Renaissance

Context: The term "Renaissance" has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century. Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century and for the Timurid Renaissance of the 14th century. The Islamic Golden Age has been also sometimes termed with the Islamic Renaissance.

Question: Сколько длилась эпоха Ренессанса в Европе?


Crime in Venezuela

Context: The U.S. Bureau of Diplomatic Security says most of the violence comes from organized street gangs, and attributes criminal activity to four factors: "often corrupt" underpaid police, an "inefficient and politicized judicial system", problems in the prison system, and widespread availability of weapons.

Question: Какая страна самая корру́мпированная в мире на март 2019?


Crime in Venezuela

Context: In 2007, authorities in Colombia claimed that through laptops they had seized on a raid against Raul Reyes, they found documents purporting to show that Hugo Chávez offered payments of as much as $300 million USD to the FARC. According to Interpol, the files found by Colombian forces were considered to be authentic.

Question: Какая страна самая корру́мпированная в мире на март 2019?


Crime in Venezuela

Context: At least 80% of kidnappings occur in a limited area around Caracas and including Miranda State. Most kidnappings occur around "peace zones" where official police withdrew and gangs took over; according to NBC News, "experts say the government has armed these groups ... [who] ... control large territories, financed through extortion and the drug trade".

Question: Какая страна самая корру́мпированная в мире на март 2019?


Crime in Venezuela

Context: However a year later, one "Coliseum" in Uribana left 2 dead and 128 injured. Those injured had to be assisted by a church in the area.

Question: Какая страна самая корру́мпированная в мире на март 2019?


Crime in Venezuela

Context: In May 2020, inmates rioted at the Llanos Penitentiary Center in Guanare, leading to 40 deaths. The facility had been overcrowded by more than three times its designed capacity.

Question: Какая страна самая корру́мпированная в мире на март 2019?


Kangaroo

Context: The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot"). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, the red kangaroo, as well as the antilopine kangaroo, eastern grey kangaroo, and western grey kangaroo. Kangaroos are indigenous to Australia and New Guinea. The Australian government estimates that 42.8 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2019, down from 53.2 million in 2013.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos have large, powerful hind legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance, and a small head. Like most marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch called a marsupium in which joeys complete postnatal development.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The large kangaroos have adapted much better than the smaller macropods to land clearing for pastoral agriculture and habitat changes brought to the Australian landscape by humans. Many of the smaller species are rare and endangered, while kangaroos are relatively plentiful.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The kangaroo is a symbol of Australia, appears on the Australian coat of arms and on some of its currency, and is used as a logo for some of Australia's most well-known organisations, such as Qantas, and as the roundel of the Royal Australian Air Force. The kangaroo is important to both Australian culture and the national image, and consequently there are numerous popular culture references.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Wild kangaroos are shot for meat, leather hides, and to protect grazing land. Kangaroo meat has perceived health benefits for human consumption compared with traditional meats due to the low level of fat on kangaroos.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as "roos". Male kangaroos are called bucks, boomers, jacks, or old men; females are does, flyers, or jills; and the young ones are joeys. The collective noun for a group of kangaroos is a mob, court, or troupe.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The first kangaroo to be exhibited in the Western world was an example shot by John Gore, an officer on Captain Cook's ship, HMS "Endeavour", in 1770. The animal was shot and its skin and skull transported back to England whereupon it was stuffed (by taxidermists who had never seen the animal before) and displayed to the general public as a curiosity. The first glimpse of a kangaroo for many 18th-century Britons was a painting by George Stubbs.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos and wallabies belong to the same taxonomic family (Macropodidae) and often the same genera, but kangaroos are specifically categorised into the four largest species of the family. The term wallaby is an informal designation generally used for any macropod that is smaller than a kangaroo or a wallaroo that has not been designated otherwise.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos have single-chambered stomachs quite unlike those of cattle and sheep, which have four compartments. They sometimes regurgitate the vegetation they have eaten, chew it as cud, and then swallow it again for final digestion. However, this is a different, more strenuous, activity than it is in ruminants, and does not take place as frequently.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Different species of kangaroos have different diets, although all are strict herbivores. The eastern grey kangaroo is predominantly a grazer, and eats a wide variety of grasses, whereas some other species such as the red kangaroo include significant amounts of shrubs in their diets. Smaller species of kangaroos also consume hypogeal fungi. Many species are nocturnal, and crepuscular, usually spending the hot days resting in shade, and the cool evenings, nights and mornings moving about and feeding.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos have a few natural predators. The thylacine, considered by palaeontologists to have once been a major natural predator of the kangaroo, is now extinct. Other extinct predators included the marsupial lion, "Megalania" and "Wonambi". However, with the arrival of humans in Australia at least 50,000 years ago and the introduction of the dingo about 5,000 years ago, kangaroos have had to adapt.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Along with dingoes, introduced species such as foxes, feral cats, and both domestic and feral dogs, pose a threat to kangaroo populations. Kangaroos and wallabies are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if presented with the option. If pursued into the water, a large kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it. Another defensive tactic described by witnesses is catching the attacking dog with the forepaws and disembowelling it with the hind legs.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will conceive only if enough rain has fallen to produce a large quantity of green vegetation.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos and wallabies have large, elastic tendons in their hind legs. They store elastic strain energy in the tendons of their large hind legs, providing most of the energy required for each hop by the spring action of the tendons rather than by any muscular effort. This is true in all animal species which have muscles connected to their skeletons through elastic elements such as tendons, but the effect is more pronounced in kangaroos.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: New research has revealed that a kangaroo's tail acts as a third leg rather than just a balancing strut. Kangaroos have a unique three-stage walk where they plant their front legs and tail first, then push off their tail, followed lastly by the back legs. The propulsive force of the tail is equal to that of both the front and hind legs combined and performs as much work as what a human leg walking can at the same speed.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The kangaroo has always been a very important animal for Aboriginal Australians, for its meat, hide, bone, and tendon. Kangaroo hides were also sometimes used for recreation; in particular there are accounts of some tribes (Kurnai) using stuffed kangaroo scrotum as a ball for the traditional football game of marngrook. In addition, there were important Dreaming stories and ceremonies involving the kangaroo. Aherrenge is a current kangaroo dreaming site in the Northern Territory.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Unlike many of the smaller macropods, kangaroos have fared well since European settlement. European settlers cut down forests to create vast grasslands for sheep and cattle grazing, added stock watering points in arid areas, and have substantially reduced the number of dingoes.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos are shy and retiring by nature, and in normal circumstances present no threat to humans. In 2003, Lulu, an eastern grey which had been hand-reared, saved a farmer's life by alerting family members to his location when he was injured by a falling tree branch. She received the RSPCA Australia National Animal Valour Award on 19 May 2004.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos-even those that are non domesticated- can communicate with humans, according to a research study.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Vehicles that frequent isolated roads, where roadside assistance may be scarce, are often fitted with "roo bars" to minimise damage caused by collision. Bonnet-mounted devices, designed to scare wildlife off the road with ultrasound and other methods, have been devised and marketed.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The kangaroo is a recognisable symbol of Australia. The kangaroo and emu feature on the Australian coat of arms. Kangaroos have also been featured on coins, most notably the five kangaroos on the Australian one dollar coin. The Australian Made logo consists of a golden kangaroo in a green triangle to show that a product is grown or made in Australia.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The kangaroo appears in Rudyard Kipling's "Just So Stories", "The Sing-Song of Old Man Kangaroo", while the kangaroo is chased by a dingo, he gives Nqong the Big God's advice, that his legs and tail grew longest before five o'clock.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroos are well represented in films, television, books, toys and souvenirs around the world. "Skippy the Bush Kangaroo" was a popular 1960s Australian children's television series about a fictional pet kangaroo. Kangaroos are featured in the Rolf Harris song "Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport" and several Christmas carols.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: The kangaroo has been a source of food for indigenous Australians for tens of thousands of years. Kangaroo meat is high in protein and low in fat (about 2%). Kangaroo meat has a high concentration of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) compared with other foods, and is a rich source of vitamins and minerals. Low fat diets rich in CLA have been studied for their potential in reducing obesity and atherosclerosis.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroo meat is sourced from wild animals and is seen by many as the best source of population control programs as opposed to culling them as pests where carcasses are left in paddocks. Kangaroos are harvested by highly skilled, licensed shooters in accordance with a strict code of practice and are protected by state and federal legislation.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Kangaroo

Context: Kangaroo meat is exported to many countries around the world. However, it is not considered biblically kosher by Jews or Adventists. It is considered halal according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.

Question: Сколько длится беременность кенгуру?


Romanian armies in the Battle of Stalingrad

Context: Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939, Romania lost almost one third of its territory without a single shot being fired, as Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina were annexed by the Soviet Union on June 28, 1940, after Romania yielded to a Soviet ultimatum. As a result, King Carol II was forced to abdicate in September 1940, and General Ion Antonescu rose to power.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: In September 1942, the Romanian Third and Fourth Armies took up their positions around Stalingrad together with the first elements of the Romanian Air Corps: on September 16, the 7th Fighter Group, on September 25, the 5th Bomber Group and, on October 4, the 1st Bomber, 8th Fighter, 6th Fighter-Bomber and 3rd Bomber Group arrived with the mission of providing air support for the Third Romanian and 6th German Armies.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: Most of these formations were in deplorable shape, with at best 73% of necessary manpower, with the 1st Infantry Division going as low as 25% and an almost nonexistent arsenal of heavy antitank guns. Between these two armies was the Sixth German Army, under "General der Panzertruppe" Friedrich Paulus.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 21 November, the 22nd Panzer Division tried to advance towards Perelasovsky in order to make the junction with the 1st Armored Division and to relieve the "General Lascār" Group, but failed and was stopped the next day between Bol. Donschynka and Perelasovsky. The 1st Romanian Armored Division advanced towards Bol. Donschynka, where it was hoping to find the German division, but the village was under Soviet control and then headed south and, after grim fighting, crossed the Chir River on 25 November.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 23 November, the Soviet troops of the South-Western Front and of the Stalingrad Front met at Kalach-na-Donu, completing the encirclement of the German 6th Army, parts of the Fourth Army and six other Romanian infantry divisions and one cavalry division.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 22 November, the Soviets took hold of Mal. Derbety and Tundutovo and the "Korne" Detachment was attacked in the Krasnay-Geroy area, suffering heavy losses. The proposal by the Romanian command to fall back to better positions on the clashed with the German decision to hold firm.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 24 November, Soviet activity abated, but the next day, the Soviet troops attacked towards Kotelnikovo between the Don and the railroad, pushing the 4th Infantry Division southwards from the left flank of the 7th Corps.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 16 December, the Soviet Third Guards Army started Operation Little Saturn and attacked Army Group Hollidt to which was subordinated the Third Romanian Army, along the river Chir. On 18 December, the Soviet Sixth Army broke through the defence of the Italian 8th Army and the 18th, 24th and 25th Tank Corps penetrated deep behind Axis lines, threatening the rear of the front on the Chir.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 24 December, the Red Army counterattacked, with 149,000 men and 635 tanks, the German 57th Panzer Corps and the Romanian Fourth Army and on 29 December, the 57th Panzer had to abandon Kotelnikovo, which sealed the fate of the Axis troops in Stalingrad.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Context: On 15 January 1943, came another devastating blow: The Hungarian 2nd Army was encircled and eventually destroyed, with 147,971 casualties.

Question: Как назывался первый румынский танк?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky (; 29 July 18172 May 1900) was a Russian Romantic painter who is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art. Baptized as Hovhannes Aivazian, he was born into an Armenian family in the Black Sea port of Feodosia in Crimea and was mostly based there.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Upon his return to Russia, Aivazovsky was made an academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts and was appointed the "official artist of the Russian Navy to paint seascapes, coastal scenes and naval battles." In 1845, Aivazovsky traveled to the Aegean Sea with Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich and visited the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, and the Greek islands of Patmos and Rhodes.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In 1845, Aivazovsky settled in his hometown of Feodosia, where he built a house and studio. He isolated himself from the outside world, keeping a small circle of friends and relatives. Yet the solitude played a negative role in his art career. By the mid-nineteenth century, Russian art was moving from Romanticism towards a distinct Russian style of Realism, while Aivazovsky continued to paint Romantic seascapes and attracted heavy criticism.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In 1845 and 1846, Aivazovsky attended the maneuvers of the Black Sea Fleet and the Baltic Fleet at Petergof, near the imperial palace. In 1847, he was given the title of professor of seascape painting by the Imperial Academy of Arts and elevated to the rank of nobility. In the same year, he was elected to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In 1848, Aivazovsky married Julia Graves, an English governess. They had four daughters: Elena (1849), Maria (1851), Alexandra (1852) and Joanne (1858). They separated in 1860 and divorced in 1877 with permission from the Armenian Church, since Graves was a Lutheran.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Between 1856 and 1857, Aivazovsky worked in Paris and became the first Russian (and the first non-French) artist to receive the Legion of Honour. In 1857, Aivazovsky visited Constantinople and was awarded the Order of the Medjidie. In the same year, he was elected an honorary member of the Moscow Art Society. He was awarded the Greek Order of the Redeemer in 1859 and the Russian Order of St. Vladimir in 1865.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Aivazovsky opened an art studio in Feodosia in 1865 and was awarded a salary by the Imperial Academy of Arts the same year.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Aivazovsky was elected an honorary member of Stuttgart's Royal Academy of Fine Arts in 1878. He made a trip to the Netherlands and France, staying briefly in Frankfurt until 1879. He then visited Munich and traveled to Genoa and Venice "to collect material on the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus."

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In 1880, Aivazovsky opened an art gallery in his Feodosia house; it became the third museum in the Russian Empire, after the Hermitage Museum and the Tretyakov Gallery. Aivazovsky held an 1881 exhibition at London's Pall Mall, attended by English painter John Everett Millais and Edward VII, Prince of Wales.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Aivazovsky's second wife, Anna Burnazian, was a young Armenian widow 40 years his junior. Aivazovsky said that by marrying her in 1882, he "became closer to [his] nation", referring to the Armenian people. In 1882, Aivazovsky visited Moscow and St Petersburg and then toured the countryside of Russia by traveling along the Volga River in 1884.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In 1885, he was promoted to the rank of Privy Councilor. The next year, the 50th anniversary of his creative labors, was celebrated with an exhibition in St Petersburg, and an honorary membership in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In 1887, as part of a jubilee celebration of his career, Aivazovsky hosted a dinner for 150 friends. Each guest received a miniature painting by Aivazovsky set into a studio photograph of the artist at work.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: After meeting Aivazovsky in person, Anton Chekhov wrote a letter to his wife on 22 July 1888 describing him as follows:

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: After traveling to Paris with his wife, in 1892 he made a trip to the United States, visiting Niagara Falls in New York and Washington D.C. In 1896, at 79, Aivazovsky was promoted to the rank of full privy councillor.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: He spent his final years in Feodosia. In the 1890s, thanks to his efforts a commercial port () was established in Feodosia and linked to the railway network of the Russian Empire. The railway station, opened in 1892, is now called and is one of the two stations within the city of Feodosia. Aivazovsky also supplied Feodosia with drinking water.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: After his death, his wife Anna led a generally secluded life, living in several rooms she had retained after nationalization, until 1941. She died on 25 July 1944 and was buried next to Aivazovsky. Two of his daughters (Maria and Alexandra) left Russia following the Revolution of 1917, while the other two died shortly thereafter: Yelena in 1918 and Zhanna in 1922.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: He held 55 solo exhibitions (an unprecedented number) over the course of his career. Among the most notable were held in Rome, Naples and Venice (1841–42), Paris (1843, 1890), Amsterdam (1844), Moscow (1848, 1851, 1886), Sevastopol (1854), Tiflis (1868), Florence (1874), St. Petersburg (1875, 1877, 1886, 1891), Frankfurt (1879), Stuttgart (1879), London (1881), Berlin (1885, 1890), Warsaw (1885), Constantinople (1888), New York (1893), Chicago (1893), San Francisco (1893).

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: He also "contributed to the exhibitions of the Imperial Academy of Arts (1836–1900), Paris Salon (1843, 1879), Society of Exhibitions of Works of Art (1876–83), Moscow Society of Lovers of the Arts (1880), Pan-Russian Exhibitions in Moscow (1882) and Nizhny Novgorod (1896), World Exhibitions in Paris (1855, 1867, 1878), London (1863), Munich (1879) and Chicago (1893) and the international exhibitions in Philadelphia (1876), Munich (1879) and Berlin (1896)."

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Aivazovsky's later work contained dramatic scenes and was usually done on a larger scale. He depicted "the romantic struggle between man and the elements in the form of the sea ("The Rainbow", 1873), and so-called "blue marines" ("The Bay of Naples in Early Morning", 1897, "Disaster", 1898) and urban landscapes ("Moonlit Night on the Bosphorus", 1894)."

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: He resumed the creation of Armenian-related paintings in the 1880s: "Valley of Mount Ararat" (1882), "Ararat" (1887), "Descent of Noah from Ararat" (1889). The unique "Valley of Mount Ararat" contains Aivazovksy's signature in Armenian: "Aivazian" (). In a panorama of Venice expressed by "Byron's Visit to the Mekhitarists on St Lazarus Island in Venice" (1898); the foreground of the picture contains members of the Armenian Congregation giving an enthusiastic welcome to the poet.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: His other themed works from this period include rare portraits of notable Armenians, such as his brother Archbishop Gabriel Aivazovsky (), Count Mikhail Loris-Melikov (), Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian (), Nakhichevan-on-Don Mayor Аrutyun Khalabyan and others.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: "The Baptism of Armenians" and "Oath Before the Battle of Avarayr" (both 1892) depict the two single most memorable events of ancient Armenia: the Christianization of Armenia via baptism of King Tiridates III (early 4th century), and the Battle of Avarayr of 451.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In Feodosia, Aivazovsky possessed a house and a vineyard. He also owned houses elsewhere in Crimea, such as Stary Krym and Yalta. The estates inherited by his heirs were lost in the early Soviet period when they were nationalized.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Aivazovsky was the most influential seascape painter in nineteenth-century Russian art. According to the Russian Museum, "he was the first and for a long time the only representative of seascape painting" and "all other artists who painted seascapes were either his own students or influenced by him."

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In nineteenth-century Russia, his name became a synonym for art and beauty. The phrase "worthy of Aivazovsky's brush" was the standard way of describing something ineffably lovely. It was first used by Anton Chekhov in his 1897 play "Uncle Vanya". In response to Marina Timofeevna's (the old nurse) query about the fight between Ivan Voynitsky ("Uncle Vanya") and Aleksandr Serebryakov, Ilya Telegin says that it was "A sight worthy of Aivazovsky's brush" ( ).

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: A street in Moscow was named after Aivazovsky in 1978. His first and only statue in Russia was erected in 2007 in Kronstadt, near Saint Petersburg. The Simferopol International Airport in Crimea, under Russian administration, was voted to be named after Aivazovsky in 2018. It was officially renamed according to a decree signed by President Vladimir Putin on May 31, 2019, and ceremonially renamed on Russia Day (June 12).

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In a July 2017 poll conducted by the VTsIOM Aivazovsky ranked first as the most favorite artist with 27% of respondents naming him as their favorite, ahead of Ivan Shishkin (26%) and Ilya Repin (16%). Overall, 93% of respondents said they were familiar with his name (26% knew him well, 67% have heard his name) and 63% of those who know him said they liked his works, including 80% of those 60 or older and 35% of 18 to 24 year olds.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: Aivazovsky has always been considered an Armenian painter in his ancestral homeland and referred to by his Armenian name, Hovhannes. Virtually all Armenian, some Russian and English sources, refer to him by that name: Hovhannes Ayvazovski (; , ). He signed some of his paintings and letters in Armenian. For instance, his signatures in both Armenian (, ) and Russian (, ) appear on "Valley of Mount Ararat" (1882).

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: As early as 1876, a sea painting by Aivazovsky was hanging at the residence of the Catholicos at the monastery of Etchmiadzin. Several Aivazovsky paintings from the National Gallery now hang in the Presidential Palace in Yerevan. A bust of Aivazovsky was erected in Stepanakert in December 2021.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: The Soviet Union (1950), Romania (1971), Madagascar (1988), Armenia (first in 1992), Russia (1995), Ukraine (1999), Abkhazia (1999), Moldova (2010), Kyrgyzstan (2010), Burundi (2012), and Mozambique (2013) have issued postage stamps depicting Aivazovsky or his works. The minor planet 3787 Aivazovskij, named after Aivazovsky, was discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh in 1977.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In January 2011 a number of paintings, including those of Aivazovsky, were stolen from the country house of Aleksandr Tarantsev, an owner of a chain of jewelry stores in Russia. In 2017 it was reported that a fake of one of the paintings stolen from Tarantsev's house was presented to Armenian president Serzh Sargsyan by the Pyunik foundation.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


Ivan Aivazovsky

Context: In June 2015 Sotheby's withdrew from auction an 1870 Aivazovsky painting "Evening in Cairo", which was estimated at £1.5–2 million ($2–$3 million), after the Russian Interior Ministry claimed that it was stolen in 1997 from a private collection in Moscow. In 2017 "View on Revel" (1845), stolen from the Dmitrov Kremlin Museum in 1976, was found at in Zürich, Switzerland.

Question: Где находится самая большая коллекция работ Ива́на Константи́новича Айвазо́вского на март 2019?


United States dollar

Context: The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nation's central bank.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The U.S. dollar was originally defined under a bimetallic standard of (0.7735 troy ounces) fine silver or, from 1837, fine gold, or $20.67 per troy ounce. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 linked the dollar solely to gold. From 1934, its equivalence to gold was revised to $35 per troy ounce. Since 1971 all links to gold have been repealed.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The U.S. dollar became an important international reserve currency after the First World War, and displaced the pound sterling as the world's primary reserve currency by the Bretton Woods Agreement towards the end of the Second World War. The dollar is the in international transactions, and a free-floating currency. It is also the official currency in several countries and the "de facto" currency in many others, with Federal Reserve Notes (and, in a few cases, U.S. coins) used in circulation.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: As of February 10, 2021, currency in circulation amounted to , of which is in Federal Reserve Notes (the remaining is in the form of coins and older-style United States Notes).

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: In 1792, the U.S. Congress passed the Coinage Act, of which Section 9 authorized the production of various coins, including:Section 20 of the Act designates the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States:

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Unlike the Spanish milled dollar, the Continental Congress and the Coinage Act prescribed a decimal system of units to go with the unit dollar, as follows: the mill, or one-thousandth of a dollar; the cent, or one-hundredth of a dollar; the dime, or one-tenth of a dollar; and the eagle, or ten dollars. The current relevance of these units:

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The Spanish peso or dollar was historically divided into eight reales (colloquially, "bits") - hence "pieces of eight". Americans also learned counting in non-decimal "bits" of 12 cents before 1857 when Mexican "bits" were more frequently encountered than American cents; in fact this practice survived in New York Stock Exchange quotations until 2001.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: In 1854, Secretary of the Treasury James Guthrie proposed creating $100, $50, and $25 gold coins, to be referred to as a "union", "half union", and "quarter union", respectively, thus implying a denomination of 1 Union = $100. However, no such coins were ever struck, and only patterns for the $50 half union exist.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: When currently issued in circulating form, denominations less than or equal to a dollar are emitted as U.S. coins, while denominations greater than or equal to a dollar are emitted as Federal Reserve Notes, disregarding these special cases:

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as "joachimstalers", named for Joachimstal, the valley in which the silver was mined. In turn, the valley's name is titled after Saint Joachim, whereby "thal" or "tal", a cognate of the English word , is German for 'valley.' The "joachimstaler" was later shortened to the German "taler", a word that eventually found its way into many languages, including:

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Though the Dutch pioneered in modern-day New York in the 17th century the use and the counting of money in silver dollars in the form of German-Dutch "reichsthalers" and native Dutch "leeuwendaalders" ('lion dollars'), it was the ubiquitous Spanish American eight-real coin which became exclusively known as the "dollar" since the 18th century.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The colloquialism "" (much like the British "quid" for the pound sterling) is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial leather trade, or it may also have originated from a poker term.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Greenback is another nickname, originally applied specifically to the 19th-century Demand Note dollars, which were printed black and green on the backside, created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the North for the Civil War. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries). The term "greenback" is also used by the financial press in other countries, such as

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Other well-known names of the dollar as a whole in denominations include greenmail, green, and dead presidents, the latter of which referring to the deceased presidents pictured on most bills. Dollars in general have also been known as bones (e.g. "twenty bones" = $20). The newer designs, with portraits displayed in the main body of the obverse (rather than in cameo insets), upon paper color-coded by denomination, are sometimes referred to as bigface notes or Monopoly money.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Piastre was the original French word for the U.S. dollar, used for example in the French text of the Louisiana Purchase. Though the U.S. dollar is called "dollar" in Modern French, the term "piastre" is still used among the speakers of Cajun French and New England French, as well as speakers in Haiti and other French-speaking Caribbean islands.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The symbol , usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The sign was the result of a late 18th-century evolution of the scribal abbreviation ps for the peso, the common name for the Spanish dollars that were in wide circulation in the New World from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The p and the s eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to $.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Another popular explanation is that it is derived from the Pillars of Hercules on the Spanish Coat of arms of the Spanish dollar. These Pillars of Hercules on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars (||) and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an S.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Yet another explanation suggests that the dollar sign was formed from the capital letters U and S written or printed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist Ayn Rand in "Atlas Shrugged", does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Even after the United States Mint commenced issuing coins in 1792, locally minted "dollars" and "cents" were less abundant in circulation than Spanish American "pesos" and "reales"; hence Spanish, Mexican and American dollars all remained legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. In particular, Colonists' familiarity with the Spanish two-"real quarter peso" was the reason for issuing a quasi-decimal 25-cent quarter dollar coin rather than a 20-cent coin.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: For the relationship between the Spanish dollar and the individual state colonial currencies, see Connecticut pound, Delaware pound, Georgia pound, Maryland pound, Massachusetts pound, New Hampshire pound, New Jersey pound, New York pound, North Carolina pound, Pennsylvania pound, Rhode Island pound, South Carolina pound, and Virginia pound.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: On the 6th of July 1785, the Continental Congress resolved that the money unit of the United States, the dollar, would contain 375.64 grains of fine silver; on the 8th of August 1786, the Continental Congress continued that definition and further resolved that the money of account, corresponding with the division of coins, would proceed in a decimal ratio, with the sub-units being mills at 0.001 of a dollar, cents at 0.010 of a dollar, and dimes at 0.100 of a dollar.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The same coinage act also set the value of an eagle at 10 dollars, and the dollar at eagle. It called for silver coins in denominations of 1, , , , and dollar, as well as gold coins in denominations of 1, and eagle. The value of gold or silver contained in the dollar was then converted into relative value in the economy for the buying and selling of goods. This allowed the value of things to remain fairly constant over time, except for the influx and outflux of gold and silver in the nation's economy.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Though a Spanish dollar freshly minted after 1772 theoretically contained 417.7 grains of silver of fineness 130/144 (or 377.1 grains fine silver), reliable assays of the period in fact confirmed a fine silver content of for the average Spanish dollar in circulation.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The new U.S. silver dollar of therefore compared favorably and was received at par with the Spanish dollar for foreign payments, and after 1803 the United States Mint had to suspend making this coin out of its limited resources since it failed to stay in domestic circulation. It was only after Mexican independence in 1821 when their peso's fine silver content of 377.1 grains was firmly upheld, which the U.S. later had to compete with using a heavier Trade dollar coin.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: After the American Revolution, the thirteen colonies became independent. Freed from British monetary regulations, they each issued £sd paper money to pay for military expenses. The Continental Congress also began issuing "Continental Currency" denominated in Spanish dollars. For its value relative to states' currencies, see Early American currency.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: From implementation of the 1792 Mint Act to the 1900 implementation of the gold standard the dollar was on a bimetallic silver-and-gold standard, defined as either 371.25 grains (24.056 g) of fine silver or 24.75 grains of fine gold (gold-silver ratio 15).

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Subsequent to the Coinage Act of 1834 the dollar's fine gold equivalent was revised to 23.2 grains; it was slightly adjusted to in 1837 (gold-silver ratio ~16). The same act also resolved the difficulty in minting the "standard silver" of 89.24% fineness by revising the dollar's alloy to 412.5 grains, 90% silver, still containing 371.25 grains fine silver. Gold was also revised to 90% fineness: 25.8 grains gross, 23.22 grains fine gold.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: In order to finance the War of 1812, Congress authorized the issuance of Treasury Notes, interest-bearing short-term debt that could be used to pay public dues. While they were intended to serve as debt, they did function "to a limited extent" as money. Treasury Notes were again printed to help resolve the reduction in public revenues resulting from the Panic of 1837 and the Panic of 1857, as well as to help finance the Mexican–American War and the Civil War.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Though the dollar came under the gold standard "de jure" only after 1900, the bimetallic era was ended "de facto" when the Coinage Act of 1873 suspended the minting of the standard silver dollar of 412.5 grains (26.73 g = 0.8595 oz t), the only fully legal tender coin that individuals could convert bullion into in unlimited (or Free silver) quantities, and right at the onset of the silver rush from the Comstock Lode in the 1870s. This was the so-called "Crime of '73".

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The "Gold Standard Act" of 1900 repealed the U.S. dollar's historic link to silver and defined it solely as of fine gold (or $20.67 per troy ounce of 480 grains). In 1933, gold coins were confiscated by Executive Order 6102 under Franklin D. Roosevelt, and in 1934 the standard was changed to $35 per troy ounce fine gold, or per dollar.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: After 1968 a series of revisions to the gold peg was implemented, culminating in the Nixon Shock of August 15, 1971, which suddenly ended the convertibility of dollars to gold. The U.S. dollar has since floated freely on the foreign exchange markets.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Congress continued to issue paper money after the Civil War, the latest of which is the Federal Reserve Note that was authorized by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. Since the discontinuation of all other types of notes (Gold Certificates in 1933, Silver Certificates in 1963, and United States Notes in 1971), U.S. dollar notes have since been issued exclusively as Federal Reserve Notes.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 also defined the post-World War II monetary order and relations among modern-day independent states, by setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system. The agreement founded the International Monetary Fund and other institutions of the modern-day World Bank Group, establishing the infrastructure for conducting international payments and accessing the global capital markets using the U.S. dollar.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nation's central bank. It was founded in 1913 under the Federal Reserve Act in order to furnish an elastic currency for the United States and to supervise its banking system, particularly in the aftermath of the Panic of 1907.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: For most of the post-war period, the U.S. government has financed its own spending by borrowing heavily from the dollar-lubricated global capital markets, in debts denominated in its own currency and at minimal interest rates. This ability to borrow heavily without facing a significant balance of payments crisis has been described as the United States's exorbitant privilege.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The United States Mint has issued legal tender coins every year from 1792 to the present. From 1934 to the present, the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Gold and silver coins have been previously minted for general circulation from the 18th to the 20th centuries. The last gold coins were minted in 1933. The last 90% silver coins were minted in 1964, and the last 40% silver half dollar was minted in 1970.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The United States Mint currently produces circulating coins at the Philadelphia and Denver Mints, and commemorative and proof coins for collectors at the San Francisco and West Point Mints. Mint mark conventions for these and for past mint branches are discussed in "Coins of the United States dollar#Mint marks".

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The one-dollar coin has never been in popular circulation from 1794 to present, despite several attempts to increase their usage since the 1970s, the most important reason of which is the continued production and popularity of the one-dollar bill. Half dollar coins were commonly used currency since inception in 1794, but has fallen out of use from the mid-1960s when all silver half dollars began to be hoarded.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The nickel is the only coin whose size and composition (5 grams, 75% copper, and 25% nickel) is still in use from 1865 to today, except for wartime 1942-1945 Jefferson nickels which contained silver.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Due to the penny's low value, some efforts have been made to eliminate the penny as circulating coinage.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: For a discussion of other discontinued and canceled denominations, see "Obsolete denominations of United States currency#Coinage" and "Canceled denominations of United States currency#Coinage".

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Collector coins are technically legal tender at face value but are usually worth far more due to their numismatic value or for their precious metal content. These include:

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System in 1913 as the central bank of the United States. Its primary task is

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: to conduct the nation's monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy. It is also tasked to promote the stability of the financial system and regulate financial institutions, and to act as lender of last resort.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The Monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Open Market Committee, which is composed of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors and 5 out of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents, and is implemented by all twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Monetary policy refers to actions made by central banks that determine the size and growth rate of the money supply available in the economy, and which would result in desired objectives like low inflation, low unemployment, and stable financial systems. The economy's aggregate money supply is the total of

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Monetary policy directly affects interest rates; it indirectly affects stock prices, wealth, and currency exchange rates. Through these channels, monetary policy influences spending, investment, production, employment, and inflation in the United States. Effective monetary policy complements fiscal policy to support economic growth.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The adjusted monetary base has increased from approximately $400 billion in 1994, to $800 billion in 2005, and to over $3,000 billion in 2013.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The Federal Reserve's monetary policy objectives to keep prices stable and unemployment low is often called the "dual mandate". This replaces past practices under a gold standard where the main concern is the gold equivalent of the local currency, or under a gold exchange standard where the concern is fixing the exchange rate versus another gold-convertible currency (previously practiced worldwide under the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 via fixed exchange rates to the U.S. dollar).

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The primary currency used for global trade between Europe, Asia, and the Americas has historically been the Spanish-American silver dollar, which created a global silver standard system from the 16th to 19th centuries, due to abundant silver supplies in Spanish America.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The U.S. dollar itself was derived from this coin. The Spanish dollar was later displaced by the British pound sterling in the advent of the international gold standard in the last quarter of the 19th century.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The U.S. dollar began to displace the pound sterling as international reserve currency from the 1920s since it emerged from the First World War relatively unscathed and since the United States was a significant recipient of wartime gold inflows.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: After the U.S. emerged as an even stronger global superpower during the Second World War, the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 established the post-war international monetary system, with the U.S. dollar ascending to become the world's primary reserve currency for international trade, and the only post-war currency linked to gold at $35 per troy ounce.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The U.S. dollar is joined by the world's other major currencies - the euro, pound sterling, Japanese yen and Chinese renminbi - in the currency basket of the special drawing rights of the International Monetary Fund. Central banks worldwide have huge reserves of U.S. dollars in their holdings and are significant buyers of U.S. treasury bills and notes.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Foreign companies, entities, and private individuals hold U.S. dollars in foreign deposit accounts called eurodollars (not to be confused with the euro), which are outside the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve System. Private individuals also hold dollars outside the banking system mostly in the form of US$100 bills, of which 80% of its supply is held overseas.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The United States Department of the Treasury exercises considerable oversight over the SWIFT financial transfers network, and consequently has a huge sway on the global financial transactions systems, with the ability to impose sanctions on foreign entities and individuals.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The U.S. dollar is predominantly the standard currency unit in which goods are quoted and traded, and with which payments are settled in, in the global commodity markets. The U.S. Dollar Index is an important indicator of the dollar's strength or weakness versus a basket of six foreign currencies.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The United States Government is capable of borrowing trillions of dollars from the global capital markets in U.S. dollars issued by the Federal Reserve, which is itself under U.S. government purview, at minimal interest rates, and with virtually zero default risk. In contrast, foreign governments and corporations incapable of raising money in their own local currencies are forced to issue debt denominated in U.S. dollars, along with its consequent higher interest rates and risks of default.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The United States's ability to borrow in its own currency without facing a significant balance of payments crisis has been frequently described as its exorbitant privilege.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: A frequent topic of debate is whether the strong dollar policy of the United States is indeed in America's own best interests, as well as in the best interest of the international community.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: For a more exhaustive discussion of countries using the U.S. dollar as official or customary currency, or using currencies which are pegged to the U.S. dollar, see "International use of the U.S. dollar#Dollarization and fixed exchange rates" and "Currency substitution#US dollar".

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Among the countries using the U.S. dollar together with other foreign currencies and its local currency are Cambodia and Zimbabwe.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The 6th paragraph of Section 8 of Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the U.S. Congress shall have the power to "coin money" and to "regulate the value" of domestic and foreign coins. Congress exercised those powers when it enacted the Coinage Act of 1792. That Act provided for the minting of the first U.S. dollar and it declared that the U.S. dollar shall have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current".

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: The table above shows the equivalent amount of goods that, in a particular year, could be purchased with $1. The table shows that from 1774 through 2012 the U.S. dollar has lost about 97.0% of its buying power.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


United States dollar

Context: Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value. This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called "Great Moderation" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.

Question: Серебро какой пробы использовали для изготовления далера?


Catholic Church in Russia

Context: The first Catholic diocese established in Russia was the Roman Catholic Diocese of Smolensk in 1636. Smolensk covered all of Russia until Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mohilev was established by Catherine the Great in 1772 without Papal authority but was approved by Pope Pius VI in 1783. Minsk-Mohilev was established later established in 1798.

Question: Кто является главой католической церкви в России в 2019 году?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Lev Davidovich Bronstein ( – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky (), was a Russian-Ukrainian Marxist revolutionary, political theorist and politician. Ideologically a communist, he developed a variant of Marxism which has become known as Trotskyism.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Once in government, Trotsky initially held the post of Commissar for Foreign Affairs and became directly involved in the 1917–1918 Brest-Litovsk negotiations with Germany as Russia pulled out of the First World War. From March 1918 to January 1925, Trotsky headed the Red Army as People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs and played a vital role in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. He became one of the seven members of the first Bolshevik Politburo in 1919.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Although Trotsky spoke French, English, and German to a good standard, he said in his autobiography "My Life" that he was never perfectly fluent in any language but Russian. Raymond Molinier wrote that Trotsky spoke French fluently.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: While in the prison in Moscow, in the summer of 1899, Trotsky married Aleksandra Sokolovskaya (1872–1938), a fellow Marxist. The wedding ceremony was performed by a Jewish chaplain.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In 1900, he was sentenced to four years in exile in Siberia. Because of their marriage, Trotsky and his wife were allowed to be exiled to the same location in Siberia. They were exiled to Ust-Kut and the Verkholensk in the Baikal Lake region of Siberia. They had two daughters, Zinaida (1901–1933) and Nina (1902–1928), both born in Siberia.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Because of Plekhanov's opposition, Trotsky did not become a full member of the board. But from then on, he participated in its meetings in an advisory capacity, which earned him Plekhanov's enmity.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In late 1902, Trotsky met Natalia Sedova (1882–1962), who soon became his companion. They married in 1903, and she was with him until his death. They had two children together, Lev Sedov (1906–1938) and Sergei Sedov (1908–1937), both of whom would predecease their parents. Regarding his sons' surnames, Trotsky later explained that after the 1917 revolution:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky never used the name "Sedov" either privately or publicly. Natalia Sedova sometimes signed her name "Sedova-Trotskaya".

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: From 1904 until 1917, Trotsky described himself as a "non-factional social democrat". He worked between 1904 and 1917, trying to reconcile different groups within the party, which resulted in many clashes with Lenin and other prominent party members. Trotsky later maintained that he had been wrong in opposing Lenin on the issue of the party. During these years, Trotsky began developing his theory of permanent revolution and developed a close working relationship with Alexander Parvus in 1904–07.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: During their split, Lenin referred to Trotsky as "Little Judas" ("Iudushka", based on the character from Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin's novel "The Golovlyov Family"), a "scoundrel" and a "swine".

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: The unrest and agitation against the Russian government came to a head in Saint Petersburg on 3 January 1905 (Julian Calendar), when a strike broke out at the Putilov Works in the city. This single strike grew into a general strike, and by 7 January 1905, there were 140,000 strikers in Saint Petersburg.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: On Sunday, 9 January 1905, Father Georgi Gapon led a peaceful procession of citizens through the streets to the Winter Palace to beseech the Tsar for food and relief from the oppressive government. The Palace Guard fired on the peaceful demonstration, resulting in the deaths of some 1,000 demonstrators. Sunday, 9 January 1905, became known as Bloody Sunday.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: After his return, Trotsky and Parvus took over the newspaper "Russian Gazette," increasing its circulation to 500,000. Trotsky also co-founded, together with Parvus and Julius Martov and other Mensheviks, "Nachalo" ("The Beginning"), which also proved to be a very successful newspaper in the revolutionary atmosphere of Saint Petersburg in 1905.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: The following day, the Soviet was surrounded by troops loyal to the government and the deputies were arrested. Trotsky and other Soviet leaders were tried in 1906 on charges of supporting an armed rebellion. On 4 October 1906 he was convicted and sentenced to internal exile to Siberia.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: While en route to exile in Obdorsk, Siberia, in January 1907, Trotsky escaped at Berezov and once again made his way to London. He attended the 5th Congress of the RSDLP. In October, he moved to Vienna, Austria-Hungary. For the next seven years, he often took part in the activities of the Austrian Social Democratic Party and, occasionally, of the German Social Democratic Party.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In Vienna, Trotsky became close to Adolph Joffe, his friend for the next 20 years, who introduced him to psychoanalysis.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In October 1908 he was asked to join the editorial staff of "Pravda" ("Truth"), a bi-weekly, Russian-language social democratic paper for Russian workers, which he co-edited with Adolph Joffe and Matvey Skobelev. It was smuggled into Russia. The paper appeared very irregularly; only five issues were published in its first year.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Avoiding factional politics, the paper proved popular with Russian industrial workers. Both the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks split multiple times after the failure of the 1905–1907 revolution. Money was very scarce for the publication of "Pravda". Trotsky approached the Russian Central Committee to seek financial backing for the newspaper throughout 1909.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: The 1910s were a period of heightened tension within the RSDLP, leading to numerous frictions between Trotsky, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The most serious disagreement that Trotsky and the Mensheviks had with Lenin at the time was over the issue of "expropriations", i.e., armed robbery of banks and other companies by Bolshevik groups to procure money for the Party. These actions had been banned by the 5th Congress, but were continued by the Bolsheviks.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: As a war correspondent for the "Kievskaya Mysl", Trotsky moved to France on 19 November 1914. In January 1915 in Paris, he began editing (at first with Martov, who soon resigned as the paper moved to the left) "Nashe Slovo" ("Our Word"), an internationalist socialist newspaper. He adopted the slogan of "peace without indemnities or annexations, peace without conquerors or conquered." Lenin advocated Russia's defeat in the war and demanded a complete break with the Second International.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky attended the Zimmerwald Conference of anti-war socialists in September 1915 and advocated a middle course between those who, like Martov, would stay within the Second International at any cost and those who, like Lenin, would break with the Second International and form a Third International. The conference adopted the middle line proposed by Trotsky. At first opposed, in the end Lenin voted for Trotsky's resolution to avoid a split among anti-war socialists.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: The following summary of Trotsky's role in 1917 was written by Stalin in "Pravda", 6 November 1918. Although this passage was quoted in Stalin's book "The October Revolution" (1934), it was expunged from Stalin's "Works" (1949).

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: On 23 November 1917 Trotsky revealed the secret treaty arrangements which had been made between the Tsarist Regime, Britain and France, causing them considerable embarrassment.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: After the Bolsheviks came to power, Trotsky became the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and published the secret treaties previously signed by the Triple Entente that detailed plans for post-war reallocation of colonies and redrawing state borders.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: They cited the successes of the newly formed (15 January 1918) voluntary Red Army against Polish forces of Gen. Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki in Belarus, White forces in the Don region, and newly independent Ukrainian forces as proof that the Red Army could repel German forces, especially if propaganda and asymmetrical warfare were used.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Germany resumed military operations on 18 February. Within a day, it became clear that the German army was capable of conducting offensive operations and that Red Army detachments, which were relatively small, poorly organized and poorly led, were no match for it. On the evening of 18 February 1918, Trotsky and his supporters in the committee abstained, and Lenin's proposal was accepted 7–4. The Soviet government sent a radiogram to the German side, taking the final Brest-Litovsk peace terms.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: On 13 March 1918, Trotsky's resignation as Commissar for Foreign Affairs was officially accepted, and he was appointed People's Commissar of Army and Navy Affairs—in place of Podvoisky—and chairman of the Supreme Military Council. The post of commander-in-chief was abolished, and Trotsky gained full control of the Red Army, responsible only to the Communist Party leadership, whose Left Socialist Revolutionary allies had left the government over Brest-Litovsk.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In response to Fanya Kaplan's failed assassination of Lenin on 30 August 1918, and to the successful assassination of the Petrograd Cheka chief Moisei Uritsky on 17 August 1918, the Bolsheviks instructed Felix Dzerzhinsky to commence a Red Terror, announced in the 1 September 1918 issue of the "Krasnaya Gazeta" ("Red Gazette"). Regarding the Red Terror Trotsky wrote:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In dealing with deserters, Trotsky often appealed to them politically, arousing them with the ideas of the Revolution.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Given the lack of manpower and the 16 opposing foreign armies, Trotsky also insisted on the use of former Tsarist officers as military specialists within the Red Army, in combination with Bolshevik political commissars to ensure the revolutionary nature of the Red Army. Lenin commented on this:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: The reorganization caused yet another conflict between Trotsky and Stalin in late September. Trotsky appointed former imperial general Pavel Pavlovich Sytin to command the Southern Front, but in early October 1918 Stalin refused to accept him and so he was recalled from the front. Lenin and Yakov Sverdlov tried to make Trotsky and Stalin reconcile, but their meeting proved unsuccessful.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Throughout late 1918 and early 1919, there were a number of attacks on Trotsky's leadership of the Red Army, including veiled accusations in newspaper articles inspired by Stalin and a direct attack by the Military Opposition at the VIIIth Party Congress in March 1919. On the surface, he weathered them successfully and was elected one of only five full members of the first Politburo after the Congress. But he later wrote:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In mid-1919, the dissatisfied had an opportunity to mount a serious challenge to Trotsky's leadership: the Red Army grew from 800,000 to 3,000,000 and fought simultaneously on sixteen fronts.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: At the 3–4 July Central Committee meeting, after a heated exchange, the majority supported Kamenev and Smilga against Vācietis and Trotsky. Trotsky's plan was rejected, and he was much criticized for various alleged shortcomings in his leadership style, much of it of a personal nature. Stalin used this opportunity to pressure Lenin to dismiss Trotsky from his post.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Poland defeated the Red Army, and the offensive was turned back during the Battle of Warsaw in August 1920, in part because of Stalin's failure to obey Trotsky's orders in the run-up to the decisive engagements. Back in Moscow, Trotsky again argued for a peace treaty, and this time prevailed.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Disagreements threatened to get out of hand, and many Bolsheviks, including Lenin, feared that the party would splinter. The Central Committee was split almost evenly between Lenin's and Trotsky's supporters, with all three Secretaries of the Central Committee (Krestinsky, Yevgeny Preobrazhensky and Leonid Serebryakov) supporting Trotsky.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Vladimir Cherniaev, a leading Russian historian, sums up Trotsky's main contributions to the Russian Revolution:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Lenin said in 1921 that Trotsky was "in love with organisation," but in working politics, "he has not got a clue." Swain explains the paradox by arguing that Trotsky was not good at teamwork; he was a loner who had mostly worked as a journalist, not as a professional revolutionary like the others.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Although the exact sequence of events is unclear, evidence suggests that at first the "troika" nominated Trotsky to head second-rate government departments (e.g., Gokhran, the State Depository for Valuables). In mid-July 1922, Kamenev wrote a letter to the recovering Lenin to the effect that "(the Central Committee) is throwing or is ready to throw a good cannon overboard". Lenin was shocked and responded:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: From then until his final stroke, Lenin spent much of his time trying to devise a way to prevent a split within the Communist Party leadership, which was reflected in "Lenin's Testament." As part of this effort, on 11 September 1922 Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his deputy at the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom). The Politburo approved the proposal, but Trotsky "categorically refused".

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In late 1922, Trotsky secured an alliance with Lenin against Stalin and the emerging Soviet bureaucracy. Stalin had recently engineered the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), further centralising state control. The alliance proved effective on the issue of foreign trade but was hindered by Lenin's progressing illness.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: At the XIIth Party Congress in April 1923, however, just after Lenin's final stroke, Trotsky did not raise the issue. Instead, he made a speech about intra-party democracy while avoiding any direct confrontation of the "troika." Stalin had prepared for the congress by replacing many local party delegates with those loyal to him, mostly at the expense of Zinoviev and Kamenev's backers.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Starting in mid-1923, the Soviet economy ran into significant difficulties, which led to numerous strikes countrywide. Two secret groups within the Communist Party, "Workers' Truth" and "Workers' Group", were uncovered and suppressed by the Soviet secret police. On 8 October 1923 Trotsky sent a letter to the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission, attributing these difficulties to lack of intra-Party democracy. Trotsky wrote:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Other senior communists who had similar concerns sent "The Declaration of 46" to the Central Committee on 15 October in which they wrote:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In the meantime, the Left Opposition, which had coagulated somewhat unexpectedly in late 1923 and lacked a definite platform aside from general dissatisfaction with the intra-Party "regime", began to crystallise. It lost some less dedicated members to the harassment by the "troika", but it also began formulating a program.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: At the thirteenth Congress Kamenev and Zinoviev helped Stalin defuse Lenin's Testament, which belatedly came to the surface. But just after the congress, the "troika", always an alliance of convenience, showed signs of weakness. Stalin began making poorly veiled accusations about Zinoviev and Kamenev. Yet in October 1924, Trotsky published "Lessons of October," an extensive summary of the events of the 1917 revolution.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In it, he described Zinoviev's and Kamenev's opposition to the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, something that the two would have preferred be left unmentioned. This started a new round of intra-party struggle, which became known as the "Literary Discussion", with Zinoviev and Kamenev again allied with Stalin against Trotsky. Their criticism of Trotsky was concentrated in three areas:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: For Trotsky, 1925 was a difficult year. After the bruising "Literary Discussion" and losing his Red Army posts, he was effectively unemployed throughout the winter and spring. In May 1925, he was given three posts: chairman of the Concessions Committee, head of the electro-technical board, and chairman of the scientific-technical board of industry. Trotsky wrote in "My Life" that he "was taking a rest from politics" and "naturally plunged into the new line of work up to my ears".

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Some contemporary accounts paint a picture of a remote and distracted man. Later in the year, Trotsky resigned his two technical positions (maintaining Stalin-instigated interference and sabotage) and concentrated on his work in the Concessions Committee.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In one of the few political developments that affected Trotsky in 1925, the circumstances of the controversy over Lenin's Testament were described by American Marxist Max Eastman in his book "Since Lenin Died" (1925). Trotsky denied these statements made by Eastman in an article he wrote.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In early 1926, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters in the "New Opposition" gravitated closer to Trotsky's supporters, and the two groups soon formed an alliance, which also incorporated some smaller opposition groups within the Communist Party. The alliance became known as the United Opposition.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Soviet policy toward the Chinese Revolution became the ideological line of demarcation between Stalin and the United Opposition. The Chinese Revolution began on 10 October 1911, resulting in the abdication of the Chinese Emperor, Puyi, on 12 February 1912. Sun Yat-sen established the Republic of China.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Almost all Trotskyists who were still within the Soviet Union's borders were executed in the Great Purges of 1936–1938, although Rakovsky survived until the Medvedev Forest massacre of September 1941, where he was shot dead along with 156 other prisoners on Stalin's orders, less than three months into the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. Also among the Medvedev Forest victims was Trotsky's sister/Kamenev's first wife, Olga Kameneva.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In 1931, Trotsky wrote a letter to a friend entitled "What is Fascism" in which he attempted to define fascism and asserted that the Comintern was wrong to describe the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera as "fascist" because it wasn't a mass movement arising from a base in the lower classes.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: The "Ruth" arrived in Mexico on 9 January 1937. On Trotsky's arrival, the Mexican president, Lázaro Cárdenas, welcomed Trotsky to Mexico and arranged for his special train "The Hidalgo" to bring Trotsky to Mexico City from the port of Tampico.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: From January 1937 to April 1939, Trotsky and his wife lived in the Coyoacán area of Mexico City at La Casa Azul (The Blue House), the home of the painter Diego Rivera and Rivera's wife and fellow painter, Frida Kahlo, with whom Trotsky had an affair. His final move was a few blocks away to a residence on Avenida Viena in April 1939, following a break with Rivera.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky wrote prolifically while in exile, penning several key works, including his "History of the Russian Revolution" (1930) and "The Revolution Betrayed" (1936), a critique of the Soviet Union under Stalinism. He argued that the Soviet state had become a "degenerated workers' state" controlled by an undemocratic bureaucracy, which would eventually either be overthrown via a political revolution establishing a workers' democracy, or degenerate into a capitalist class.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: While in Mexico, Trotsky worked with André Breton and Diego Rivera to write the Manifesto for an Independent Revolutionary Art, which inspired the creation of the organization, the International Federation of Independent Revolutionary Art (FIARI) in 1938. This organization was short-lived and ended before 1940.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: For fear of splitting the Communist movement, Trotsky initially opposed the idea of establishing parallel Communist parties or a parallel international Communist organization that would compete with the Third International. In mid-1933, after the Nazi takeover in Germany and the Comintern's response to it, he changed his mind. He said:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: In 1938, Trotsky and his supporters founded the Fourth International, which was intended to be a revolutionary and internationalist alternative to the Stalinist Comintern.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Towards the end of 1939, Trotsky agreed to go to the United States to appear as a witness before the Dies Committee of the House of Representatives, a forerunner of the House Committee on Un-American Activities. Representative Martin Dies Jr., chairman of the committee, demanded the suppression of the American Communist Party. Trotsky intended to use the forum to expose the NKVD's activities against him and his followers.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: After a failed attempt to have Trotsky murdered in March 1939, Stalin assigned the overall organization of implementing the task to the NKVD officer Pavel Sudoplatov, who, in turn, co-opted Nahum Eitingon. According to Sudoplatov's "Special Tasks", the NKVD proceeded to set up three NKVD agent networks to carry out the murder; these three networks were designed to operate entirely autonomously from the NKVD's hitherto-established spy networks in the U.S. and Mexico.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky's house in Coyoacán has been preserved in much the same condition as it was on the day he was assassinated there, and is now the Leon Trotsky House Museum in Mexico City, run by a board which includes his grandson Esteban Volkov. Trotsky's grave is located on its grounds. The foundation "International Friends of the Leon Trotsky Museum" has been organized to raise funds to improve the museum further.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Shortly before his assassination, Trotsky agreed to sell the bulk of the papers he still had to Harvard University. After his assassination, his widow, Natalya Sedova collected his remaining papers and shipped them to Harvard, and in the years following, Harvard managed to collect additional papers that had been hidden from both Soviet and Nazi agents in Europe. These papers now occupy of shelf space in Harvard's Houghton Library.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky was never formally rehabilitated during the rule of the Soviet government, despite the de-Stalinization-era rehabilitation of most other Old Bolsheviks killed during the Great Purges. His son, Sergei Sedov, who died in 1937, was rehabilitated in 1988, as was Nikolai Bukharin. Beginning in 1989, Trotsky's books, forbidden until 1987, were published in the Soviet Union.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky was rehabilitated on 16 June 2001 by the General Prosecutor's Office (Certificates of Rehabilitation No. 13/2182-90, No. 13-2200-99 in Archives Research Center "Memorial").

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky considered himself to be a "Bolshevik-Leninist," arguing for the establishment of a vanguard party. He viewed himself as an advocate of orthodox Marxism.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: Trotsky was a central figure in the Comintern during its first four congresses. During this time, he helped to generalize the strategy and tactics of the Bolsheviks to newly formed Communist parties across Europe and further afield. From 1921 onwards, the united front, a method of uniting revolutionaries and reformists in the common struggle while winning some of the workers to revolution, was the central tactic put forward by the Comintern after the defeat of the German revolution.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Leon Trotsky

Context: After he was exiled and politically marginalized by Stalinism, Trotsky continued to argue for a united front against fascism in Germany and Spain. According to Joseph Choonara of the British Socialist Workers Party in "International Socialism", his articles on the united front represent an essential part of his political legacy.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Троцкий?


Bistro

Context: Bistros likely developed out of the basement kitchens of Parisian apartments where tenants paid for both room and board. Landlords could supplement their income by opening their kitchen to the paying public. Menus were built around foods that were simple, could be prepared in quantity and would keep over time. Wine and coffee were also served.

Question: Откуда во французском языке появилось слово "бистро"?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotsky's Fourth International was established in the French Third Republic in 1938, when Trotskyists argued that the Comintern or Third International had become irretrievably "lost to Stalinism" and thus incapable of leading the international working class to political power. In contemporary English language usage, an advocate of Trotsky's ideas is often called a "Trotskyist". A Trotskyist may be called a "Trotskyite" or "Trot", especially by a critic of Trotskyism.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: According to Trotsky, his program could be distinguished from other Marxist theories by five key elements:

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: In 1905, Trotsky formulated his theory of permanent revolution that later became a defining characteristic of Trotskyism. Until 1905, some revolutionaries claimed that Marx's theory of history posited that only a revolution in a European capitalist society would lead to a socialist one. According to this position, it was impossible for a socialist revolution to occur in a backward, feudal country such as early 20th-century Russia when it had such a small and almost powerless capitalist class.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Revolutions in Britain in the 17th century and in France in 1789 abolished feudalism and established the basic requisites for the development of capitalism. Trotsky argued that these revolutions would not be repeated in Russia.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotsky argues that countries like Russia had no "enlightened, active" revolutionary bourgeoisie which could play the same role and the working class constituted a very small minority. By the time of the European revolutions of 1848, "the bourgeoisie was already unable to play a comparable role. It did not want and was not able to undertake the revolutionary liquidation of the social system that stood in its path to power."

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: For instance, the Putilov Factory numbered 12,000 workers in 1900 and according to Trotsky 36,000 in July 1917.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Although only a small minority in Russian society, the proletariat would lead a revolution to emancipate the peasantry and thus "secure the support of the peasantry" as part of that revolution, on whose support it will rely. However, to improve their own conditions the working class will find it necessary to create a revolution of their own, which would accomplish both the bourgeois revolution and then establish a workers' state.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: An internationalist outlook of permanent revolution is found in the works of Karl Marx. The term "permanent revolution" is taken from a remark of Marx from his March 1850 Address: "it is our task", Marx said:

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: According to Trotsky, the term "Trotskyism" was coined by Pavel Milyukov (sometimes transliterated as Paul Miliukoff), the ideological leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) in Russia. Milyukov waged a bitter war against Trotskyism "as early as 1905".

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Milyukov suggests that the mood of the "democratic public" was in support of Trotsky's policy of the overthrow of the Romanov regime alongside a workers' revolution to overthrow the capitalist owners of industry, support for strike action and the establishment of democratically elected workers' councils or "soviets".

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: As a result of his role in the Russian Revolution of 1917, the theory of permanent revolution was embraced by the young Soviet state until 1924.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: The Russian revolution of 1917 was marked by two revolutions: the relatively spontaneous February 1917 revolution, and the 25 October 1917 seizure of power by the Bolsheviks, who had gained the leadership of the Petrograd soviet.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Before the February 1917 Russian revolution, Lenin had formulated a slogan calling for the "democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry", but after the February revolution through his April Theses, Lenin instead called for "all power to the Soviets". Lenin nevertheless continued to emphasise (as did Trotsky also) the classical Marxist position that the peasantry formed a basis for the development of capitalism, not socialism.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Also before February 1917, Trotsky had not accepted the importance of a Bolshevik style organisation. Once the February 1917 Russian revolution had broken out, Trotsky admitted the importance of a Bolshevik organisation and joined the Bolsheviks in July 1917. Despite the fact that many like Stalin saw Trotsky's role in the October 1917 Russian revolution as central, Trotsky wrote that without Lenin and the Bolshevik Party, the October revolution of 1917 would not have taken place.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Lenin's outlook had always been that the Russian revolution would need to stimulate a Socialist revolution in Western Europe so that this European socialist society would then come to the aid of the Russian revolution and enable Russia to advance towards socialism. Lenin stated:

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: This outlook matched precisely Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution. Trotsky's permanent revolution had foreseen that the working class would not stop at the bourgeois democratic stage of the revolution, but proceed towards a workers' state as happened in 1917. The Polish Trotskyist Isaac Deutscher maintains that in 1917 Lenin changed his attitude to Trotsky's theory of Permanent Revolution and after the October revolution it was adopted by the Bolsheviks.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: In "The Stalin School of Falsification", Trotsky argues that what he calls the "legend of Trotskyism" was formulated by Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev in collaboration with Stalin in 1924 in response to the criticisms Trotsky raised of Politburo policy. Orlando Figes argues: "The urge to silence Trotsky, and all criticism of the Politburo, was in itself a crucial factor in Stalin's rise to power".

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotsky wrote that the Left Opposition grew in influence throughout the 1920s, attempting to reform the Communist Party, but in 1927 Stalin declared "civil war" against them:

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotsky was sent into internal exile and his supporters were jailed. For instance, Victor Serge first "spent six weeks in a cell" after a visit at midnight, then 85 days in an inner GPU cell, most of it in solitary confinement. He details the jailings of the Left Opposition. However, the Left Opposition continued to work in secret within the Soviet Union. Trotsky was eventually exiled to Turkey and moved from there to France, Norway and finally to Mexico.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: In 1937, Stalin again unleashed what Trotskyists say was a political terror against their Left Opposition and many of the remaining Old Bolsheviks (those who had played key roles in the October Revolution in 1917) in the face of increased opposition, particularly in the army.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotsky said that only the Fourth International, basing itself on Lenin's theory of the vanguard party, could lead the world revolution and that it would need to be built in opposition to both the capitalists and the Stalinists.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotsky argued that the defeat of the German working class and the coming to power of Adolf Hitler in 1933 was due in part to the mistakes of the Third Period policy of the Communist International and that the subsequent failure of the Communist Parties to draw the correct lessons from those defeats showed that they were no longer capable of reform and a new international organisation of the working class must be organised. The transitional demand tactic had to be a key element.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: At the time of the founding of the Fourth International in 1938, Trotskyism was a mass political current in Vietnam, Sri Lanka and slightly later Bolivia. There was also a substantial Trotskyist movement in China which included the founding father of the Chinese communist movement, Chen Duxiu, amongst its number. Wherever Stalinists gained power, they made it a priority to hunt down Trotskyists and treated them as the worst of enemies.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: The Fourth International suffered repression and disruption through the Second World War. Isolated from each other and faced with political developments quite unlike those anticipated by Trotsky, some Trotskyist organizations decided that the Soviet Union no longer could be called a degenerated workers' state and withdrew from the Fourth International. After 1945, Trotskyism was smashed as a mass movement in Vietnam and marginalised in a number of other countries.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Pablo began expelling large numbers of people who did not agree with his thesis and who did not want to dissolve their organizations within the Communist Parties. For instance, he expelled the majority of the French section and replaced its leadership. As a result, the opposition to Pablo eventually rose to the surface, with the Open Letter to Trotskyists of the World, by Socialist Workers Party leader James P. Cannon.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Trotskyism has had some influence in some recent major social upheavals, particularly in Latin America.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: The Bolivian Trotskyist party (, POR) became a mass party in the period of the late 1940s and early 1950s and together with other groups played a central role during and immediately after the period termed the Bolivian National Revolution.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?


Trotskyism

Context: Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez declared himself to be a Trotskyist during his swearing-in of his cabinet, two days before his own inauguration on 10 January 2007. Venezuelan Trotskyist organizations do not regard Chávez as a Trotskyist, with some describing him as a bourgeois nationalist while others consider him an honest revolutionary leader who made major mistakes due to him lacking a Marxist analysis.

Question: Какая теория лежит в основе троцкизма?