High-speed rail

Context: Following the success of the Hamburg line, the steam-powered Henschel-Wegmann Train was developed and introduced in June 1936 for service from Berlin to Dresden, with a regular top speed of . Incidentally no train service since the cancelation of this express train in 1939 has traveled between the two cities in a faster time . In August 2019, the travel time between Dresden-Neustadt and Berlin-Südkreuz was 102 minutes. See Berlin–Dresden railway.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Further development allowed the usage of these "Fliegenden Züge" (flying trains) on a rail network across Germany.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The "Diesel-Schnelltriebwagen-Netz" (diesel high-speed-vehicle network) had been in the planning since 1934 but it never reached its envisaged size.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: On 26 May 1934, one year after Fliegender Hamburger introduction, the Burlington Railroad set an average speed record on long distance with their new streamlined train, the Zephyr, at with peaks at . The Zephyr was made of stainless steel and, like the Fliegender Hamburger, was diesel powered, articulated with Jacobs bogies, and could reach as commercial speed.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The new service was inaugurated 11 November 1934, traveling between Kansas City and Lincoln, but at a lower speed than the record, on average speed .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Many of these streamliners posted travel times comparable to or even better than their modern Amtrak successors, which are limited to top speed on most of the network.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The German high-speed service was followed in Italy in 1938 with an electric-multiple-unit ETR 200, designed for , between Bologna and Naples. It too reached in commercial service, and achieved a world mean speed record of between Florence and Milan in 1938.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Great Britain in the same year, the streamlined steam locomotive "Mallard" achieved the official world speed record for steam locomotives at . The external combustion engines and boilers on steam locomotives were large, heavy and time and labor-intensive to maintain, and the days of steam for high speed were numbered.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: With some 45 million people living in the densely populated Tokyo–Osaka corridor, congestion on road and rail became a serious problem after World War II, and the Japanese government began thinking seriously about a new high-speed rail service.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Japan in the 1950s was a populous, resource-limited nation that for security reasons did not want to import petroleum, but needed a way to transport its millions of people in and between cities.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The new service, named Shinkansen (meaning "new trunk line") would provide a new alignment, 25% wider standard gauge, continuously welded rails between Tokyo and Osaka using new rolling stock, designed for . However, the World Bank, whilst supporting the project, considered the design of the equipment as unproven for that speed, and set the maximum speed to .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 Series Shinkansen, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries—in English often called "Bullet Trains", after the original Japanese name —outclassed the earlier fast trains in commercial service. They traversed the distance in 3 hours 10 minutes, reaching a top speed of and sustaining an average speed of with stops at Nagoya and Kyoto.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Speed was not only a part of the Shinkansen revolution: the Shinkansen offered high-speed rail travel to the masses. The first "Bullet trains" had 12 cars and later versions had up to 16, and double-deck trains further increased the capacity.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Since their introduction, Japan's Shinkansen systems have been undergoing constant improvement, not only increasing line speeds. Over a dozen train models have been produced, addressing diverse issues such as tunnel boom noise, vibration, aerodynamic drag, lines with lower patronage ("Mini shinkansen"), earthquake and typhoon safety, braking distance, problems due to snow, and energy consumption (newer trains are twice as energy-efficient as the initial ones despite greater speeds).

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: It will link Tokyo and Osaka by 2037, with the section from Tokyo to Nagoya expected to be operational by 2027. Average speed is anticipated at . The first generation train can be ridden by tourists visiting the test track.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Europe, high-speed rail began during the International Transport Fair in Munich in June 1965, when Dr Öpfering, the director of Deutsche Bundesbahn (German Federal Railways), performed 347 demonstrations at between Munich and Augsburg by DB Class 103 hauled trains. The same year the Aérotrain, a French hovercraft monorail train prototype, reached within days of operation.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: After the successful introduction of the Japanese Shinkansen in 1964, at , the German demonstrations up to in 1965, and the proof-of-concept jet-powered Aérotrain, SNCF ran its fastest trains at .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 1966, French Infrastructure Minister Edgard Pisani consulted engineers and gave the French National Railways twelve months to raise speeds to . The classic line Paris–Toulouse was chosen, and fitted, to support rather than . Some improvements were set, notably the signals system, development of on board "in-cab" signalling system, and curve revision.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The next year, in May 1967, a regular service at was inaugurated by the TEE "Le Capitole" between Paris and Toulouse, with specially adapted SNCF Class BB 9200 locomotives hauling classic UIC cars, and a full red livery. It averaged over the .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: At the same time, the Aérotrain prototype 02 reached on a half-scale experimental track. In 1969, it achieved on the same track. On 5 March 1974, the full-scale commercial prototype Aérotrain I80HV, jet powered, reached .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The next year, in 1977, Germany finally introduced a new service at , on the Munich–Augsburg line. That same year, Italy inaugurated the first European High-Speed line, the "Direttissima" between Rome and Florence, designed for , but used by FS E444 hauled train at . In France this year also saw the abandonment for political reasons of the Aérotrain project, in favour of the TGV.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 1969, the "C03 project" was transferred to public administration while a contract with Alstom was signed for the construction of two gas-turbine high-speed train prototypes, named "TGV 001". The prototype consisted of a set of five carriages, plus a power car at each end, both powered by two gas-turbine engines. The sets used Jacobs bogies, which reduce drag and increase safety.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 1970, the DETMT's Turbotrain began operations on the Paris–Cherbourg line, and operated at despite being designed for usage at . It used gas-turbine powered multiple elements and was the basis for future experimentation with TGV services, including shuttle services and regular high rate schedules.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The 1973 oil crisis substantially increased oil prices. In the continuity of the De Gaulle "energy self-sufficiency" and nuclear-energy policy, a ministry decision switched the future TGV from now costly gas-turbine to full electric energy in 1974. An electric railcar named "Zébulon" was developed for testing at very high speeds, reaching a speed of . It was used to develop pantographs capable of withstanding speeds of over .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: After intensive tests with the gas-turbine "TGV 001" prototype, and the electric "Zébulon", in 1977, the SNCF placed an order to the group Alstom–Francorail–MTE for 87 TGV Sud-Est trainsets.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: They used the "TGV 001" concept, with a permanently coupled set of eight cars, sharing Jacobs bogies, and hauled by two electric-power cars, one at each end.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The trains services that serve the high-speed lines in Italy are the Frecciarossa, the Frecciargento and the .italo (the latter of the private company Nuovo Trasporti Viaggiatori).

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 1992, just in time for the Barcelona Olympic Games and Seville Expo '92, the Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line opened in Spain with 25 kV AC electrification, and standard gauge, differing from all other Spanish lines which used Iberian gauge. This allowed the AVE rail service to begin operations using Class 100 trainsets built by Alstom, directly derived in design from the French TGV trains. The service was very popular and development continued on high-speed rail in Spain.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 1992, the United States Congress passed the Amtrak Authorization and Development Act that authorized Amtrak to start working on service improvements on the segment between Boston and New York City of the Northeast Corridor. The primary objectives were to electrify the line north of New Haven, Connecticut, to eliminate grade crossings and replace the then 30-year-old Metroliners with new trains, so that the distance between Boston and New York City could be covered in 3 hours or less.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The new service was named "Acela Express" and linked Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington DC. The service did not meet the 3-hour travel time objective between Boston and New York City. The time was 3 hours and 24 minutes as it partially ran on regular lines, limiting its average speed, with a maximum speed of being reached on a small section of its route through Rhode Island and Massachusetts.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: For four decades from its opening in 1964, the Japanese Shinkansen was the only high-speed rail service outside of Europe. In the 2000s a number of new high-speed rail services started operating in East Asia.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The Chinese government made high-speed rail construction a cornerstone of its economic stimulus program in order to combat the effects of the 2008 global financial crisis and the result has been a rapid development of the Chinese rail system into the world's most extensive high-speed rail network. By 2013 the system had of operational track, accounting for about half of the world's total at the time.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Over 1,713 billion trips were made in 2017, more than half of China's total railway passenger delivery, making it the world's busiest network.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: State planning for high-speed railway began in the early 1990s, and the country's first high-speed rail line, the Qinhuangdao–Shenyang Passenger Railway, was built in 1999 and opened to commercial operation in 2003. This line could accommodate commercial trains running at up to . Planners also considered Germany's Transrapid maglev technology and built the Shanghai maglev train, which runs on a track linking the Pudong, the city's financial district, and the Pudong International Airport.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The maglev train service began operating in 2004 with trains reaching a top speed of , and remains the fastest high-speed service in the world. Maglev, however, was not adopted nationally and all subsequent expansion features high-speed rail on conventional tracks.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 2008, high-speed trains began running at a top speed of on the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway, which opened during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The following year, trains on the newly opened Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway set a world record for average speed over an entire trip, at over .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The network set a target to create the 4+4 National high-speed rail Grid by 2015, and continues to rapidly expand with the July 2016 announcement of the 8+8 National high-speed rail Grid. In 2017, services resumed on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, once again refreshing the world record for average speed with select services running between Beijing South to Nanjing South reaching average speeds of .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 2009, Turkey inaugurated a high-speed service between Ankara and Eskișehir. This has been followed up by an Ankara – Konya route, and the Eskișehir line has been extended to Istanbul (Asian part).

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Uzbekistan opened the Afrosiyob service from Tashkent to Samarkand in 2011, which was upgraded in 2013 to an average operational speed of and peak speed of . The Talgo 250 service has been extended to Karshi as of August 2015 whereby the train travels in 3 hours. As of August 2016, the train service was extended to Bukhara, and the extension will take 3 hours and 20 minutes down from 7 hours.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Continuous welded rail is generally used to reduce track vibrations and misalignment. Almost all high-speed lines are electrically driven via overhead lines, have in-cab signalling, and use advanced switches using very low entry and frog angles.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The road-rail parallel layout uses land beside highways for railway lines. Examples include Paris/Lyon and Köln–Frankfurt in which 15% and 70% of the track runs beside highways, respectively.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In China, high-speed lines at speeds between may carry freight or passengers, while lines operating at speeds over are used only by passenger CRH/CR trains.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In the United Kingdom, HS1 is also used by regional trains run by Southeastern at speeds of up to , and occasionally freight trains that run to central Europe.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Germany, some lines are shared with Inter-City and regional trains at day and freight trains at night.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The cost per kilometre in Spain was estimated at between €9 million (Madrid-Andalucía) and €22 million (Madrid-Valladolid).

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In the 2010s, costs per kilometre in France ranged from €18 million (BLP Brittany) to €26 million (Sud Europe Atlantique). The World Bank estimated in 2019 that the Chinese HSR network was built at an average cost of $17-$21 million per km, a third less of the cost in other countries.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: At £309 million per mile, the UK's High Speed 2 line—currently under construction—is the most expensive high-speed line in the world as of 2020.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: All high-speed trains have been designed to carry passengers only. There are very few high-speed freight services in the world; they all use trains that were originally designed to carry passengers.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: During the planning of the Tokaido Shinkansen, the Japanese National Railways were planning for freight services along the route. This plan was later discarded.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The French TGV La Poste was for a long time the sole very high-speed train service, transporting mail in France for La Poste at a maximum top speed of 270 km/h, between 1984 and 2015. The trainsets were either specifically adapted and built, either converted, passenger TGV Sud-Est trainsets.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Italy, Mercitalia Fast is a high-speed freight service launched in October 2018 by Mercitalia. It uses converted passenger ETR 500 trainsets to carry goods at average speeds of 180 km/h, at first between Caserta and Bologna, with plans to extend the network throughout Italy.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In some countries, high-speed rail is integrated with courier services to provide fast door-to-door intercity deliveries. For example, China Railways has partnered with SF Express for high-speed cargo deliveries and Deutsche Bahn offers express deliveries within Germany as well as to some major cities outside the country on the ICE network. Rather than using dedicated freight trains, these use luggage racks and other unused space in passenger trains.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Key technologies include tilting trainsets, aerodynamic designs (to reduce drag, lift, and noise), air brakes, regenerative braking, engine technology and dynamic weight shifting.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: While commercial high-speed trains have lower maximum speeds than jet aircraft, they offer shorter total trip times than air travel for short distances. They typically connect city centre rail stations to each other, while air transport connects airports that are typically farther from city centres.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: High-speed rail (HSR) is best suited for journeys of 1 to 4½ hours (about ), for which the train can beat air and car trip time. For trips under about , the process of checking in and going through airport security, as well as travelling to and from the airport, makes the total air journey time equal to or slower than HSR. European authorities treat HSR as competitive with passenger air for HSR trips under 4½ hours.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: HSR eliminated most air transport from between Paris–Lyon, Paris–Brussels, Cologne–Frankfurt, Madrid–Barcelona, Naples–Rome–Milan, Nanjing–Wuhan, Chongqing–Chengdu, Tokyo–Nagoya, Tokyo–Sendai and Tokyo–Niigata.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: China Southern Airlines, China's largest airline, expects the construction of China's high-speed railway network to impact (through increased competition and falling revenues) 25% of its route network in the coming years.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: According to Peter Jorritsma, the rail market share "s", as compared to planes, can be computed approximately as a function of the travelling time in minutes "t" by the logistic formula

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: According to this formula, a journey time of three hours yields a 65% market share, not taking into account any price differential in tickets.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Taiwan, China Airlines cancelled all flights to Taichung Airport within a year of Taiwan high-speed rail starting operations. Completion of the high-speed railway in 2007 led to drastically fewer flights along the island's west coast, with flights between Taipei and Kaohsiung ceasing altogether in 2012.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Airplanes and airstrips require trees to be cut down, as they are a nuisance to pilots. Some 3,000 trees will be chopped due to obstruction issues at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. On the other hand, trees next to rail lines can often become a hazard during winter storms, with several German media calling for trees to be cut down following autumn storms in 2017.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: HSR is much simpler to control due to its predictable course. High-speed rail systems reduce (but do not eliminate) collisions with automobiles or people, by using non-grade level track and eliminating grade-level crossings. To date, the only two deadly accidents involving a high-speed train on high-speed tracks in revenue service were the 1998 Eschede train disaster and the 2011 Wenzhou train collision (in which speed was not a factor).

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In general, travel by high-speed rail has been demonstrated to be remarkably safe. The first high-speed rail network, the Japanese Shinkansen has not had any fatal accidents involving passengers since it began operating in 1964.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 1998, after over thirty years of high-speed rail operations worldwide without fatal accidents, the Eschede accident occurred in Germany: a poorly designed ICE 1 wheel fractured at a speed of near Eschede, resulting in the derailment and destruction of almost the entire set of 16 cars, and the deaths of 101 people. The derailment began at a switch; the accident was made worse when the derailed cars travelling at high speed struck and collapsed a road bridge located just past the switch.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: On 23 July 2011, 13 years after the Eschede train accident, a Chinese CRH2 travelling at collided with a CRH1 which was stopped on a viaduct in the suburbs of Wenzhou, Zhejiang province, China. The two trains derailed, and four cars fell off the viaduct. Forty people were killed and at least 192 were injured, 12 of them severely.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The disaster led to a number of changes in management and exploitation of high-speed rail in China. Despite the fact that speed itself was not a factor in the cause of the accident, one of the major changes was to further lower the maximum speeds in high-speed and higher-speed railways in China, the remaining becoming 300, becoming 200, and becoming 160. Six years later they started to be restored to their original high speeds.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: On 13 December 2018, a high-speed passenger train and a locomotive collided near Yenimahalle in Ankara Province, Turkey. Three cars (carriages/coaches) of the passenger train derailed in the collision. Three railroad engineers and five passengers were killed at the scene, and 84 people were injured. Another injured passenger later died, and 34 passengers, including two in critical condition, were treated in several hospitals.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: On 6 February 2020, a high-speed train travelling at derailed at Livraga, Lombardy, Italy. The two drivers were killed and 31 were injured. The cause as reported by investigators was that a faulty set of junction points was in the reverse position, but was reported by the signaling system as being in the normal - i.e. straight - position.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: High-speed rail ridership has been increasing rapidly since 2000. At the beginning of the century, the largest share of ridership was on the Japanese Shinkansen network.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In 2000, the Shinkansen was responsible for about 85% of the cumulative world ridership up to that point.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: This has been progressively surpassed by the Chinese high-speed rail network, which has been the largest contributor of global ridership growth since its inception.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: As of 2018, annual ridership of the Chinese high-speed rail network is over five times larger than that of the Shinkansen.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The speed record for a pre-production unconventional passenger train was set by a seven-car L0 series manned maglev train at on 21 April 2015 in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Since the 1955 record, where France recorded a world record of speed of 331 km/h, France has nearly continuously held the absolute world speed record. The latest record is held by a TGV POS trainset, which reached in 2007, on the newly constructed LGV Est high-speed line. This run was for proof of concept and engineering, not to test normal passenger service.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Many of these trains and their networks are technically capable of higher speeds but they are capped out of economic and commercial considerations (cost of electricity, increased maintenance, resulting ticket price, etc.)

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The fastest operating conventional trains are the AGV 575 and the Frecciarossa 1000 with maximum commercial speed of . As these trainsets are both running on the Italian high speed network they are limited to the national track speed of for commercial use.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The speed of the service was reduced in 2011 due to high costs and safety concerns the top speeds in China were reduced to on 1 July 2011. Six years later they started to be restored to their original high speeds.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Other fast conventional trains are the French TGV POS, German ICE 3, and Japanese E5 and E6 Series Shinkansen with a maximum commercial speed of , the former two on some French high-speed lines, and the latter on a part of Tohoku Shinkansen line.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The China Railway G403/4, G405/6 and D939/40 Beijing–Kunming train (, 10 hours 43 minutes to 14 hours 54 minutes), which began service on 28 December 2016, are the longest high-speed rail services in the world.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The early high-speed lines, built in France, Japan, Italy and Spain, were between pairs of large cities. In France, this was Paris–Lyon, in Japan, Tokyo–Osaka, in Italy, Rome-Florence, in Spain, Madrid–Seville (then Barcelona). In European and East Asian countries, dense networks of urban subways and railways provide connections with high-speed rail lines.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The improved mobility and interconnectivity created by these new high-speed rail lines has generated a whole new high-speed commuter market around some urban areas. Commutes via high-speed rail to and from surrounding Hebei and Tianjin into Beijing have become increasingly common, likewise are between the cities surrounding Shanghai, Shenzhen and Guangzhou.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: A , entirely underground express rail link connects Hong Kong West Kowloon railway station near Kwun Chung to the border with Chinese mainland, where the railway continues onwards to Shenzhen's Futian station. A depot and the stabling sidings are located in Shek Kong. Commercial operations have been suspended since early 2020 due to the coronavirus outbreak. Parts of the West Kowloon station are no longer under the jurisdiction of Hong Kong to facilitate co-location of border clearance.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Japan, the Shinkansen was the first bullet train and reaches a cumulative ridership of 6 billion passengers with zero passenger fatalities due to operational accidents (as of 2003), now it is second largest high speed rail in Asia.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Since its opening in 2004, KTX has transferred over 360 million passengers until April 2013, and now Asia's third largest. For any transportation involving travel above , the KTX secured a market share of 57% over other modes of transport, which is by far the largest.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Taiwan has a single north–south high-speed line, Taiwan high-speed rail. It is approximately long, along the west coast of Taiwan from the national capital Taipei to the southern city of Kaohsiung. The construction was managed by Taiwan high-speed rail Corporation and the total cost of the project was US$18 billion. The private company operates the line fully, and the system is based primarily on Japan's Shinkansen technology.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Eight initial stations were built during the construction of the high-speed rail system: Taipei, Banqiao, Taoyuan, Hsinchu, Taichung, Chiayi, Tainan, and Zuoying (Kaohsiung). The line now has 12 total stations (Nangang, Taipei, Banqiao, Taoyuan, Hsinchu, Miaoli, Taichung, Changhua, Yunlin, Chiayi, Tainan and Zuoying) as of August 2018.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Uzbekistan has a single high-speed rail line, the Tashkent–Samarkand high-speed rail line, which allows trains to reach up to 250 km/h. There are also electrified extensions at lower speeds to Bukhara and Dehkanabad.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In November 2007 the Moroccan government decided to undertake the construction of a high-speed rail line between the economic capital Casablanca and Tangier, one of the largest harbour cities on the Strait of Gibraltar. The line will also serve the capital Rabat and Kenitra. The first section of the line, Kenitra–Tangier high-speed rail line, was completed in 2018.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Plans in Saudi Arabia to begin service on a high-speed line consist of a phased opening starting with the route from Medina to King Abdullah Economic City followed up with the rest of the line to Mecca the following year. The Haramain high-speed railway opened in 2018.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The Turkish State Railways started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The first section of the line, between Ankara and Eskișehir, was inaugurated on 13 March 2009. It is a part of the Istanbul to Ankara high-speed rail line. A subsidiary of Turkish State Railways, Yüksek Hızlı Tren is the sole commercial operator of high-speed trains in Turkey.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The construction of three separate high-speed lines from Ankara to Istanbul, Konya and Sivas, as well as taking an Ankara–İzmir line to the launch stage, form part of the Turkish Ministry of Transport's strategic aims and targets. Turkey plans to construct a network of high-speed lines in the early part of the 21st century, targeting a network of high-speed lines by 2013 and a network by 2023.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In Europe, several nations are interconnected with cross-border high-speed rail, such as London-Paris, Paris-Brussel-Rotterdam, Madrid-Perpignan, and other future connecting projects exist.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: On the Paris–Lyon service, the number of passengers grew sufficiently to justify the introduction of double-decker coaches. Later high-speed rail lines, such as the LGV Atlantique, the LGV Est, and most high-speed lines in France, were designed as feeder routes branching into conventional rail lines, serving a larger number of medium-sized cities.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: A true dedicated high-speed rail network was developed during the 1980s and the 1990s, and of high-speed rail were fully operational by 2010. Frecciarossa services are operated with ETR 500 and ETR1000 non-tilting trains at 25kVAC, 50 Hz power. The operational speed of the service is .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Over 100 million passengers used the Frecciarossa from the service introduction up to the first months of 2012. The high-speed rail system serves about 20 billion passenger-km per year as of 2016.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Nuovo Trasporto Viaggiatori, the world's first private open-access operator of high-speed rail, is operative in Italy since 2012.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: As of 2015, Norway's fastest trains have a commercial top speed of and the FLIRT trains may attain . A velocity of is permitted on the Gardermoen Line, which links the Gardermoen airport to Oslo and a part of the main line northwards to Trondheim.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The existing Saint Petersburg–Moscow Railway can operate at maximum speeds of 250 km/h, and the Helsinki-Saint Petersburg railway capable of a maximum of 200 km/h.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: Future areas include freight lines, such as the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia, which would allow 3-day Far East to Europe service for freight, potentially fitting in between the months by ship and hours by air.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The UK's fastest high-speed line (High Speed 1) connects London St Pancras with Brussels, Paris and Amsterdam through the Channel Tunnel. At speeds of up to , it is the only high-speed line in Britain with an operating speed of more than .

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: The KTX Incheon International Airport to Seoul Line (operates on Incheon AREX) was closed in 2018, due to a mix of issues, including poor ridership and track sharing. The AREX was not constructed as high-speed rail, resulting a cap of 150 km/h on KTX service in its section.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


High-speed rail

Context: In China, many conventional lines upgraded up to 200 km/h had high-speed services shifted to parallel high-speed lines. These lines, often passing through towns and having level crossings, are still used for local trains and freight trains. For example, all (passenger) EMU services on the Hankou–Danjiangkou railway were routed over the Wuhan–Shiyan high-speed railway on its opening to free up capacity for freight trains on the slower railway.

Question: В какой стране находится самый скоростной поезд на 2019 год?


Mental health in Russia

Context: Due to this fact, it is acknowledged that functions of psychiatry are not limited to identifying and removing biological anomalies that cause "mental illnesses", caring for patients and alleviating their sufferings, but they also apply to the scope of their civil rights. The passage of the law was one of the five conditions for the membership of the All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists in the World Psychiatric Association. The law passed on 2 July 1992 and received the number 3185-1.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: The Commissariat of Public Health established the Psychiatry Commission in October 1917. Psychiatrists were given greater control over hospitals. Psychiatric services were funded by central government. Support services for mentally ill soldiers were provided by the Russian Red Cross Society until they were taken over by the Commissariat of Public Health in 1919. They appointed a psychiatrist/neurologist consultant for the Red Army.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: According to the Russian psychiatrists Valery Krasnov and Isaac Gurovisch, the Law minimizes and prevents the institutionalization of the mentally ill if their behavior does not pose a danger to others. However, article 38, which was once included in the Law as a guarantee of keeping the whole Law for patients of psychiatric hospitals, is still not working, and, as a result, the service independent of health authorities to defend rights of patients in psychiatric hospitals is still not created.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: Data obtained as results of analysing the work of the psychiatric inpatient facilities show that two thirds of patients placed in a hospital without their consent actively refuse hospitalization. In the rest of cases, they are unable to express their attitude to the events because of their mental condition.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: Russia is decades behind the countries of the European Union in mental health reform, which has already been implemented or is being implemented in them. Until Russian society, Russian psychiatrist Emmanuil Gushansky says, is aware of the need for mental health reform, we will live in the atmosphere of animosity, mistrust and violence.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: According to Yuri Savenko, the IPA president, law enforcement practice is very far from the letter of the Law. Forensic psychiatric expert examination has deteriorated because of the lack of competition, and courts implicitly fulfill wishes of the hierarchy of executive authority affected by corruption.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: Although Ershov and Kozlova describe that it is easy for the lawyer to come to places of confinement and meet with his client and the administration of the penal colony after going through the formalities stipulated in law, the lawyers have to litigate for the right to get into a psychiatric hospital.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: According to the statement made by the IPA executive director Lyubov Vinogradova in 2005, a court comes to a hospital where it must make a number of judgments as to whether rightly or wrongly the hospital applies for the involuntary treatment of a person. The court makes its judgments for 20 cases within 20 minutes. In practice it means that the judge automatically signs judgments offered to him ready-made by the staff to allow for the involuntary treatments to continue.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: According to Doctor of Legal Sciences Vladimir Ovchinsky, regional differences in forensic psychiatric expert reports are striking. For example, in some regions of Russia, 8 or 9 percent of all examinees are pronounced sane; in other regions up to 75 percent of all examinees are pronounced sane. In some regions less than 2 percent of examinees are declared schizophrenics; in other regions up to 80 percent of examinees are declared schizophrenics.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: Amendments and changes were included in the Law several times: on 21 July 1998, 25 July 2002, 10 January 2003, 29 June and 22 August 2004, 27 July 2010, 7 February, 6 April, 21 November 2011.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: According to psychiatrist Sofia Dorinskaya, the law is in conflict with the Constitution of the Russian Federation. In judicial system, there is procedure for collecting evidence. If a person does not sign a transcript of interrogation or if he signed it, he in court can say that he was forced to sign, and the judge will investigate this. Anyway, it is stipulated. In psychiatry, a person's opinion is not considered to be something more or less reasonable at all.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: According to the 2013 interview of the representatives of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia to Radio Free Europe, because of the Russian Mental Health Law, sending people away for a month in a mental hospital is easy for prosecutors—with the help of pliable judges—and becomes an increasingly common tactic in the country's campaigns against political dissidence, extremism, and corruption.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: Lyubov Vinogradova believes the law is good in theory, but in reality there has been a continuous reduction in patients' rights as independent experts are now excluded from processes, cannot speak in court and can do nothing against the State experts.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Mental health in Russia

Context: A 2006 fire in a drug rehabilitation clinic in Moscow killed forty-five female patients; the windows of the clinic had bars fitted to them. In 2013 a psychiatric hospital north of Moscow, which also housed patients with alcohol and drug addiction, and also had bars fitted to all windows, saw the deaths of thirty-six patients and two doctors. Official sources said that some of the victims were tied to their beds.

Question: Сколько психиатрических больниц есть в России на март 2019?


Context: Visa requirements for Ukrainian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Ukraine. As of 11 April 2022 Ukrainian citizens could travel to 143 countries and territories without a travel visa or with a visa on arrival, ranking the Ukrainian passport 34th in terms of travel freedom, according to the Henley Passport Index 2022.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: For traveling to certain countries, Ukrainians do not need to use a passport, as they may use their Ukrainian identity card.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: Documents which give the right to leave Ukraine and to enter Ukraine and certify the identity of a citizen of Ukraine while staying abroad are:

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: It's important to know, that the special rules of arriving in a particular country should be studied carefully. Thus, in most countries that do not require visas or issue visas, upon arrival you must have a passport, which is valid for at least 3 months from arrival in that country.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: Regardless of the entry regime, foreign border services may require documents confirming the purpose of the visit and the availability of sufficient financial resources for travel.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: The visa-free regime with other countries does not give the right to work in them. Failure to comply with this rule may result in a fine with subsequent deportation.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: In cases where a visa is issued upon arrival, it may be necessary to have 1-2 color passport photographs of the person crossing the border.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: For visa-free travel to the countries of the Schengen zone, you need only a biometric passport. Owners of passports of the old model need a visa or residence permit in one of the countries of the Schengen zone.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: From June 11, 2017 Ukrainians with biometric passports can travel to Schengen Area countries visa-free for up to 90 days.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: Pre-approved visas can be picked up on arrival in the following countries instead in embassy or consulate.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: Visa requirements for Ukrainian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: Visitors with passport stamp of Israel are not allowed to enter a number of countries because of the Arab League boycott of Israel.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: As a result of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War between Azerbaijan and Armenia, Azerbaijan refuses entry to passport-holders of Ukraine and any other country if they are of Armenian descent. It also strictly refuses entry to foreigners in general whose passport shows evidence of entry into the self-proclaimed Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, immediately declaring them permanent personae non gratae.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Context: Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.

Question: Сколько месяцев гражданин Украины может находиться в ЕС без визы на март 2019?


Sokolnicheskaya line

Context: Although Moscow Metro prides itself on the best Stalinist architecture and the earlier Art Deco attempts, the stations of the first stage are very far from those. Instead they have a very classical taste to them, which blends nicely with the neo-classical atmosphere of the mid-1930s. It is also true that the overall construction of these early stations allowed the palaces of the 1940s and 1950s to evolve from them. Most of these stations are now officially listed as architectural heritage.

Question: Какая линия Московского метро была открыта первой?


Sokolnicheskaya line

Context: At the opposite end, there were two extensions: one in 1965 across the Yauza River (also via an open bridge) to Preobrazhenskaya Square, and another in 1990 into the Bogorodskoye District.

Question: Какая линия Московского метро была открыта первой?


Sokolnicheskaya line

Context: Presently the line has the oldest structures in operation, and thus several renovations have been carried out systematically. Recent changes include a second entrance to Kropotkinskaya in 1998, major lighting enhancements to Okhotny Ryad and Kropotkinskaya.

Question: Какая линия Московского метро была открыта первой?


Sokolnicheskaya line

Context: Two depots are assigned to the line, the TCh-1 Severnoye and the TCh-13 Cherkizovo. Starting in 1997 both depots have been upgrading to the new 81-717.5M/714.5M trains (all factory fresh). Currently all carriages of the old Ezh, Ezh-1, Em-508 and Em-509 have been retired.

Question: Какая линия Московского метро была открыта первой?


Sokolnicheskaya line

Context: When the line opened in 1935, trainsets included only four cars. By the middle of the 20th century, trainsets expanded to seven cars. In 2018, the Metro became extending trains of Cherkizovo depot to eight cars. This will add additional capacity to the system of more than 186,000 passengers per day.

Question: Какая линия Московского метро была открыта первой?


Tsar Cannon

Context: According to one version, the name of this cannon, "Tsar", is associated with the image of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. However, it is more likely that this name owes to the massive size of this cannon. In old times the cannon is also sometimes called the "Russian Shotgun" (Дробовик Российский, "Drobovik Rossiyskiy", lit. Shotgun Russian), because the gun was meant to shoot 800 kg stone grapeshot rather than true, solid cannonballs.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: The cannon ought to be classified as only a mortar by its barrel length in modern classification, with the barrel length at only 6 calibers. However, in the 17th to the 18th century, it was rather called a "Bombard cannon", since mortars at that time had barrel lengths of no more than 2.5 calibers, or 3.5 calibers at maximum for long-range mortars.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: The cannon was cast in bronze in 1586, during the reign of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, in the Cannon yard, by Russian master Andrey Chokhov.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: The carriages and the cannon itself was richly decorated in 1835 at the St. Petersburg plant of Berd, with designs by architect A. P. Bryullov and drawings engineer P. Ya. de Witte.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: The cannon was last restored in 1980 in the town of Serpukhov. It was thoroughly studied by specialists in the Artillery Academy at that time and gunpowder residue was found, indicating that the cannon had been fired at least once, hinged and dug into the ground.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: Another theory by other researchers is that Tsar cannon never fired because of the bronze parts that would fade away after the shot, also due to the absence of a pilot hole that makes firing completely impossible.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: In the spring of 2001, as commissioned by the management of the Moscow Udmort enterprise "OAO Izhstal", a replica of the cannon was cast in iron. The replica weighed 42 tons, with a single wheel at 1.5 tons, the kernel at 1.2 meters and a caliber of exactly 89 cm.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: This copy was given as a present from Moscow to Donetsk, which was installed in front of the Donetsk City Hall in May 2001. There were two copies, with the other one produced in Izhevsk set in the premises of OAO Izhstal.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: It was the world's largest 20-inch cast-iron cannon. Unlike other "Tsar cannon"s, the one in Perm was a military weapon. The cannon, nicknamed the "Perm Giant", was made in 1868, by the order of the Ministry of Marine to the Motovilikha manufacturing plant (which is PAO "Motovilikha Plants" today, manufacturing weapon systems such as cannons, mortars, howitzers, self-propelled artillery, "Grad", "Uragan" and "Smerch" rocket systems).

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: The Perm cannon was to take its place in Kronstadt at Fort Constantine, where a special carriage was already installed to ensure all-around coverage, and to protect St. Petersburg from the sea. Two such cannons were also intended to equip the armored frigate "Minin", which was built in St. Petersburg from 1866 to 1878.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: However, the cannon never reached Kronstadt. The Giant has been returned to the road in Perm. This is due to the fact that the engineer-inventor Pavel Matveyevich Obukhov of Zlatoust has developed the technology to produce high-strength steel cannons. Having established a factory in St. Petersburg, he began producing lighter cannons, which were installed with breeched (the Krupp system), obsoleting the Perm cannon.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Tsar Cannon

Context: Emperor Alexander II's decision saved it from destruction, instead preserving it as a historical relic.

Question: При каком царе был установлен первый фонтан в Москве?


Artificial heart

Context: A synthetic replacement for a heart remains a long-sought "holy grail" of modern medicine. The obvious benefit of a functional artificial heart would be to lower the need for heart transplants because the demand for organs always greatly exceeds supply.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Although the heart is conceptually a pump, it embodies subtleties that defy straightforward emulation with synthetic materials and power supplies. Consequences of these issues include severe foreign-body rejection and external batteries that limit mobility. These complications limited the lifespan of early human recipients from hours to days.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The first artificial heart was made by the Soviet scientist Vladimir Demikhov in 1937. It was implanted in a dog.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: On 2 July 1952, 41-year-old Henry Opitek, suffering from shortness of breath, made medical history at Harper University Hospital at Wayne State University in Michigan. The Dodrill-GMR heart machine, considered to be the first operational mechanical heart, was successfully used while performing heart surgery.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Ongoing research was done on calves at Hershey Medical Center, Animal Research Facility, in Hershey, Pennsylvania, during the 1970s.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Forest Dewey Dodrill, working closely with Matthew Dudley, used the machine in 1952 to bypass Henry Opitek's left ventricle for 50 minutes while he opened the patient's left atrium and worked to repair the mitral valve. In Dodrill's post-operative report, he notes, "To our knowledge, this is the first instance of survival of a patient when a mechanical heart mechanism was used to take over the complete body function of maintaining the blood supply of the body while the heart was open and operated on."

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: A heart–lung machine was first used in 1953 during a successful open heart surgery. John Heysham Gibbon, the inventor of the machine, performed the operation and developed the heart–lung substitute himself.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Following these advances, scientific interest for the development of a solution for heart disease developed in numerous research groups worldwide.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 1949, a precursor to the modern artificial heart pump was built by doctors William Sewell and William Glenn of the Yale School of Medicine using an Erector Set, assorted odds and ends, and dime-store toys. The external pump successfully bypassed the heart of a dog for more than an hour.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Paul Winchell invented an artificial heart with the assistance of Henry Heimlich (the inventor of the Heimlich maneuver) and held the first patent for such a device. The University of Utah developed a similar apparatus around the same time, but when they tried to patent it, Winchell's heart was cited as prior art. The university requested that Winchell donate the heart to the University of Utah, which he did.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: There is some debate as to how much of Winchell's design Robert Jarvik used in creating Jarvik's artificial heart. Heimlich states, "I saw the heart, I saw the patent and I saw the letters. The basic principle used in Winchell's heart and Jarvik's heart is exactly the same. " Jarvik denies that any of Winchell's design elements were incorporated into the device he fabricated for humans which was successfully implanted into Barney Clark in 1982.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: On 12 December 1957, Willem Johan Kolff, the world's most prolific inventor of artificial organs, implanted an artificial heart into a dog at Cleveland Clinic. The dog lived for 90 minutes.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 1964, the National Institutes of Health started the Artificial Heart Program, with the goal of putting an artificial heart into a human by the end of the decade. The purpose of the program was to develop an implantable artificial heart, including the power source, to replace a failing heart.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In February 1966, Adrian Kantrowitz rose to international prominence when he performed the world's first permanent implantation of a partial mechanical heart (left ventricular assist device) at Maimonides Medical Center.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 1967, Kolff left Cleveland Clinic to start the Division of Artificial Organs at the University of Utah and pursue his work on the artificial heart.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Over the years, more than 200 physicians, engineers, students and faculty developed, tested and improved Kolff's artificial heart. To help manage his many endeavors, Kolff assigned project managers. Each project was named after its manager. Graduate student Robert Jarvik was the project manager for the artificial heart, which was subsequently renamed the Jarvik 7.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The original prototype of Liotta-Cooley artificial heart used in this historic operation is prominently displayed in the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History "Treasures of American History" exhibit in Washington, D.C.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Contrary to popular belief and erroneous articles in several periodicals, the Jarvik heart was not banned for permanent use. Today, the modern version of the Jarvik 7 is known as the SynCardia temporary Total Artificial Heart. It has been implanted in more than 1,350 people as a bridge to transplantation.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 1990 Brian Williams was discharged from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), becoming the first VAD patient to be discharged with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. The patient was supported in part by bioengineers from the University of Pittsburgh's McGowan Institute.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: As of 2014, more than 1,250 patients have received SynCardia artificial hearts. The device requires the use of the Companion 2 in-hospital driver, approved by the FDA in 2012, or the Freedom Driver System, approved in 2014, which allows some patients to return home, to power the heart with pulses of air. The drivers also monitor blood flow for each ventricle.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 2016, Syncardia filed for bankruptcy protection and was later acquired by the private equity firm Versa Capital Management.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: According to a press-release by Carmat dated 20 December 2013, the first implantation of its artificial heart in a 75-year-old patient was performed on 18 December 2013 by the Georges Pompidou European Hospital team in Paris (France). The patient died 75 days after the operation.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The Carmat device, unlike previous designs, is meant to be used in cases of terminal heart failure, instead of being used as a bridge device while the patient awaits a transplant. At 900 grams it weighs nearly three times the typical heart and is targeted primarily towards obese men. It also requires the patient to carry around an additional Li-Ion battery. The projected lifetime of the artificial heart is around 5 years (230 million beats).

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 2016, trials for the Carmat "fully artificial heart" were banned by the National Agency for Security and Medicine in Europe after short survival rates were confirmed. The ban was lifted in May 2017. At that time, a European report stated that Celyad's C-Cure cell therapy for ischemic heart failure "could only help a subpopulation of Phase III study participants, and Carmat will hope that its artificial heart will be able to treat a higher proportion of heart failure patients".

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The Carmat artificial heart was approved for sale in the European Union, receiving a CE marking on December 22, 2020. Its stock price increased over a third upon the announcement of the news.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The U.S. Army artificial heart pump was a compact, air-powered unit developed by Kenneth Woodward at Harry Diamond Laboratories in the early to mid-1960s. The Army's heart pump was partially made of plexiglass, and consisted of two valves, a chamber, and a suction flapper. The pump operated without any moving parts under the principle of fluid amplification – providing a pulsating air pressure source resembling a heartbeat.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Frazier and Cohn are on the board of the BiVACOR company that develops an artificial heart. BiVACOR has been tested as a replacement for a heart in a sheep.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: So far, only one person has benefited from Frazier and Cohn's artificial heart. Craig Lewis had amyloidosis in 2011 when his heart gave out and doctors pronounced that he had only 12 to 24 hours to live. After obtaining permission from his family, Frazier and Cohn replaced his heart with their device. Lewis survived for another 5 weeks after the operation; he eventually died from liver and kidney failure due to his amyloidosis, after which his family asked that his artificial heart be unplugged.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: On 10 July 2017, Nicholas Cohrs and colleagues presented a new concept of a soft total artificial heart in the Journal of Artificial Organs. The heart was developed in the Functionals Materials Laboratory at ETH Zurich. (Cohrs was listed as a doctoral student in a group led by Professor Wendelin Stark at ETH Zurich.)

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: in a hybrid mock circulation machine. Following which the silicone membrane (2.3 mm thick) between the Left Ventricle and the Air Expansion Chamber ruptured.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: A centrifugal pump or an axial-flow pump can be used as an artificial heart, resulting in the patient being alive without a pulse. Other pulse-less artificial heart designs include the HeartMate II from Thoratec, which uses an Archimedes screw; and an experimental artificial heart designed by Bud Frazier and Billy Cohn, using turbines spinning at 8,000 to 12,000 RPMs.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: A centrifugal artificial heart which alternately pumps the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation, causing a pulse, has been described.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Researchers have constructed a heart out of foam. The heart is made out of flexible silicone and works with an external pump to push air and fluids through the heart. It currently cannot be implanted into humans, but it is a promising start for artificial hearts.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Patients who have some remaining heart function but who can no longer live normally may be candidates for ventricular assist devices (VAD), which do not replace the human heart but complement it by taking up much of the function.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Another VAD, the Kantrowitz CardioVad, designed by Adrian Kantrowitz, boosts the native heart by taking up over 50% of its function. Additionally, the VAD can help patients on the wait list for a heart transplant. In a young person, this device could delay the need for a transplant by 10–15 years, or even allow the heart to recover, in which case the VAD can be removed.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The artificial heart is powered by a battery that needs to be changed several times while still working.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: The first heart assist device was approved by the FDA in 1994, and two more received approval in 1998.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Several continuous-flow ventricular assist devices have been approved for use in the European Union, and, as of August 2007, were undergoing clinical trials for FDA approval.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: In 2012, Craig Lewis, a 55-year-old Texan, presented at the Texas Heart Institute with a severe case of cardiac amyloidosis. He was given an experiment continuous-flow artificial heart transplant which saved his life. Lewis died 5 weeks later of liver failure after slipping into a coma due to the amyloidosis.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


Artificial heart

Context: Suffering from end-stage heart failure, former Vice President Dick Cheney underwent a procedure at INOVA Fairfax Hospital, in Fairfax Virginia in July 2010, to have a Heartmate II VAD implanted. In 2012, he received a heart transplant at age 71 after 20 months on a waiting list.

Question: Где впервые был создан искусственный клапан сердца?


On the Road

Context: The idea for "On the Road", Kerouac's second novel, was formed during the late 1940s in a series of notebooks, and then typed out on a continuous reel of paper during three weeks in April 1951. It was published by Viking Press in 1957.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: "The New York Times" hailed the book's appearance as "the most beautifully executed, the clearest and the most important utterance yet made by the generation Kerouac himself named years ago as 'beat,' and whose principal avatar he is." In 1998, the Modern Library ranked "On the Road" 55th on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. The novel was chosen by "Time" magazine as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: In 2007, Gabriel Anctil, a journalist of Montreal daily "Le Devoir", discovered in Kerouac's personal archives in New York almost 200 pages of his writings entirely in Quebec French, with colloquialisms. The collection included 10 manuscript pages of an unfinished version of "On the Road", written on January 19, 1951.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: The book received a mixed reaction from the media in 1957. Some of the earlier reviews spoke highly of the book, but the backlash to these was swift and strong. Although this was discouraging to Kerouac, he still received great recognition and notoriety from the work. Since its publication, critical attention has focused on issues of both the context and the style, addressing the actions of the characters as well as the nature of Kerouac's prose.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: Robert Kirsch in The Los Angeles Times said, "Mr. Kerouac may one day be a good writer, but that day will come when he stops riding around in a compulsive search for “material” and settles down to learn some of the first things about the craft...Mr. Kerouac calls this “The Beat Generation,” but a much more accurate description would be “The Deadbeat Generation.” I don’t know whether such people really exist, but if they do, he has thoroughly failed to make them believable."

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: John Leland, author of "Why Kerouac Matters: The Lessons of On the Road (They're Not What You Think)," says "We're no longer shocked by the sex and drugs. The slang is passé and at times corny. Some of the racial sentimentality is appalling" but adds "the tale of passionate friendship and the search for revelation are timeless. These are as elusive and precious in our time as in Sal's, and will be when our grandchildren celebrate the book's hundredth anniversary."

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: Mary Pannicia Carden feels that traveling was a way for the characters to assert their independence: they "attempt to replace the model of manhood dominant in capitalist America with a model rooted in foundational American ideals of conquest and self-discovery." "Reassigning disempowering elements of patriarchy to female keeping, they attempt to substitute male brotherhood for the nuclear family and to replace the ladder of success with the freedom of the road as primary measures of male identity."

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: Main characters Sal Paradise and Dean Moriarty are clearly enthusiastic fans of the jazz/bebop and early rhythm-and-blues musicians and records that were in the musical mix during the years when story took place, 1947 to 1950. Sal, Dean, and their friends are repeatedly depicted listening to specific records and going to clubs to hear their musical favorites.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: Jazz and other types of music are also featured more generally as a backdrop, with the characters often listening to music in clubs or on the radio. For example, while driving across the upper Midwest toward New York City, Sal mentions that he and Dean are listening to the radio show of well-known jazz deejay Symphony Sid Torin (Pt. 3, Ch. 11).

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: Kerouac even delves into the classical music genre briefly, having Sal attend a performance of Beethoven's sole opera, "Fidelio" (1805), in Central City, Colorado, as performed by "stars of the Metropolitan" who are visiting the area for the summer (Pt. 1, Ch. 9).

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: "On the Road" has been an influence on various poets, writers, actors and musicians, including Bob Dylan, Van Morrison, Jim Morrison, Jerry Garcia, David Bowie and Hunter S. Thompson.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: In his book "Light My Fire: My Life with The Doors," Ray Manzarek (keyboard player of The Doors) wrote "I suppose if Jack Kerouac had never written "On the Road", The Doors would never have existed."

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: Eric Kripke, creator of long-running series "Supernatural", has also cited "On the Road" as a major inspiration for the fantasy series.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: A film adaptation of "On the Road" had been proposed in 1957 when Jack Kerouac wrote a one-page letter to actor Marlon Brando, suggesting that he play Dean Moriarty while Kerouac would portray Sal Paradise. Brando never responded to the letter; later on Warner Bros. offered $110,000 for the rights to Kerouac's book, but his agent, Sterling Lord, declined it, hoping for a $150,000 deal from Paramount Pictures, which did not occur.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


On the Road

Context: In 2007, BBC Four aired "Russell Brand On the Road", a documentary presented by Russell Brand and Matt Morgan about Kerouac, focusing on "On the Road". The documentary "American Road", which explores the mystique of the road in US culture and contains an ample section on Kerouac, premiered at the AMFM Festival in California on 14 June 2013, when it won the award for Best Documentary.

Question: По какой стране путешествует главный герой романа «В доро́ге»?


Lend-Lease

Context: After the Fall of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain had been paying for its materiel with gold as part of the "cash and carry" program, as required by the U.S. Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated a large part of its overseas holdings and its gold reserves were becoming depleted in paying for materiel from the United States.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Opposition to the Lend-Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad". When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 9, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 238 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: The vote in the Senate, which occurred on 9 March, revealed a similar partisan difference: 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye" with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay". In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay" while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free; this act allowed their British garrison to be redeployed to more crucial theatres. In 1944, Britain transferred several of the US-made destroyers to the USSR.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States entering the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend-Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend-Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: In February 1942, the U.S. and Britain signed the Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement as part of a greater multilateral system, developed by the Allies during the war, to provide each other with goods, services, and mutual aid in the widest sense, without charging commercial payments.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Canada operated a program similar to Lend Lease called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of C$1 billion (equivalent to C$ billion in ) and C$3.4 billion (C$ billion) in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: The program began to be ended after VE Day. During April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and during August 1945, after Japanese surrender, the program was ended.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Lend-Lease contributed to the Allied victory. Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943–1944, Lend-Lease continued. Most remaining Allies were largely self-sufficient in frontline equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time but Lend-Lease provided a useful supplement in this category and Lend-Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) were of enormous assistance.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: According to the Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend-Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend-lease aid in his memoirs:

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Joseph Stalin, during the Tehran Conference during 1943, acknowledged publicly the importance of American efforts during a dinner at the conference: "Without American machines the United Nations could never have won the war."

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov is quoted as saying:

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Today [1963] some say the Allies didn't really help us ... But listen, one cannot deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend-lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German-occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7% was lost, while 93% arrived safely. This constituted some 23% of the total aid to the USSR during the war.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27% of the total.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the U.S.; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported. Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50% of the total.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials: over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans); 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were Bell P-39 Airacobras) and 1.75 million tons of food.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5% of total Soviet tank production but over 25% of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army. The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on November 20, 1941. Lend-Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of June 27, 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: Though diminutive in comparison, Soviet Union supplied the United States with goods that the latter badly needed, including 300,000 tons of chrome ore, 32,000 tons of manganese ore, and large supplies of platinum, gold and wood.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: In 1945–46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend-Lease, though in 1942–43, the value of Lend-Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Lend-Lease

Context: The final payment of $83.3 million (£42.5 million), due on December 31, 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made by Britain on December 29, 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment, Britain's Economic Secretary to the Treasury formally issued thanks to the U.S. for its wartime support.

Question: Кто разработал программу ленд-лиз?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee was born at Stratford Hall Plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to Henry Lee III and Anne Hill Carter Lee on January 19, 1807. His ancestor, Richard Lee I, emigrated from Shropshire, England, to Virginia in 1639.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In 1812 Lee's father moved permanently to the West Indies. Lee attended Eastern View, a school for young gentlemen, in Fauquier County, Virginia, and then at the Alexandria Academy, free for local boys, where he showed an aptitude for mathematics. Although brought up to be a practicing Christian, he was not confirmed in the Episcopal Church until age 46.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in 1862. They are all buried with their parents in the crypt of the University Chapel at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee is a great-great-great-grandson of William Randolph and a great-great-grandson of Richard Bland. Fitzhugh Lee (1835–1905), a Confederate general and later a United States Army general in the Spanish–American War, is Lee's nephew. Lee is a second cousin of Helen Keller's grandmother, and is a distant relative of Admiral Willis Augustus Lee.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: On May 1, 1864, General Lee was present at the baptism of General A.P. Hill's daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. This is referenced in the painting "Tender is the Heart" by Mort Künstler. He was also the godfather of actress and writer Odette Tyler, the daughter of Brigadier General William Whedbee Kirkland.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee distinguished himself in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). He was one of Winfield Scott's chief aides in the march from Veracruz to Mexico City. He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the Mexicans had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: He was promoted to brevet major after the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, 1847. He also fought at Contreras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec and was wounded at the last. By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel, but his permanent rank was still captain of engineers, and he would remain a captain until his transfer to the cavalry in 1855.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: For the first time, Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant met and worked with each other during the Mexican–American War. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant. The Mexican–American War concluded on February 2, 1848.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: The 1850s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, troubles in taking over the management of a large slave plantation, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In 1852, Lee was appointed Superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point. He was reluctant to enter what he called a "snake pit", but the War Department insisted and he obeyed. His wife occasionally came to visit. During his three years at West Point, Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Lee's oldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, attended West Point during his tenure. Custis Lee graduated in 1854, first in his class.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment in Texas in 1855. It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted. He served under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston at Camp Cooper, Texas; their mission was to protect settlers from attacks by the Apache and the Comanche.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee tried to hire an overseer to handle the plantation in his absence, writing to his cousin, "I wish to get an energetic honest farmer, who while he will be considerate & kind to the negroes, will be firm & make them do their duty." But Lee failed to find a man for the job, and had to take a two-year leave of absence from the army in order to run the plantation himself.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: By 1860 only one slave family was left intact on the estate. Some of the families had been together since their time at Mount Vernon.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's "The Perfect Gentleman", cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation."

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element that is not repeatedly corroborated is the allegation that Lee gave the beatings himself), as well as the existence of an account book that indicates the constable received compensation from Lee on the date that this event occurred."

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee argued that slavery was bad for white people, claiming that he found slavery bothersome and time-consuming as an everyday institution to run. In an 1856 letter to his wife, he maintained that slavery was a great evil, but primarily due to adverse impact that it had on white people:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Historian Elizabeth Brown Pryor offered an alternative interpretation of Lee's voluntary manumission of slaves in his will, and assisting slaves to a life of freedom in Liberia, seeing Lee as conforming to a "primacy of slave law". She wrote that Lee's private views on race and slavery,

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: "which today seem startling, were entirely unremarkable in Lee's world. No visionary, Lee nearly always tried to conform to accepted opinions. His assessment of black inferiority, of the necessity of racial stratification, the primacy of slave law, and even a divine sanction for it all, was in keeping with the prevailing views of other moderate slaveholders and a good many prominent Northerners."

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Even before what Michael Fellman called a "sorry involvement in actual slave management", Lee judged the experience of white mastery to be a greater moral evil to the white man than blacks suffering under the "painful discipline" of slavery which introduced Christianity, literacy and a work ethic to the "heathen African". Columbia University historian Eric Foner notes that:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee "was not a pro-slavery ideologue. But I think equally important is that, unlike some white southerners, he never spoke out against slavery"

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In the generation following the war, Lee, though he died just a few years later, became a central figure in the Lost Cause interpretation of the war. The argument that Lee had always somehow opposed slavery, and freed his wife's slaves, helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Both Harpers Ferry and the secession of Texas were monumental events leading up to the Civil War. Robert E. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Unlike many Southerners who expected a glorious war, Lee correctly predicted it as protracted and devastating. He privately opposed the new Confederate States of America in letters in early 1861, denouncing secession as "nothing but revolution" and an unconstitutional betrayal of the efforts of the Founding Fathers. Writing to George Washington Custis in January, Lee stated:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Despite opposing secession, Lee said in January that "we can with a clear conscience separate" if all peaceful means failed. He agreed with secessionists in most areas, rejecting the Northern abolitionists' criticisms and their prevention of the expansion of slavery to the new western territories, and fear of the North's larger population. Lee supported the Crittenden Compromise, which would have constitutionally protected slavery.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In Washington that day, Lee was offered by presidential advisor Francis P. Blair a role as major general to command the defense of the national capital. He replied:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee immediately went to Scott, who tried to persuade him that Union forces would be large enough to prevent the South from fighting, so he would not have to oppose his state; Lee disagreed. When Lee asked if he could go home and not fight, the fellow Virginian said that the army did not need equivocal soldiers and that if he wanted to resign, he should do so before receiving official orders. Scott told him that Lee had made "the greatest mistake of your life".

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In the spring of 1862, during the Peninsula Campaign, the Union Army of the Potomac under General George B. McClellan advanced on Richmond from Fort Monroe. Progressing up the Peninsula, McClellan forced Gen. Joseph E. Johnston and the Army of Virginia to retreat to a point just north and east of the Confederate capital.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: The setback, and the resulting drop in Union morale, impelled Lincoln to adopt a new policy of relentless, committed warfare. After the Seven Days, Lincoln decided he had to move to emancipate most Confederate slaves by executive order, as a military act, using his authority as commander-in-chief. To make this possible, he needed a Union victory.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Wheeling to the north, Lee marched rapidly towards Washington, D.C. and defeated another Union army under Gen. John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run in late August. He eliminated Pope before reinforcements from McClellan arrived, knocking out an entire field command before another could arrive to support it. In less than 90 days, Lee had run McClellan off the Peninsula, defeated Pope, and moved the battle lines north, from north of Richmond to south of Washington.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?