwadar then became a tehsil in the Makran district.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: After deposing his father in 1970, Sultan Qaboos opened up the country, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and welfare. Slavery, once a cornerstone of the country's trade and development, was outlawed in 1970.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Qaboos died on 10 January 2020, and the government declared 40 days of national mourning. He was buried the next day.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: On 11 January 2020, Qaboos was succeeded by his first cousin Sultan Haitham bin Tariq. Sultan Qaboos did not have any children.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The peninsula of Musandam (Musandem) exclave, which is strategically located on the Strait of Hormuz, is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates. The series of small towns known collectively as Dibba are the gateway to the Musandam peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam by sea, with boats available for hire at Khasab for trips into the Musandam peninsula by sea.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: On 26 June 2018 the city of Qurayyat set the record for highest minimum temperature in a 24-hour period, 42.6 °C (108.7 °F).

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In terms of climate action, major challenges remain to be solved, per the United Nations Sustainable Development 2019 index. The emissions from energy (t/capita) and emissions embodied in fossil fuel exports (kg per capita) rates are very high, while imported emissions (t/capita) and people affected by climate-related disasters (per 100,000 people) rates are low.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In recent years, Oman has become one of the newer hot spots for whale watching, highlighting the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale, the most isolated and only non-migratory population in the world, sperm whales and pygmy blue whales.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman is a unitary state and an absolute monarchy, in which all legislative, executive and judiciary power ultimately rests in the hands of the hereditary Sultan. Consequently, Freedom House has routinely rated the country "Not Free".

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The sultan is the head of state and directly controls the foreign affairs and defence portfolios. He has absolute power and issues laws by decree.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman is an absolute monarchy, with the Sultan's word having the force of law. The judiciary branch is subordinate to the Sultan. According to Oman's constitution, Sharia law is one of the sources of legislation. Sharia court departments within the civil court system are responsible for family-law matters, such as divorce and inheritance.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The administration of justice is highly personalized, with limited due process protections, especially in political and security-related cases. The Basic Statute of the State is supposedly the cornerstone of the Omani legal system and it operates as a constitution for the country. The Basic Statute was issued in 1996 and thus far has only been amended twice: in 2011, in response to protests; and in 2021, to create the position of Crown Prince of Oman.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Though Oman's legal code theoretically protects civil liberties and personal freedoms, both are regularly ignored by the regime. Women and children face legal discrimination in many areas. Women are excluded from certain state benefits, such as housing loans, and are refused equal rights under the personal status law. Women also experience restrictions on their self-determination in respect to health and reproductive rights.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman allowed the British Royal Navy and Indian Navy access to the port facilities of Al Duqm Port & Drydock.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: SIPRI's estimation of Oman's military and security expenditure as a percentage of GDP in 2020 was 11 percent, making it the world's highest rate in that year, higher than Saudi Arabia (8.4 percent). Oman's on-average military spending as a percentage of GDP between 2016 and 2018 was around 10 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 2.2 percent.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman's military manpower totalled 44,100 in 2006, including 25,000 men in the army, 4,200 sailors in the navy, and an air force with 4,100 personnel. The Royal Household maintained 5,000 Guards, 1,000 in Special Forces, 150 sailors in the Royal Yacht fleet, and 250 pilots and ground personnel in the Royal Flight squadrons. Oman also maintains a modestly sized paramilitary force of 4,400 men.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The Royal Army of Oman had 25,000 active personnel in 2006, plus a small contingent of Royal Household troops. Despite a comparative large military spending, it has been relatively slow to modernise its forces. Oman has a relatively limited number of tanks, including 6 M60A1, 73 M60A3 and 38 Challenger 2 main battle tanks, as well as 37 aging Scorpion light tanks.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The Royal Air Force of Oman has approximately 4,100 men, with 36 combat aircraft and no armed helicopters. Combat aircraft include 20 aging Jaguars, 12 Hawk Mk 203s, 4 Hawk Mk 103s and 12 PC-9 turboprop trainers with a limited combat capability. It has one squadron of 12 F-16C/D aircraft. Oman also has 4 A202-18 Bravos and 8 MFI-17B Mushshaqs.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Merely mentioning the existence of such restrictions can land Omanis in trouble. In 2009, a web publisher was fined and given a suspended jail sentence for revealing that a supposedly live TV programme was actually pre-recorded to eliminate any criticisms of the government.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In January 2014, Omani intelligence agents arrested a Bahraini actor and handed him over to the Bahraini authorities on the same day of his arrest. The actor has been subjected to a forced disappearance. His whereabouts and condition remain unknown.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The Sultanate is administratively divided into eleven governorates. Governorates are, in turn, divided into 60 wilayats.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Since a slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, namely tourism and infrastructure. Oman had a 2020 Vision to diversify the economy established in 1995, which targeted a decrease in oil's share to less than 10 percent of GDP by 2020, but it was rendered obsolete in 2011. Oman then established 2040 Vision.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In terms of foreign direct investment (FDI), total investments in 2017 exceeded US$24billion. The highest share of FDI went to the oil and gas sector, which represented around US$13billion (54.2 percent), followed by financial intermediation, which represented US$3.66billion (15.3 percent). FDI is dominated by the United Kingdom with an estimated value of US$11.56billion (48 percent), followed by the UAE USD 2.6billion (10.8 percent), followed by Kuwait USD 1.1billion (4.6 percent).

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman's proved reserves of petroleum total about 5.5 billion barrels, 25th largest in the world. Oil is extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), with proven oil reserves holding approximately steady, although oil production has been declining. The Ministry of Oil and Gas is responsible for all oil and gas infrastructure and projects in Oman. Following the 1970s energy crisis, Oman doubled their oil output between 1979 and 1985.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In 2018, oil and gas represented 71 percent of the government's revenues. In 2016, oil and gas share of the government's revenue represented 72 percent. The government's reliance on oil and gas as a source of income dropped by 1 percent from 2016 to 2018. Oil and gas sector represented 30.1 percent of the nominal GDP in 2017.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Between 2000 and 2007, production fell by more than 26%, from 972,000 to 714,800 barrels per day. Production has recovered to 816,000 barrels in 2009, and 930,000 barrels per day in 2012. Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic metres, ranking 28th in the world, and production in 2008 was about 24 billion cubic metres per year.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In September 2019, Oman was confirmed to become the first Middle Eastern country to host the International Gas Union Research Conference (IGRC 2020). This 16th iteration of the event will be held between 24 and 26 February 2020, in collaboration with Oman LNG, under the auspices of the Ministry of Oil and Gas.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Tourism in Oman has grown considerably recently, and it is expected to be one of the largest industries in the country. The World Travel & Tourism Council stated that Oman is the fastest growing tourism destination in the Middle East.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman has one of the most diverse environments in the Middle East with various tourist attractions and is particularly well known for adventure and cultural tourism. Muscat, the capital of Oman, was named the second best city to visit in the world in 2012 by the travel guide publisher Lonely Planet. Muscat also was chosen as the Capital of Arab Tourism of 2012.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In November 2019, Oman made the rule of visa on arrival an exception and introduced the concept of e-visa for tourists from all nationalities. Under the new laws, visitors were required to apply for the visa in advance by visiting Oman's online government portal.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: By the end of 2021, Oman's population exceeded 4.5 million The total fertility rate in 2020 was estimated to be 2.8 children born per woman; this rate has been rapidly decreasing in recent years. About half of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital. Omani people are predominantly of Arab, Baluchi and African origins.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Even though the Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, statistics from the US's Central Intelligence Agency state that adherents of Islam are in the majority at 85.9%, while 6.4% are Christians, 5.7% Hindus , 0.8% Buddhists, and fewer than 0.1% are Jews; members of other religious affiliations comprise 1% and the unaffiliated 0.2%.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Most Omanis are Muslims; these predominantly follow the Ibadi school of Islam, followed by the Twelver school of Shia Islam, and the Shafi`i school of Sunni Islam.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: There are also communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians. There are also small Sikh and Jewish communities.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman scored high as of 2019 on the percentage of students who complete lower secondary school and on the literacy rate between the age of 15 and 24, 99.7 percent and 98.7 percent, respectively. However, Oman's net primary school enrollment rate in 2019, which is 94.1 percent, is rated as "challenges remain" by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG) standard. Oman's overall evaluation in quality of education, according to UNSDG, is 94.8 ("challenges remain") as of 2019.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 86.9%. Before 1970, only three formal schools existed in the entire country, with fewer than 1,000 students. Since Sultan Qaboos' ascension to power in 1970, the government has given high priority to education to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital factor in the country's economic and social progress. Today, there are over 1,000 state schools and about 650,000 students.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman's first university, Sultan Qaboos University, opened in 1986. The University of Nizwa is one of the fastest growing universities in Oman. Other post-secondary institutions in Oman include the Higher College of Technology and its six branches, six colleges of applied sciences (including a teachers' training college), a college of banking and financial studies, an institute of Sharia sciences, and several nursing institutes. Some 200 scholarships are awarded each year for study abroad.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Sultan Qaboos University (1678th worldwide), the Dhofar University (6011th) and the University of Nizwa (6093rd).

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Since 2003, Oman's undernourished share of the population has dropped from 11.7 percent to 5.4 percent in 2016, but the rate remains high (double) the level of high-income economies (2.7 percent) in 2016. The UNSDG targets zero hunger by 2030. Oman's coverage of essential health services in 2015 was 77 percent, which is relatively higher than the world's average of approximately 54 percent during the same year, but lower than high-income economies' level (83 percent) in 2015.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Since 1995, the percentage of Omani children who receive key vaccines has consistently been very high (above 99 percent). As for road incident death rates, Oman's rate has been decreasing since 1990, from 98.9 per 100,000 individuals to 47.1 per 100,000 in 2017, however, the rate remains significantly above average, which was 15.8 per 100,000 in 2017. Oman's health spending to GDP between 2015 and 2016 averaged 4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period averaged 10 percent.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: As for mortality due to air pollution (household and ambient air pollution), Oman's rate was 53.9 per 100,000 population as of 2016.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked Oman as the least polluted country in the Arab world, with a score of 37.7 in the pollution index. The country ranked 112th in Asia among the list of highest polluted countries.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman has a long tradition of shipbuilding, as maritime travel played a major role in the Omanis' ability to stay in contact with the civilisations of the ancient world. Sur was one of the most famous shipbuilding cities of the Indian Ocean. The Al Ghanja ship takes one whole year to build. Other types of Omani ship include As Sunbouq and Al Badan.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Some men carry the "assa", a stick, which can have practical uses or is simply used as an accessory during formal events. Omani men, on the whole, wear sandals on their feet.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The "khanjar" (dagger) forms part of the national dress and men wear the khanjar on all formal public occasions and festivals. It is traditionally worn at the waist. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate silver or gold-decorated pieces. It is a symbol of a man's origin, his manhood and courage. A depiction of a khanjar appears on the national flag.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: women reserve wearing their traditional dress for special occasions, and instead wear a loose black cloak called an "abaya" over their personal choice of clothing, whilst in some regions, particularly amongst the Bedouin, the "burqa" is still worn. Women wear "hijab", and though some women cover their faces and hands, most do not. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in public office.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Music of Oman is extremely diverse due to Oman's imperial legacy. There are over 130 different forms of traditional Omani songs and dances. The Oman Centre for Traditional Music was established in 1984 to preserve them. In 1985, Sultan Qaboos founded the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra. Instead of engaging foreign musicians, he decided to establish an orchestra made up of Omanis. On 1 July 1987 at the Al Bustan Palace Hotel's Oman Auditorium the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra gave its inaugural concert.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The government has continuously held a monopoly on television in Oman. Oman TV is the only state-owned national television channel broadcaster in Oman. It began broadcasting for the first time from Muscat on 17 November 1974 and separately from Salalah on 25 November 1975. On 1 June 1979, the two stations at Muscat and Salalah linked by satellite to form a unified broadcasting service. Oman TV broadcasts four HD channels, including Oman TV General, Oman TV Sport, Oman TV Live and Oman TV Cultural.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Although private ownership of radio and television stations is permitted, Oman has only one privately owned television channel. Majan TV is the first private TV channel in Oman. It began broadcasting in January 2009. However, Majan TV's official channel website was last updated in early 2010. Moreover, the public has access to foreign broadcasts since the use of satellite receivers is allowed.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman Radio is the first and only state-owned radio channel. It began broadcasting on the 30th, July 1970. It operates both Arabic and English networks. Other private channels include Hala FM, Hi FM, Al-Wisal, Virgin Radio Oman FM and Merge. In early 2018, Muscat Media Group (MMG), trend-setting media group founded by late Essa bin Mohammed Al Zedjali, launched a new private radio stations in hopes of catering educative and entertaining programmes to the youth of the Sultanate.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman has nine main newspapers, five in Arabic and four in English. Instead of relying on sales or state subsidies, private newspapers depend on advertising revenues to sustain themselves.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Bait Muzna Gallery is the first art gallery in Oman. Established in 2000 by Sayyida Susan Al Said, Bait Muzna has served as a platform for emerging Omani artists to showcase their talent and place themselves on the wider art scene. In 2016, Bait Muzna opened a second space in Salalah to branch out and support art film and the digital art scene. The gallery has been primarily active as an art consultancy.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The Sultanate's flagship cultural institution, the National Museum of Oman, opened on 30 July 2016 with 14 permanent galleries. It showcases national heritage from the earliest human settlement in Oman two million years ago through to the present day. The museum takes a further step by presenting information on the material in Arabic Braille script for the visually impaired, the first museum to do this in the Gulf region.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The Omani Society for Fine Arts, established in 1993, offers educational programmes, workshops and artist grants for practitioners across varied disciplines. In 2016, the organisation opened its first exhibition on graphic design. It also hosted the "Paint for Peace" competition with 46 artists in honour of the country's 46th National Day, where Mazin al-Mamari won the top prize. The organisation has additional branches in Sohar, Buraimi and Salalah.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Omani cuisine is diverse and has been influenced by many cultures. Omanis usually eat their main daily meal at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. During Ramadan, dinner is served after the Taraweeh prayers, sometimes as late as 11 pm. However, these dinner timings differ according to each family; for instance, some families would choose to eat right after maghrib prayers and have dessert after taraweeh.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: In October 2004, the Omani government set up a Ministry of Sports Affairs to replace the General Organisation for Youth, Sports and Cultural Affairs. The 19th Arabian Gulf Cup took place in Muscat, from 4 to 17 January 2009 and was won by the Omani national football team. The 23rd Arabian Gulf Cup that took place in Kuwait, from 22 December 2017 until 5 January 2018 with Oman winning their second title, defeating the United Arab Emirates in the final on penalties following a goalless draw.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman's traditional sports are dhow racing, horse racing, camel racing, bull fighting and falconry. Association football, basketball, waterskiing and sandboarding are among the sports that have emerged quickly and gained popularity among the younger generation.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Ali Al-Habsi is an Omani professional association football player. , he plays in the Football League Championship as a goalkeeper for West Brom. The International Olympic Committee awarded the former GOYSCA its prestigious prize for Sporting excellence in recognition of its contributions to youth and sports and its efforts to promote the Olympic spirit and goals.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: The Oman Olympic Committee played a major part in organising the highly successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to the sports associations, clubs, and young participants. The football association took part, along with the handball, basketball, rugby union, field hockey, volleyball, athletics, swimming and tennis associations. In 2010 Muscat hosted the 2010 Asian Beach Games.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Oman

Context: Oman featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 AVC Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد الموانئ العمانية؟


Fahrenheit

Context: For much of the 20th century, the Fahrenheit scale was defined by two fixed points with a 180 °F separation: the temperature at which pure water freezes was defined as 32 °F and the boiling point of water was defined to be 212 °F, both at sea level and under standard atmospheric pressure. It is now formally defined using the Kelvin scale and hence ultimately by the Boltzmann constant, the Planck constant, and the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: Absolute zero is 0 K, −273.15 °C, or −459.67 °F. The Rankine temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R the same way that the Kelvin temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: For an exact conversion between degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius, and kelvins of "a specific temperature point", the following formulas can be applied. Here, is the value in degrees Fahrenheit, the value in degrees Celsius, and the value in kelvins:

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: There is also an exact conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales making use of the equality −40 °F = −40 °C. Again, is the value in degrees Fahrenheit, and the value in degrees Celsius:

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: When converting a "temperature interval" between °F and °C, only the ratio is used, without any constant (in this case, the interval has the same numeric value in kelvins as in degrees Celsius):

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: According to a German story, Fahrenheit actually chose the lowest air temperature measured in his hometown Danzig (Gdańsk, Poland) in winter 1708–09 as 0 °F, and only later had the need to be able to make this value reproducible using brine.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: In the present-day Fahrenheit scale, 0 °F no longer corresponds to the eutectic temperature of ammonium chloride brine as described above. Instead, that eutectic is at approximately 4 °F on the final Fahrenheit scale.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1960s. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Celsius scale replaced Fahrenheit in almost all of those countries—with the notable exception of the United States and in certain cases, the United Kingdom—typically during their general metrication process.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: Fahrenheit is used in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service), as well as the Cayman Islands and Liberia for everyday applications. For example, U.S. weather forecasts, food cooking, and freezing temperatures are typically given in degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists, including meteorologists, use degrees Celsius or kelvin in all countries.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: Early in the 20th century, Halsey and Dale suggested that reasons for resistance to use the centigrade (now Celsius) system in the U.S. included the larger size of each degree Celsius and the lower zero point in the Fahrenheit system; put another way, the Fahrenheit scale is more intuitive than Celsius for describing outdoor temperatures in temperate latitudes, with 100 °F being a hot summer day and 0 °F a cold winter day.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: Canada has passed legislation favoring the International System of Units, while also maintaining legal definitions for traditional Canadian imperial units. Canadian weather reports are conveyed using degrees Celsius with occasional reference to Fahrenheit especially for cross-border broadcasts. Fahrenheit is still used on virtually all Canadian ovens. Thermometers, both digital and analog, sold in Canada usually employ both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


Fahrenheit

Context: Unicode provides the Fahrenheit symbol at code point . However, this is a compatibility character encoded for roundtrip compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard explicitly discourages the use of this character: "The sequence + is preferred over , and those two sequences should be treated as identical for searching."

Question: ما درجة تجمّد الماء؟


History of capitalism

Context: The history of capitalism is diverse. The concept of capitalism has many debated roots, but fully fledged capitalism is generally thought by scholars to have emerged in Northwestern Europe, especially in Great Britain and the Netherlands. Over the following centuries, capital accumulated by a variety of methods, at a variety of scales, and became associated with much variation in the concentration of wealth and economic power. Capitalism gradually became the dominant economic system throughout the world.

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History of capitalism

Context: Much of the history of the past 500 years is concerned with the development of capitalism in its various forms.

Question: متى نشأة الرأسمالية ؟


History of capitalism

Context: The historiography of capitalism can be divided into two broad schools. One is associated with economic liberalism, with the 18th-century economist Adam Smith as a foundational figure. The other is associated with Marxism, drawing particular inspiration from the 19th-century economist Karl Marx.

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History of capitalism

Context: Liberals view capitalism as an expression of natural human behaviors that have been in evidence for millennia and the most beneficial way of promoting human well-being. They see capitalism as originating in trade and commerce, and freeing people to exercise their entrepreneurial natures.

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History of capitalism

Context: Marxists view capitalism as a unique mode of production involving the bourgeoise and proletariat that emerged as a result of the fall of feudalism and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. This rejects the notion that capitalism has existed for millennia and is a part of human nature.

Question: متى نشأة الرأسمالية ؟


History of capitalism

Context: Some other academic institutions, such as the Clemson Institute for the Study of Capitalism, reject the notion that race, gender, or sexuality have any significant relationship to capitalism at all and instead seek to show that laissez-faire capitalism, in particular, provides the best and most numerous economic opportunities for all people.

Question: متى نشأة الرأسمالية ؟


History of capitalism

Context: Other scholars argue that the better-off members of the European peasantry encouraged and participated actively in enclosure, seeking to end the perpetual poverty of subsistence farming. "We should be careful not to ascribe to [enclosure] developments that were the consequence of a much broader and more complex process of historical change." "[T]he impact of eighteenth and nineteenth century enclosure has been grossly exaggerated..."

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History of capitalism

Context: While trade has existed since early in human history, it was not capitalism. The earliest recorded activity of long-distance profit-seeking merchants can be traced to the Old Assyrian merchants active in Mesopotamia the 2nd millennium BCE. The Roman Empire developed more advanced forms of commerce, and similarly widespread networks existed in Islamic nations. However, capitalism took shape in Europe in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance.

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History of capitalism

Context: Modern capitalism only fully emerged in the early modern period between the 16th and 18th centuries, with the establishment of mercantilism or merchant capitalism. Early evidence for mercantilistic practices appears in early modern Venice, Genoa, and Pisa over the Mediterranean trade in bullion. The region of mercantilism's real birth, however, was the Atlantic Ocean.

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History of capitalism

Context: The Muscovy Company was the first major chartered joint stock English trading company. It was established in 1555 with a monopoly on trade between England and Muscovy. It was an offshoot of the earlier "Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands", founded in 1551 by Richard Chancellor, Sebastian Cabot and Sir Hugh Willoughby to locate the Northeast Passage to China to allow trade. This was the precursor to a type of business that would soon flourish in England, the Dutch Republic and elsewhere.

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History of capitalism

Context: Mercantilism declined in Great Britain in the mid-18th century, when a new group of economic theorists, led by Adam Smith, challenged fundamental mercantilist doctrines, such as that the world's wealth remained constant and that a state could only increase its wealth at the expense of another state. However, mercantilism continued in less developed economies, such as Prussia and Russia, with their much younger manufacturing bases.

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History of capitalism

Context: The end of the Napoleonic War and the subsequent rebound in trade led to an expansion in the bullion reserves held by the Bank of England, from a low of under 4 million pounds in 1821 to 14 million pounds by late 1824.

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History of capitalism

Context: The operation of banks also shifted. At the beginning of the century, banking was still an elite preoccupation of a handful of very wealthy families. Within a few decades, however, a new sort of banking had emerged, owned by anonymous stockholders, run by professional managers, and the recipient of the deposits of a growing body of small middle-class savers. Although this breed of banks was newly prominent, it was not new – the Quaker family Barclays had been banking in this way since 1690.

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History of capitalism

Context: In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens, in the famous theory of comparative advantage, argued that free trade would benefit the industrially weak as well as the strong. In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered the most counterintuitive in economics:

Question: متى نشأة الرأسمالية ؟


History of capitalism

Context: "When an inefficient producer sends the merchandise it produces best to a country able to produce it more efficiently, both countries benefit."

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History of capitalism

Context: By the mid 19th century, Britain was firmly wedded to the notion of free trade, and the first era of globalization began. In the 1840s, the Corn Laws and the Navigation Acts were repealed, ushering in a new age of free trade. In line with the teachings of the classical political economists, led by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, Britain embraced liberalism, encouraging competition and the development of a market economy.

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History of capitalism

Context: The global financial system was mainly tied to the gold standard during this period. The United Kingdom first formally adopted this standard in 1821. Soon to follow was Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany ("de jure") in 1873. New technologies, such as the telegraph, the transatlantic cable, the Radiotelephone, the steamship, and the railway allowed goods and information to move around the world at an unprecedented degree.

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History of capitalism

Context: Several major challenges to capitalism appeared in the early part of the 20th century. The Russian revolution in 1917 established the first Communist state in the world; a decade later, the Great Depression triggered increasing criticism of the existing capitalist system. One response to this crisis was a turn to fascism, an ideology that advocated state capitalism. Another response was to reject capitalism altogether in favour of communist or democratic socialist ideologies.

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History of capitalism

Context: The economic recovery of the world's leading capitalist economies in the period following the end of the Great Depression and the Second World War—a period of unusually rapid growth by historical standards—eased discussion of capitalism's eventual decline or demise. The state began to play an increasingly prominent role to moderate and regulate the capitalistic system throughout much of the world.

Question: متى نشأة الرأسمالية ؟


History of capitalism

Context: Keynesian economics became a widely accepted method of government regulation and countries such as the United Kingdom experimented with mixed economies in which the state owned and operated certain major industries.

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History of capitalism

Context: The state also expanded in the US; in 1929, total government expenditures amounted to less than one-tenth of GNP; from the 1970s they amounted to around one-third. Similar increases were seen in all industrialised capitalist economies, some of which, such as France, have reached even higher ratios of government expenditures to GNP than the United States.

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History of capitalism

Context: A broad array of new analytical tools in the social sciences were developed to explain the social and economic trends of the period, including the concepts of post-industrial society and the welfare state.

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History of capitalism

Context: By the beginning of the twenty-first century, mixed economies with capitalist elements had become the pervasive economic systems worldwide. The collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1991 significantly reduced the influence of Communism as an alternative economic system. Leftist movements continue to be influential in some parts of the world, most notably Latin-American Bolivarianism, with some having ties to more traditional anti-capitalist movements, such as Bolivarian Venezuela's ties to Cuba.

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History of capitalism

Context: In many emerging markets, the influence of banking and financial capital have come to increasingly shape national developmental strategies, leading some to argue we are in a new phase of financial capitalism.

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History of capitalism

Context: State intervention in global capital markets following the financial crisis of 2007–2010 was perceived by some as signalling a crisis for free-market capitalism. Serious turmoil in the banking system and financial markets due in part to the subprime mortgage crisis reached a critical stage during September 2008, characterised by severely contracted liquidity in the global credit markets posed an existential threat to investment banks and other institutions.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The Age of Enlightenment, or simply the Enlightenment, was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries with global influences and effects. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Immanuel Kant's essay "", where the phrase "Sapere aude" (Dare to know) can be found.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the Scientific Revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon and René Descartes. Some of the major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Denis Diderot, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, John Locke, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza, and Voltaire.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1791).

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In 1776, Adam Smith published "The Wealth of Nations", often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune drafts of "Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth" (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The "philosophes" argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the "philosophes" in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice – in other words, be a "philosopher-king."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the "Aufklärung" (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. Christian Wolff (1679–1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791).

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In remote Königsberg, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought – and indeed all of European philosophy – well into the 20th century.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats and the middle classes and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The Haitian Revolution began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows." Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by Toussaint L'Ouverture. Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in Guillaume Thomas Raynal's book "Histoire des deux Indes" and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black Spartacus.'"

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from Western and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as voodoo for the formation of revolutionary communities." The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The physician António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches was also an important Enlightenment figure, contributing to the "Encyclopédie" and being part of the Russian court.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The ideas of the Enlightenment also influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the Portuguese Empire, such as José de Azeredo Coutinho, José da Silva Lisboa, Cláudio Manoel da Costa, and Tomás de Antônio Gonzaga.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread across the Europe of the Enlightenment." Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China remarkably."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the Qing emperors Kangxi (1661–1722) and Qianlong (1736–1795); China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and meritocratic society—and instrumentalized for criticisms of absolutist rule in Europe."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: From 1641 to 1853, the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy called "kaikin". The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Robert Bellah found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of Confucian thinking, a 'functional analogue to the Protestant Ethic' that Max Weber singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer Tsuda Mamichi in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.'"

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of global interaction." In Japan in particular, the term "ri", which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of laissez-faire and the rationality of market exchange."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment” became potent throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address challenges of globalization.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "hermit kingdom", but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the Independence Club.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual Yu Kilchun who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea. The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In eighteenth-century India, Tipu Sultan was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French) Jacobin Club in Seringapatam, had planted a liberty tree, and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen,'" which means Citizen Tipu.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In parts of India, an important movement called the "Bengal Renaissance" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s. Rammohan Roy was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.'"

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before Napoleon's Egyptian campaign." Napoleon's expedition into Egypt further encouraged "social transformations that harked back to debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by referring to the authority of the Enlightenment."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: A major intellectual influence on Islamic modernism and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, Rifa al-Tahtawi “oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language."

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Ritchie Robertson portrays it as a grand intellectual and political program, offering a “science” of society modeled on the powerful physical laws of Newton. “Social science” was seen as the instrument of human improvement. It would expose truth and expand human happiness.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In the 1947 book "Dialectic of Enlightenment", Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno argued:

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The "philosophes" spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: The term "Republic of Letters" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal "Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres". Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of "Histoire de la République des Lettres en France", a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:

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Age of Enlightenment

Context: In France, the established men of letters ("gens de lettres") had fused with the elites ("les grands") of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.

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