Akhenaten

Context: Akhetaten was a planned city with the Great Temple of the Aten, Small Aten Temple, royal residences, records office, and government buildings in the city center. Some of these buildings, such as the Aten temples, were ordered to be built by Akhenaten on the boundary stela decreeing the city's founding.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Whether Smenkhkare also enjoyed a brief independent reign after Akhenaten is unclear. If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than a year. The next successor was Nefertiti or Meritaten ruling as Neferneferuaten, reigning in Egypt for about two years. She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tutankhaten, with the country being administered by the vizier and future pharaoh Ay.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Archaeological discoveries at Akhetaten show that many ordinary residents of this city chose to gouge or chisel out all references to the god Amun on even minor personal items that they owned, such as commemorative scarabs or make-up pots, perhaps for fear of being accused of having Amunist sympathies. References to Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father, were partly erased since they contained the traditional Amun form of his name: Nebmaatre Amunhotep.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Following Akhenaten's death, Egypt gradually returned to its traditional polytheistic religion, partly because of how closely associated the Aten became with Akhenaten. Atenism likely stayed dominant through the reigns of Akhenaten's immediate successors, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten, as well as early in the reign of Tutankhaten. For some years the worship of Aten and a resurgent worship of Amun coexisted.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: The portrayals of Akhenaten himself greatly differ from the depictions of other pharaohs. Traditionally, the portrayal of pharaohs—and the Egyptian ruling class—was idealized, and they were shown in "stereotypically 'beautiful' fashion" as youthful and athletic. However, Akhenaten's portrayals are unconventional and "unflattering" with a sagging stomach; broad hips; thin legs; thick thighs; large, "almost feminine breasts;" a thin, "exaggeratedly long face;" and thick lips.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Based on Akhenaten's and his family's unusual artistic representations, including potential depictions of gynecomastia and androgyny, some have argued that the pharaoh and his family have either suffered from aromatase excess syndrome and sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, or Antley–Bixler syndrome. In 2010, results published from genetic studies on Akhenaten's purported mummy did not find signs of gynecomastia or Antley-Bixler syndrome, although these results have since been questioned.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Depictions of other members of the court, especially members of the royal family, are also exaggerated, stylized, and overall different from traditional art. Significantly, and for the only time in the history of Egyptian royal art, the pharaoh's family life is depicted: the royal family is shown mid-action in relaxed, casual, and intimate situations, taking part in decidedly naturalistic activities, showing affection for each other, such as holding hands and kissing.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Akhenaten's status as a religious revolutionary has led to much speculation, ranging from scholarly hypotheses to non-academic fringe theories. Although some believe the religion he introduced was mostly monotheistic, many others see Akhenaten as a practitioner of an Aten monolatry, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but the Aten.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis as stemming from a common root; in this he was following the argument of Egyptologist Arthur Weigall. Jan Assmann's opinion is that 'Aten' and 'Adonai' are not linguistically related.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: There are strong similarities between Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104, but there is debate as to relationship implied by this similarity.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Although scholars like Brian Fagan (2015) and Robert Alter (2018) have re-opened the debate, in 1997, Redford concluded:

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: The unconventional portrayals of Akhenaten—different from the traditional athletic norm in the portrayal of pharaohs—have led Egyptologists in the 19th and 20th centuries to suppose that Akhenaten suffered some kind of genetic abnormality. Various illnesses have been put forward, with Frölich's syndrome or Marfan syndrome being mentioned most commonly.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Cyril Aldred, following up earlier arguments of Grafton Elliot Smith and James Strachey, suggested that Akhenaten may have suffered from Frölich's syndrome on the basis of his long jaw and his feminine appearance. However, this is unlikely, because this disorder results in sterility and Akhenaten is known to have fathered numerous children. His children are repeatedly portrayed through years of archaeological and iconographic evidence.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: By the early 21st century, most Egyptologists argued that Akhenaten's portrayals are not the results of a genetic or medical condition, but rather should be interpreted as stylized portrayals influenced by Atenism. Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the Aten.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: Akhenaten's life, accomplishments, and legacy have been preserved and depicted in many ways, and he has figured in works of both high and popular culture since his rediscovery in the 19th century AD. Akhenaten—alongside Cleopatra and Alexander the Great—is among the most often popularized and fictionalized ancient historical figures.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Akhenaten

Context: American death metal band Nile depicted Akhenaten's judgement, punishment, and erasure from history at the hands of the pantheon that he replaced with Aten, in the song "Cast Down the Heretic", from their 2005 album Annihilation of the Wicked.

Question: Как звали при рождении фараона Эхнатона?


Order of battle for Operation Barbarossa

Context: XII Corps - General of Infantry Walther Schroth (Only under Panzergruppe 2 for initial stages of the invasion)

Question: В чем заключался план Барбаросса?


Context: The "Main Command of the Armed Forces of the USSR" ("Stavka Glavnogo Komandovaniya") was formed on 23 June, largely from the existing People's Commissariat for Defence.

Question: В чем заключался план Барбаросса?


Context: Chief of the General Staff: Army General Georgy Zhukov (until July 21), then Marshal Boris Shaposhnikov

Question: В чем заключался план Барбаросса?


Context: The total strength of the VVS amounted to 61 divisions; 18 fighter, nine bomber and 34 mixed. Five brigades were also included.

Question: В чем заключался план Барбаросса?


Context: The Front Air Forces were divided into Districts (later 'Fronts') and the home defence, the PVO. This element had 40.5 per cent of the Soviet air strength. The Army Air Forces comprised 43.7 per cent of the VVS' strength. The liaison squadrons were a collection of individual squadrons assigned to different army corps of the ground army (KAE). They comprised only 2.3 per cent.

Question: В чем заключался план Барбаросса?


Gilded Age

Context: In United States history, the Gilded Age was an era extending roughly from 1870 to 1900. It was a time of rapid economic growth, especially in the Northern and Western United States. As American wages grew much higher than those in Europe, especially for skilled workers, and industrialization demanded an ever-increasing unskilled labor force, the period saw an influx of millions of European immigrants.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Railroads were the major growth industry, with the factory system, mining, and finance increasing in importance. Immigration from Europe, and the Eastern United States, led to the rapid growth of the West, based on farming, ranching, and mining. Labor unions became increasingly important in the rapidly growing industrial cities. Two major nationwide depressions—the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893—interrupted growth and caused social and political upheavals.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The South, after the American Civil War remained economically devastated; the region's economy became increasingly tied to commodities, cotton, and tobacco production, which suffered from low prices. With the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877, African-American people in the South were stripped of political power and voting rights and were left economically disadvantaged.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The "Gilded Age" term came into use in the 1920s and 1930s and was derived from writer Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner's 1873 novel "", which satirized an era of serious social problems masked by a thin gold gilding. The early half of the Gilded Age roughly coincided with the mid-Victorian era in Britain and the Belle Époque in France. Its beginning, in the years after the American Civil War, overlaps the Reconstruction Era (which ended in 1877). It was followed in the 1890s by the Progressive Era.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Petroleum launched a new industry beginning with the Pennsylvania oil fields in the 1860s. The United States dominated the global industry into the 1950s. Kerosene replaced whale oil and candles for lighting homes. John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil Company and monopolized the oil industry, which mostly produced kerosene before the automobile created a demand for gasoline in the 20th century.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: the energies of a generation, for it required all the new machinery to be created—capital, banks, mines, furnaces, shops, power-houses, technical knowledge, mechanical population, together with a steady remodelling of social and political habits, ideas, and institutions to fit the new scale and suit the new conditions. The generation between 1865 and 1895 was already mortgaged to the railways, and no one knew it better than the generation itself.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The impact can be examined through five aspects: shipping, finance, management, careers, and popular reaction.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Railroads provided a highly efficient network for shipping freight and passengers throughout the U.S., spurring the evolution of a large national market. This had a transformative impact on most sectors of the economy including manufacturing, retail and wholesale, agriculture, and finance. The result was an integrated market practically the size of Europe's, with no internal barriers, tariffs, or language barriers to hamper it, and a common financial and legal system to support it.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Railroad management designed complex systems that could handle far more complicated simultaneous relationships than could be dreamed of by the local factory owner who could patrol every part of his own factory in a matter of hours. Civil engineers became the senior management of railroads. The leading innovators were the Western Railroad of Massachusetts and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the 1840s, the Erie in the 1850s and the Pennsylvania in the 1860s.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: With the freedom to travel came a greater sense of national identity and a reduction in regional cultural diversity. Farm children could more easily acquaint themselves with the big city, and easterners could readily visit the West. It is hard to imagine a United States of continental proportions without the railroad.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The civil and mechanical engineers became model citizens, bringing their can-do spirit and their systematic work effort to all phases of the economy as well as local and national government. By 1910, major cities were building magnificent palatial railroad stations, such as the Pennsylvania Station in New York City, and the Union Station in Washington DC.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: But there was also a dark side. By the 1870s railroads were vilified by Western farmers who absorbed the Granger movement theme that monopolistic carriers controlled too much pricing power, and that the state legislatures had to regulate maximum prices. Local merchants and shippers supported the demand and got some "Granger Laws" passed. Anti-railroad complaints were loudly repeated in late 19th century political rhetoric.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Because of the Chicago packers, ranchers in Wyoming and feedlot farmers in Iowa regularly found a reliable market for their animals, and on average received better prices for the animals they sold there. At the same time and for the same reason, Americans of all classes found a greater variety of more and better meats on their tables, purchased on average at lower prices than ever before. Seen in this light, the packers' "rigid system of economy" seemed a very good thing indeed.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: By the beginning of the 20th century, gross domestic product and industrial production in the United States led the world. Kennedy reports that "U.S. national income, in absolute figures in per capita, was so far above everybody else's by 1914." Per capita income in the United States was $377 in 1914 compared to Britain in second place at $244, Germany at $184, France at $153, and Italy at $108, while Russia and Japan trailed far behind at $41 and $36.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Europe, especially Britain, remained the financial center of the world until 1914, yet the United States' growth caused foreigners to ask, as British author W. T. Stead wrote in 1901, "What is the secret of American success?" The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and hired an ethnically diverse industrial working class, many of them new immigrants from Europe.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Wage labor was widely condemned as 'wage slavery' in the working class press, and labor leaders almost always used the phrase in their speeches. As the shift towards wage labor gained momentum, working class organizations became more militant in their efforts to "strike down the whole system of wages for labor." In 1886, economist and New York Mayoral candidate Henry George, author of "Progress and Poverty", stated "Chattel slavery is dead, but industrial slavery remains."

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The unequal distribution of wealth remained high during this period. From 1860 to 1900, the wealthiest 2% of American households owned more than a third of the nation's wealth, while the top 10% owned roughly three-quarters of it. The bottom 40% had no wealth at all. In terms of property, the wealthiest 1% owned 51%, while the bottom 44% claimed 1.1%.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Historian Howard Zinn argues that this disparity along with precarious working and living conditions for the working classes prompted the rise of populist, anarchist, and socialist movements. French economist Thomas Piketty notes that economists during this time, such as Willford I. King, were concerned that the United States was becoming increasingly inegalitarian to the point of becoming like old Europe, and "further and further away from its original pioneering ideal."

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: According to economist Richard Sutch in an alternative view of the era, the bottom 25% owned 0.32% of the wealth while the top 0.1% owned 9.4%, which would mean the period had the lowest wealth gap in recorded history. He attributes this to the lack of government interference.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: There was a significant human cost attached to this period of economic growth, as American industry had the highest rate of accidents in the world. In 1889, railroads employed 704,000 men, of whom 20,000 were injured and 1,972 were killed on the job. The U.S. was also the only industrial power to have no workman's compensation program in place to support injured workers.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Craft-oriented labor unions, such as carpenters, printers, shoemakers and cigar makers, grew steadily in the industrial cities after 1870. These unions used frequent short strikes as a method to attain control over the labor market, and fight off competing unions. They generally blocked women, blacks and Chinese from union membership, but welcomed most European immigrants.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The largest and most dramatic strike was the 1894 Pullman Strike, a coordinated effort to shut down the national railroad system. The strike was led by the upstart American Railway Union led by Eugene V. Debs and was not supported by the established brotherhoods. The union defied federal court orders to stop blocking the mail trains, so President Cleveland used the U.S. Army to get the trains moving again. The ARU vanished and the traditional railroad brotherhoods survived, but avoided strikes.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: This period saw several financial crises and economic recessions—called "panics", notably the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893. They lasted several years, with high urban unemployment, low incomes for farmers, low profits for business, slow overall growth, and reduced immigration. They generated political unrest.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Competition was intense and elections were very close. In the southern states, lingering resentment over the Civil War remained and meant that much of the South would vote Democrat. After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, competition in the South took place mainly inside the Democratic Party. Nationwide, turnout fell sharply after 1900.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The major metropolitan centers underwent rapid population growth and as a result had many lucrative contracts and jobs to award. To take advantage of the new economic opportunity, both parties built so-called "political machines" to manage elections, to reward supporters and to pay off potential opponents. Financed by the "spoils system", the winning party distributed most local, state and national government jobs, and many government contracts, to its loyal supporters.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Large cities became dominated by political machines in which constituents supported a candidate in exchange for anticipated patronage. These votes would be repaid with favors back from the government once the appropriate candidate was elected; and very often candidates were selected based on their willingness to play along with the spoils system. The largest and most notorious political machine was Tammany Hall in New York City, led by Boss Tweed.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Corruption gave the age a distinctive flavor. It marred the planning and development of the cities, infected lobbyists dealings, and disgraced even the cleanest of the Reconstructed states. For many reasons, however, its effect on "policy" was less overwhelming than once imagined. Corruption influenced a few substantive decisions; it rarely determined one.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Numerous swindlers were active, especially before the Panic of 1873 exposed the falsifications and caused a wave of bankruptcies. Former President Ulysses S. Grant was the most famous victim of scoundrels and con-men, of whom he most trusted Ferdinand Ward. Grant was cheated out of all his money, although some genuine friends bought Grant's personal assets and allowed him to keep their use.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Interpreting the phenomena, historian Allan Nevins deplored "The Moral Collapse in Government and Business: 1865–1873." He argued that at war's end society showed confusion and unsettlement as well as a hurried aggressive growth on the other. They:

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Presidential elections between the two major parties were so closely contested that a slight nudge could tip the election in the advantage of either party, and Congress was marked by political stalemate. With support from Union veterans, businessmen, professionals, craftsmen, and larger farmers, the Republicans consistently carried the North in presidential elections. The Democrats, often led by Irish Catholics, had a base among Catholics, poorer farmers, and traditional party-members.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The nation elected a string of relatively weak presidents collectively referred to as the "forgettable presidents" (Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur and Harrison, with the exception of Cleveland) who served in the White House during this period. "What little political vitality existed in Gilded Age America was to be found in local settings or in Congress, which overshadowed the White House for most of this period."

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Overall, Republican and Democratic political platforms remained remarkably constant during the years before 1900. Both favored business interests. Republicans called for high tariffs, while Democrats wanted hard-money and free trade. Regulation was rarely an issue.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Demographic trends boosted the Democratic totals, as the German and Irish Catholic immigrants became Democrats and outnumbered the English and Scandinavian Republicans. The new immigrants who arrived after 1890 seldom voted at this time. During the 1880s and 1890s, the Republicans struggled against the Democrats' efforts, winning several close elections and losing two to Grover Cleveland (in 1884 and 1892).

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Many cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign-language schools, became hard-fought political issues because of the deep religious divisions in the electorate. For example, in Wisconsin the Republicans tried to close down German-language Catholic and Lutheran parochial schools, and were defeated in 1890 when the Bennett Law was put to the test.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Prohibition debates and referendums heated up politics in most states over a period of decades, as national prohibition was finally passed in 1919 (and repealed in 1933), serving as a major issue between the wet Democrats and the dry GOP.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The "New Immigration" were much poorer peasants and rural folk from southern and eastern Europe, including mostly Italians, Poles and Jews. Some men, especially the Italians and Greeks, saw themselves as temporary migrants who planned to return to their home villages with a nest egg of cash earned in long hours of unskilled labor. Others, especially the Jews, had been driven out of Eastern Europe and had no intention of returning.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Historians analyze the causes of immigration in terms of push factors (pushing people out of the homeland) and pull factors (pulling them to America). The push factors included economic dislocation, shortages of land, and antisemitism. Pull factors were the economic opportunity of good inexpensive farmland or jobs in factories, mills and mines.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The first generation typically lived in ethnic enclaves with a common language, food, religion, and connections through the old village. The sheer numbers caused overcrowding in tenements in the larger cities. In the small mill towns, however, management usually built company housing with cheap rents.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: A dramatic expansion in farming took place during the Gilded Age, with the number of farms tripling from 2.0 million in 1860 to 6.0 million in 1905. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. The value of farms soared from $8.0 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The federal government issued tracts virtually free to settlers under the Homestead Act of 1862. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads, which were trying to create markets. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over, at low fares, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany, Scandinavia and Britain.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Despite their remarkable progress and general prosperity, 19th-century U.S. farmers experienced recurring cycles of hardship, caused primarily by falling world prices for cotton and wheat.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: As immigration increased in cities, poverty rose as well. The poorest crowded into low-cost housing such as the Five Points and Hell's Kitchen neighborhoods in Manhattan. These areas were quickly overridden with notorious criminal gangs such as the Five Points Gang and the Bowery Boys. Overcrowding spread germs; the death rates in big city tenements vastly exceeded those in the countryside.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Rapid outward expansion required longer journeys to work and shopping for the middle class office workers and housewives. The working-class generally did not own automobiles until after 1945; they typically walked to nearby factories and patronized small neighborhood stores. The middle class demanded a better transportation system. Slow horse-drawn streetcars and faster electric trolleys were the rage in the 1880s.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: In the horse-drawn era, streets were unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. However, this produced uneven wear, opened new hazards for pedestrians, and made for dangerous potholes for bicycles and for motor vehicles. Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses in 1900, pulling streetcars, delivery wagons, and private carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: In 1869, the First Transcontinental Railroad—a combination of the Union Pacific from Omaha to Utah and the Central Pacific from Utah to California—opened up the far west mining and ranching regions. Travel from New York to San Francisco now took six days instead of six months.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: After the Civil War, many from the East Coast and Europe were lured west by reports from relatives and by extensive advertising campaigns promising "the Best Prairie Lands", "Low Prices", "Large Discounts For Cash", and "Better Terms Than Ever!". The new railroads provided the opportunity for migrants to go out and take a look, with special family tickets, the cost of which could be applied to land purchases offered by the railroads. Farming the plains was indeed more difficult than back east.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Some well-known painters of the Gilded Age include: Jules Breton, Winslow Homer, Thomas Eakins, William Merritt Chase, John Singer Sargent, Mary Cassatt, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Childe Hassam, John Henry Twachtman and Maurice Prendergast.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The New York art world took a major turn during the Gilded Age, seeing an outgrowth of exhibitions and the establishment of major auction houses with a focus on American art. The Gilded Age was pivotal in establishing the New York art world in the international art market.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Career women were few. The teaching profession had once been heavily male, but as schooling expanded many women took on teaching careers. If they remained unmarried they could have a prestigious but poorly paid lifetime career in the middle class. At the end of the period nursing schools opened up new opportunities for women, but medical schools remained nearly all male.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: A leading magazine, "The Nation", espoused Classical liberalism every week starting in 1865, under the influential editor E. L. Godkin (1831–1902).

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Science played an important part in social thought as the work of Charles Darwin became known among intellectuals. Following Darwin's idea of natural selection, English philosopher Herbert Spencer proposed the idea of social Darwinism. This new concept justified the stratification of the wealthy and poor, and it was in this proposal that Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest".

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Joining Spencer was Yale professor William Graham Sumner whose book "What Social Classes Owe to Each Other" (1884) argued that assistance to the poor actually weakens their ability to survive in society. Sumner argued for a laissez-faire and free-market economy. Few people, however, agreed with the social Darwinists, because they ridiculed religion and denounced philanthropy.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Henry George proposed a "single tax" in his book "Progress and Poverty". The tax would be leveled on the rich and poor alike, with the excess money collected used to equalize wealth and level out society.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The Norwegian American economist Thorstein Veblen argued in "The Theory of the Leisure Class" (1899) that the "conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure" of the wealthy had become the basis of social status in America.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: In "Looking Backward" (1887), the reformer Edward Bellamy envisioned a future America set in the year 2000 in which a socialist paradise has been established. The works of authors such as George and Bellamy became popular, and soon clubs were created across America to discuss their ideas, although these organizations rarely made any real social change.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The Third Great Awakening which began before the Civil War returned and made a significant change in religious attitudes toward social progress. Followers of the new Awakening promoted the idea of the Social Gospel which gave rise to organizations such as the YMCA, the American branch of the Salvation Army, and settlement houses such as Hull House, founded by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The Awakening in numerous cities in 1858 was interrupted by the American Civil War. In the South, on the other hand, the Civil War stimulated revivals and strengthened the Baptists, especially. After the war, Dwight L. Moody made revivalism the centerpiece of his activities in Chicago by founding the Moody Bible Institute. The hymns of Ira Sankey were especially influential.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Across the nation, "drys" crusaded in the name of religion for the prohibition of alcohol. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union mobilized Protestant women for social crusades against not only liquor, but also pornography and prostitution, and sparked the demand for women's suffrage.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: The Gilded Age plutocracy came under harsh attack from the Social Gospel preachers and reformers in the Progressive Era who became involved with issues of child labor, compulsory elementary education and the protection of women from exploitation in factories.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: All the major denominations sponsored growing missionary activities inside the United States and around the world.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Gilded Age

Context: Colleges associated with churches rapidly expanded in number, size and quality of curriculum. The promotion of muscular Christianity became popular among young men on campus and in urban YMCAs, as well as such denominational youth groups such as the Epworth League for Methodists and the Walther League for Lutherans.

Question: Откуда произошло название "позолоченного века" в США?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: In May 1970, the Revolutionary Intellectuals Seminar was held to bring intellectuals in line with the revolution, while that year's Legislative Review and Amendment united secular and religious law codes, introducing "sharia" into the legal system.

Question: Сколько детей было у Муаммара Кадда́фи?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: Ruling by decree, the RCC maintained the monarchy's ban on political parties, in May 1970 banned trade unions, and in 1972 outlawed workers' strikes and suspended newspapers. In September 1971, Gaddafi resigned, claiming to be dissatisfied with the pace of reform, but returned to his position within a month. In February 1973, he resigned again, once more returning the following month.

Question: Сколько детей было у Муаммара Кадда́фи?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: Seeking vengeance for the killing, Gaddafi supporters severely wounded and tortured one of those who had captured Gaddafi, 22-year-old Omran Shaaban, near Bani Walid in September 2012. They tortured him for days, and he eventually died in France.

Question: Сколько детей было у Муаммара Кадда́фи?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: He was preoccupied with his own security, regularly changing where he slept and sometimes grounding all other planes in Libya when he was flying. He made particular requests when travelling to foreign countries. During his trips to Rome, Paris, Madrid, Moscow, and New York City, he resided in a bulletproof tent, following his Bedouin traditions. Gaddafi was notably confrontational in his approach to foreign powers and generally shunned Western ambassadors and diplomats, believing them to be spies.

Question: Сколько детей было у Муаммара Кадда́фи?


Resident Evil 2

Context: "Resident Evil 2" was produced by "Resident Evil" director Shinji Mikami, directed by Hideki Kamiya, and developed by a team of approximately 50 across 21 months. The initial version, commonly referred to as "Resident Evil 1.5", differs drastically; it was canceled at approximately two thirds completion because Mikami decided it was inadequate. The final design introduced a more cinematic presentation.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: The first footage of "Resident Evil 2" was shown at the V Jump Festival '96 in July. This build, later dubbed "Resident Evil 1.5" by Mikami, differed drastically from the final version. Its plot followed the same basic outline and features a zombie outbreak in Raccoon City two months after the events of the first game. However, Umbrella had already been closed as a consequence of its illegal experiments.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: Believing the game's assets were good individually, but not yet satisfactory as a whole, Mikami expected that everything would coalesce in the three months leading up to the projected May 1997 release date. However, "Resident Evil 1.5" was soon scrapped at 60–80 percent completion. Mikami later explained that the game would not have reached the desired quality on time, and that the gameplay and locations were dull.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: Mikami planned to the end the series with "Resident Evil 2". Supervisor Yoshiki Okamoto criticized the story, finding it too conclusive to allow for future installments. Instead, Okamoto proposed the creation of a fictional universe that would turn "Resident Evil" into a metaseries – similar to the "Gundam" and "James Bond" franchises – in which self-contained stories with common elements could be told.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: Regional releases required several changes. The North American version contains more violent game over screens, which were removed from the Japanese "Biohazard 2". "Resident Evil 2" was made more difficult (and thus longer-playing) than its Japanese equivalent to prevent short-term rentals from affecting U.S. sales.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: In Japan, marketing included a live action television commercial directed by renowned zombie film director George Romero. The commercial was filmed on location at Lincoln Heights Jail and starred Brad Renfro as Leon Kennedy and Adrienne Frantz as Claire Redfield.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: After its initial release for the PlayStation in January 1998, "Resident Evil 2" was reissued and ported to other systems, many gaining new features in the process.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: Tiger Electronics released a sprite-based 2.5D version for its Game.com handheld in late 1998. It includes only Leon's story path, without several of the original game's core features. In February 2013, an unfinished build of "Resident Evil 1.5" was leaked onto the Internet.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: A port of "Resident Evil 2" for the Sega Saturn was developed at Capcom, but technical difficulties led to its cancellation in October 1998.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: "Resident Evil 2" received critical acclaim upon release. Its original PlayStation release holds an average aggregate score of 93% at GameRankings based on 25 reviews, and 89 out of 100 points at Metacritic for both the PlayStation and Nintendo 64 versions based on 13 reviews. The majority of reviews praised "Resident Evil 2" for its atmosphere, setting, graphics, audio, and overall gameplay, but criticized its controls, voice acting, and certain gameplay elements.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: In Japan, 17,973 copies of the Nintendo 64 and GameCube versions were sold, and in the United States, 326,397 copies of the Nintendo 64 version were sold, totaling at least . Total worldwide sales were at least units across PlayStation and Nintendo platforms.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: In "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s 1998 Gamers' Choice Awards, "Resident Evil 2" was the runner-up for Best Adventure Game of the Year and Readers' Choice Best PlayStation Game of the Year, behind "Metal Gear Solid" which won in both award categories. The Video Software Dealers Association nominated it for Video Game of the Year.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: In Italy, "Resident Evil 2" was temporarily banned in 1999 following criticism from the political organization "Movimento Diritti Civili" (Civil Rights Movement) for its realistic depiction of violence, with the law enforcement agency Guardia di Finanza seizing over 5,500 unsold copies. Sony Computer Entertainment asked for a re-examination of the seizure decree, and the ban was lifted a few months later.

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: "Resident Evil 2" appears in the British sitcom "Spaced" in the episode "Art", in which a character hallucinates that he is fighting a zombie invasion. "Spaced" director Edgar Wright cited this episode inspired by "Resident Evil 2" as the basis for his zombie comedy film "Shaun of the Dead" (2004).

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Resident Evil 2

Context: In August 2015, Capcom announced that a remake of "Resident Evil 2" was in development. Capcom unveiled the game at E3 2018, with trailers and gameplay footage, and a worldwide release date of January 25, 2019 for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Windows. The game uses the RE Engine, which is also in "", and replaces the tank controls and fixed camera angles with "over-the-shoulder" gameplay similar to "Resident Evil 4".

Question: Сколько копий Resident Evil 2 продано в России на 2019 год?


Water supply and sanitation in Russia

Context: In Russia, approximately 70 per cent of drinking water comes from surface water and 30 per cent from groundwater. In 2004, water supply systems had a total capacity of 90 million cubic metres a day. The average residential water use was 248 litres per capita per day. One quarter of the world’s fresh surface and groundwater is located in Russia. The water utilities sector is one of the largest industries in Russia serving the entire Russian population.

Question: Сколько мусора вывозят из Москвы ежедневно?


Water supply and sanitation in Russia

Context: By the end of the nineteenth century, sewerage was only present in 63 Russian cities (5.12%). The year of 1870 was the turning point in urban sanitation in Russia: after the reform of city self-government, the responsibility to address the economic issues related to the urban environment and its sanitary conditions fell upon local authorities. In 1911 the central government begun to provide financial assistance to cities in the fight against epidemics and improve water supply sources.

Question: Сколько мусора вывозят из Москвы ежедневно?


Water supply and sanitation in Russia

Context: However, concessions such as the one planned for Saint Petersburg may not be financially viable because Russian President Vladimir Putin imposed a national water tariff freeze. In October 2014 the city of Volgograd announced it would launch a bid for a 25-year concession involving investments of $500 million.

Question: Сколько мусора вывозят из Москвы ежедневно?


Port of Novorossiysk

Context: New transshipment terminal construction was initiated in 1960 based on resolutions of the Council of Ministers of USSR (and later RSFSR) as a part of oil industry development program, personally supervised by Nikita Khrushchev. The construction site was set near Sheskharis Cape at the Tsemes Bay coast, ranging from 100 m to 40 m above sea level. Upon completion total amount of tank fields reached 99,000 m3.

Question: Какой порт самый крупный в России?


Pressure measurement

Context: Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors that can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator or control system (telemetry).

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Everyday pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured, then absolute pressures are typically used instead.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Moderate vacuum pressure readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 4 inHg, calculated as 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg (gauge pressure).

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down. The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a "g" for gauge after the pressure unit, e.g. 70 psig, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: A vented-gauge pressure transmitter, for example, allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure-sensing diaphragm, through a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented-gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference, and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset, so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: To produce an absolute pressure sensor, the manufacturer seals a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. If the process-pressure connection of an absolute-pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Blaise Pascal went farther, having his brother-in-law try the experiment at different altitudes on a mountain, and finding indeed that the farther down in the ocean of atmosphere, the higher the pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely. So measurements in "millimetres of mercury" or "inches of mercury" can be converted to SI units as long as attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and gravity. Temperature fluctuations change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Although no longer preferred, these manometric units are still encountered in many fields. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (see torr) in most of the world, central venous pressure and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common, as in settings for CPAP machines. Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed as "inches W.C."

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: In vacuum systems, the units torr (millimeter of mercury), micron (micrometer of mercury), and inch of mercury (inHg) are most commonly used. Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using hectopascal (hPa), kilopascal (kPa), millibar (mbar) or atmospheres (atm). In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip. Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar. In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2. In the mts system, the unit of pressure was the pieze, equal to 1 sthene per square metre.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm2 or grams-force/cm2 (sometimes as kg/cm2 without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N).

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example tire-pressure gauges of comparatively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a deadweight tester and may be used for calibration of other gauges.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired, except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example, across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and structure, following types of manometers are used

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: 0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-dependent properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units by a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: These gauges use the attraction of two magnets to translate differential pressure into motion of a dial pointer. As differential pressure increases, a magnet attached to either a piston or rubber diaphragm moves. A rotary magnet that is attached to a pointer then moves in unison. To create different pressure ranges, the spring rate can be increased or decreased.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: The strain gauge is generally glued (foil strain gauge) or deposited (thin-film strain gauge) onto a membrane. Membrane deflection due to pressure causes a resistance change in the strain gauge which can be electronically measured.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: This is an over simplified diagram, but you can see fundamental design of the internal ports in the sensor. The important item here to note is the “Diaphragm” as this is the sensor itself. Please note that is it slightly convex in shape (highly exaggerated in the drawing), this is important as it effects the accuracy of the sensor in use.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall effect, or by eddy current principle.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: In two-wire gauges, one wire coil is used as a heater, and the other is used to measure temperature due to convection. Thermocouple gauges and thermistor gauges work in this manner using a thermocouple or thermistor, respectively, to measure the temperature of the heated wire.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Thermionic emission generates electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive ions. The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure. There are several sub-types of ionization gauge.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: There are two subtypes of cold-cathode ionization gauges: the Penning gauge (invented by Frans Michel Penning), and the inverted magnetron, also called a Redhead gauge. The major difference between the two is the position of the anode with respect to the cathode. Neither has a filament, and each may require a DC potential of about 4 kV for operation. Inverted magnetrons can measure down to 1  Torr.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: Maintenance cycles of cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the gas type and pressure that they are operated in. Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with substantial organic components, such as pump oil fractions, can result in the growth of delicate carbon films and shards within the gauge that eventually either short-circuit the electrodes of the gauge or impede the generation of a discharge path.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: The methods for pressure measurement and the protocols used for data transmission are also provided. Guidance is given for setting up the instrumentation and determining the uncertainty of the measurement. Information regarding the instrument type, design, applicable pressure range, accuracy, output, and relative cost is provided. Information is also provided on pressure-measuring devices that are used in field environments i.e., piston gauges, manometers, and low-absolute-pressure (vacuum) instruments.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Pressure measurement

Context: These methods are designed to assist in the evaluation of measurement uncertainty based on current technology and engineering knowledge, taking into account published instrumentation specifications and measurement and application techniques. This Supplement provides guidance in the use of methods to establish the pressure-measurement uncertainty.

Question: Кто изобрел манометр?


Concorde

Context: The Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde () is a Franco-British supersonic airliner jointly developed and manufactured by Sud Aviation (later Aérospatiale) and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC).

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Studies started in 1954, and France and the UK signed a treaty establishing the development project on 29 November 1962, as the programme cost was estimated at £70 million (£ in ).

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Construction of the six prototypes began in February 1965, and the first flight took off from Toulouse on 2 March 1969.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The market was predicted for 350 aircraft, and the manufacturers received up to 100 option orders from many major airlines.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: On 9 October 1975, it received its French Certificate of Airworthiness, and from the UK CAA on 5 December.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: It is powered by four Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojets with variable engine intake ramps, and reheat for take-off and acceleration to supersonic speed.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Constructed out of aluminium, it was the first airliner to have analogue fly-by-wire flight-controls.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde entered service on 21 January of that year with Air France from Paris-Roissy and British Airways from London Heathrow.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Transatlantic flights was the main market, to Washington Dulles from 24 May, and to New York JFK from 17 October 1977.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Air France and British Airways remained the sole customers with seven airframes each, for a total production of twenty.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Supersonic flight more than halved travel times, but sonic booms over the ground limited it to transoceanic flights only.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Its only competitor was the Tupolev Tu-144, carrying passengers from November 1977 until a May 1978 crash, while the larger and faster Boeing 2707 was cancelled in 1971.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590 ran over debris on its take-off run and crashed with all 109 occupants and four on ground killed; the only fatal incident involving Concorde.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Commercial service was suspended until November 2001, and Concorde aircraft were retired in 2003 after 27 years of commercial operations.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The origins of the Concorde project date to the early 1950s, when Arnold Hall, director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), asked Morien Morgan to form a committee to study the supersonic transport (SST) concept. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. This led to the use of short-span, thin trapezoidal wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles, or in aircraft such as the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter or the Avro 730 that the team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that resembled an enlarged Avro 730.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: This same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes" resulted. Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present. Test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgan's reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem. Brown considers this moment as being the true birth of the Concorde project.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: While the wing planform was evolving, so was the basic SST concept. Bristol's original Type 198 was a small design with an almost pure slender delta wing, but evolved into the larger Type 223.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" without an article, rather than " Concorde" or " Concorde".

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Described by "Flight International" as an "aviation icon" and "one of aerospace's most ambitious but commercially flawed projects", Concorde failed to meet its original sales targets, despite initial interest from several airlines.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: At first, the new consortium intended to produce one long-range and one short-range version. However, prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: A two page advertisement for Concorde ran in the 29 May 1967 issue of "Aviation Week & Space Technology" which predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980 and boasted of Concorde's head start over the United States' SST project.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The design work was supported by a preceding research programme studying the flight characteristics of low ratio delta wings. A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was modified to carry the ogee planform, and, renamed as the BAC 221, used for flight tests of the high speed flight envelope, the Handley Page HP.115 also provided valuable information on low speed performance.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The original programme cost estimate was £70 million before 1962, (£ in ). The programme experienced huge cost overruns and delays, with the programme eventually costing between £1.5 and £2.1 billion in 1976, (£- in ). This extreme cost was the main reason the production run was much smaller than expected.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The per-unit cost was impossible to recoup, so the French and British governments absorbed the development costs.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Rolls-Royce had a design proposal, the RB.169, for the aircraft at the time of Concorde's initial design but "to develop a brand-new engine for Concorde would have been prohibitively expensive" so an existing engine, already flying in the supersonic BAC TSR-2 strike bomber prototype, was chosen. It was the BSEL Olympus Mk 320 turbojet, a development of the Bristol engine first used for the subsonic Avro Vulcan bomber.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Great confidence was placed in being able to reduce the noise of a turbojet and massive strides by SNECMA in silencer design were reported during the programme. However, by 1974 the spade silencers which projected into the exhaust were reported to be ineffective but "entry-into-service aircraft are likely to meet their noise guarantees". The Olympus Mk.622 with reduced jet velocity was proposed to reduce the noise but it was not developed.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Situated behind the leading edge of the wing, the engine intake had wing boundary layer ahead of it. Two-thirds was diverted and the remaining third which entered the intake did not adversely affect the intake efficiency except during pushovers when the boundary layer thickened ahead of the intake and caused surging. Extensive wind tunnel testing helped define leading edge modifications ahead of the intakes which solved the problem.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Each engine had its own intake and the engine nacelles were paired with a splitter plate between them to minimise adverse behaviour of one powerplant influencing the other. Only above was an engine surge likely to affect the adjacent engine.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency from the powerplant. Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag. Olympus turbojet technology was available to be developed to meet the design requirements of the aircraft, although turbofans would be studied for any future SST.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle. The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable exit area and secondary flow from the intake, contributed to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: To fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde required the greatest supersonic range of any aircraft. This was achieved by a combination of engines which were highly efficient at supersonic speeds, a slender fuselage with high fineness ratio, and a complex wing shape for a high lift-to-drag ratio. This also required carrying only a modest payload and a high fuel capacity, and the aircraft was trimmed with precision to avoid unnecessary drag.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Airliner cabins were usually maintained at a pressure equivalent to elevation. Concorde's pressurisation was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, . Concorde's maximum cruising altitude was ; subsonic airliners typically cruise below .

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from Paris to New York (seven hours from New York to Paris), the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruising altitude of and an average cruise speed of , more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: "Concorde 001" was modified with rooftop portholes for use on the 1973 Solar Eclipse mission and equipped with observation instruments. It performed the longest observation of a solar eclipse to date, about 74 minutes.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: In its early years, the British Airways Concorde service had a greater number of "no shows" (passengers who booked a flight and then failed to appear at the gate for boarding) than any other aircraft in the fleet.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Following the launch of British Airways Concorde services, Britain's other major airline, British Caledonian (BCal), set up a task force headed by Gordon Davidson, BA's former Concorde director, to investigate the possibility of their own Concorde operations. This was seen as particularly viable for the airline's long-haul network as there were two unsold aircraft then available for purchase.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: In 1983, Pan American accused the British Government of subsidising British Airways Concorde air fares, on which a return London–New York was £2,399 (£ in prices), compared to £1,986 (£) with a subsonic first class return, and London–Washington return was £2,426 (£) instead of £2,258 (£) subsonic.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Research revealed that passengers thought that the fare was higher than it actually was, so the airline raised ticket prices to match these perceptions. It is reported that British Airways then ran Concorde at a profit.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Its estimated operating costs were $3,800 per block hour in 1972 (), compared to actual 1971 operating costs of $1,835 for a 707 and $3,500 for a 747 (equivalent to $ and $, respectively); for a London–New York sector, a 707 cost $13,750 or 3.04¢ per seat/nmi (in 1971 dollars), a 747 $26,200 or 2.4¢ per seat/nmi and Concorde $14,250 or 4.5¢ per seat/nmi.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The speed and premium service were costly: in 1997, the round-trip ticket price from New York to London was $7,995 (equivalent to $ in ), more than 30 times the cost of the least expensive scheduled flight for this route.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: British Airways and Air France were able to operate Concorde at a profit after purchasing their aircraft from their respective governments at a steep discount in comparison to the programme's development and procurement costs.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Between March 1984 and January 1991, British Airways flew a thrice-weekly Concorde service between London and Miami, stopping at Washington Dulles International Airport. Until 2003, Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. From 1987 to 2003 British Airways flew a Saturday morning Concorde service to Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados, during the summer and winter holiday season.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Prior to the Air France Paris crash, several UK and French tour operators operated charter flights to European destinations on a regular basis; the charter business was viewed as lucrative by British Airways and Air France.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: In 1997, British Airways held a promotional contest to mark the 10th anniversary of the airline's move into the private sector. The promotion was a lottery to fly to New York held for 190 tickets valued at £5,400 each, to be offered at £10. Contestants had to call a special hotline to compete with up to 20 million people.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn for the reasons usually given but that it became apparent during the grounding of Concorde that the airlines could make more profit carrying first-class passengers subsonically. A lack of commitment to Concorde from Director of Engineering Alan MacDonald was cited as having undermined BA's resolve to continue operating Concorde.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Other reasons why the attempted revival of Concorde never happened relate to the fact that the narrow fuselage did not allow for "luxury" features of subsonic air travel such as moving space, reclining seats and overall comfort. In the words of "The Guardian"'s Dave Hall, "Concorde was an outdated notion of prestige that left sheer speed the only luxury of supersonic travel."

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The general downturn in the commercial aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the end of maintenance support for Concorde by Airbus, the successor to Aérospatiale, contributed to the aircraft's retirement.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May 2003. Air France's final Concorde flight took place on 27 June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to Toulouse.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at Christie's in Paris on 15 November 2003; 1,300 people attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values. French Concorde F-BVFC was retired to Toulouse and kept functional for a short time after the end of service, in case taxi runs were required in support of the French judicial enquiry into the 2000 crash. The aircraft is now fully retired and no longer functional.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: French Concorde F-BTSD has been retired to the "Musée de l'Air" at Paris–Le Bourget Airport near Paris; unlike the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are being kept functional. For instance, the famous "droop nose" can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours that they could be prepared for future flights for special occasions.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: French Concorde F-BVFB is at the Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim at Sinsheim, Germany, after its last flight from Paris to Baden-Baden, followed by a spectacular transport to Sinsheim via barge and road. The museum also has a Tupolev Tu-144 on display – this is the only place where both supersonic airliners can be seen together.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: British Airways conducted a North American farewell tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto Pearson International Airport on 1 October, after which it flew to New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport. G-BOAD visited Boston's Logan International Airport on 8 October, and G-BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde G-BBDG was used for test flying and trials work. It was retired in 1981 and then only used for spares. It was dismantled and transported by road from Filton to the Brooklands Museum in Surrey where it was restored from essentially a shell. It remains open to visitors to the museum, and wears the original Negus & Negus livery worn by the Concorde fleet during their initial years of service with BA.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: G-BOAF forms the centrepiece of the Aerospace Bristol museum at Filton, which opened to the public in 2017.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: On 6 December 2010, Continental Airlines and John Taylor, a mechanic who installed the metal strip, were found guilty of involuntary manslaughter; however, on 30 November 2012, a French court overturned the conviction, saying mistakes by Continental and Taylor did not make them criminally responsible.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The first flight with passengers after the 2000 grounding for safety modifications landed shortly before the World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were BA employees. Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where Mayor Rudy Giuliani greeted the passengers.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde is one of only two supersonic jetliner models to operate commercially; the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which operated in the late 1970s.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde's technical leap forward boosted the public's understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment as well as awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such conflicts. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise. In the UK, the CPRE has issued tranquillity maps since 1990.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows. On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media coverage.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type, Tube map, the World Wide Web, K2 telephone box and the Supermarine Spitfire.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by the British Airways G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from take-off to touchdown aided by a 175 mph (282 km/h) tailwind. On 13 February 1985, a Concorde charter flight flew from London Heathrow to Sydney—on the opposite side of the world—in a time of 17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds, including refuelling stops.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: Concorde also set other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around the World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records. On 12–13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of Columbus' first New World landing, Concorde Spirit Tours (US) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, Bangkok, and Bahrain.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Concorde

Context: On its way to the Museum of Flight in November 2003, G-BOAG set a New York City-to-Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. Due to the restrictions on supersonic overflights within the US the flight was granted permission by the Canadian authorities for the majority of the journey to be flown supersonically over sparsely-populated Canadian territory.

Question: Какая была вместимость «Конко́рда»?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The EU asserts that it is in favour of linguistic diversity. This principle is enshrined in the EU Charter of fundamental rights (art. 22) and in the Treaty on European Union (art. 3(3) TEU).

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: , the official languages of the European Union, as stipulated in the latest amendment of "Regulation No 1 determining the languages to be used by the European Economic Community" of 1958, are:

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Furthermore, not all national languages have been accorded the status of official EU languages. These include Luxembourgish, an official language of Luxembourg since 1984, and Turkish, an official language of Cyprus.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: All languages of the EU are also working languages. Documents which a member state or a person subject to the jurisdiction of a member state sends to institutions of the Community may be drafted in any one of the official languages selected by the sender. The reply is drafted in the same language. Regulations and other documents of general application are drafted in the twenty-four official languages. The "Official Journal of the European Union" is published in the twenty-four official languages.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The translations are expensive. According to the EU's English-language website, the cost of maintaining the institutions’ policy of multilingualism—i.e., the cost of translation and interpretation—was €1,123 million in 2005, which is 1% of the annual general budget of the EU, or €2.28 per person per year. The EU Parliament has made clear that its member states have autonomy for language education, which by treaty the Union must respect.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Outside the Indo-European family, Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian are Uralic languages while Maltese is the only Afroasiatic language with official status in the EU.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Although Maltese is an official language, the Council set a transitional period of three years from 1 May 2004, during which the institutions were not obliged to draft all acts in Maltese. It was agreed that the council could extend this transitional period by an additional year, but decided not to. All new acts of the institutions were required to be adopted and published in Maltese from 30 April 2007.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: When Ireland joined the EEC (now the EU) in 1973, Irish was accorded "Treaty Language" status. This meant that the founding EU Treaty was restated in Irish. Irish was also listed in that treaty and all subsequent EU treaties as one of the authentic languages of the treaties. As a Treaty Language, Irish was an official procedural language of the European Court of Justice. It was also possible to correspond in written Irish with the EU Institutions.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Irish is the only official language of the EU that is not the most widely spoken language in any member state. According to the 2006 Irish census figures, there are 1.66 million people in Ireland with some ability to speak Irish, out of a population of 4.6 million, though only 538,500 use Irish on a daily basis (counting those who use it mainly in the education system) and just over 72,000 use Irish as a daily language outside the education system.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Some regional or minority languages spoken within the EU do not have official recognition at EU level. Some of them may have some official status within the member state and count many more speakers than some of the lesser-used official languages. The official languages of EU are in bold.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: In the list, language varieties classified as dialects of an official language by member countries are not included. However, many of these varieties may be viewed as separate languages: for instance, Scots (the Germanic language descended from Old English, not the Celtic language known as Scottish Gaelic) and several Romance languages spoken in Spain, Portugal, France and Italy, such as Aragonese, Asturian, Mirandese, Lombard, Ligurian, Piedmontese, Venetian, Corsican, Neapolitan and Sicilian.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The official language of Greece is Greek, and recognized minority languages are Armenian, Ladino and Turkish. Nevertheless, there are several other languages in Greece, which lack any recognition. These are Albanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian (these last two usually being collectively known as "Vlach"), Romani and the Slavic varieties spoken in the country. Greece has been described as the only European Union member state that sticks to a "linguistic assimilationist ideology".

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Although Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician are not nationwide official languages in Spain, as co-official languages in the respective regions – pursuant to Spanish constitution, among other documents – they are eligible to benefit from official use in EU institutions under the terms of 13 June 2005 resolution of the Council of the European Union. The Spanish government has assented to the provisions in respect of these languages.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The status of Catalan, spoken by over 9 million EU citizens (just over 1.8% of the total), has been the subject of particular debate. On 11 December 1990, the use of Catalan was the subject of a European Parliament Resolution (resolution A3-169/90 on languages in the [European] Community and the situation of Catalan).

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: On 16 November 2005, the President Peter Straub of the Committee of the Regions signed an agreement with the Spanish Ambassador to the EU, , approving the use of Spanish regional languages in an EU institution for the first time in a meeting on that day, with interpretation provided by European Commission interpreters.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: On 3 July 2006, the European Parliament's Bureau approved a proposal by the Spanish State to allow citizens to address the European Parliament in Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician, two months after its initial rejection.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Galician in particular, not being itself a European Parliament official language, can be used and is in fact used by some European Parliament constituents as a spoken dialect of Portuguese due to its similarity with this language.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The Romani people, numbering over two million in the EU, speak the Romani language (actually numerous different languages), which is not official in any EU member state or polity, except for being an official minority language of Sweden and Finland. Moreover, Romani mass media and educational institution presences are near-negligible.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: In March 2010 fact-sheets in Russian produced by the EU executive's offices in Latvia were withdrawn, provoking criticism from Plaid Cymru MEP and European Free Alliance group President Jill Evans who called European Commission to continue to provide information in non-official EU languages and commented that "it's disappointing to hear that the EU is bowing to pressure to exclude Russian speakers in the Baltic in this way".

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: In Finland, the Sami languages Northern Sami (ca. 2,000 speakers), Skolt Sami (400) and Inari Sami (300) have limited local recognition in certain municipalities of Finnish Lapland. Furthermore, legislation specifically concerning the Sami must be translated to these languages. Bilingualism with Finnish is universal, though.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Three different Sami languages are spoken in Sweden, but "Sami language" (undifferentiated) is recognised as an official minority language in Sweden, and is co-official with Swedish in four municipalities in Norrbotten County (Swedish Lapland). Most of Sami speakers speak Northern Sami (5,000–6,000 speakers), although there are ca. 1,000–2,000 Lule Sami speakers and 600 Southern Sami speakers.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: For millennia, Latin served as a "lingua franca" for administrative, scholarly, religious, political, and other purposes in parts of the present-day European Union. After Athens and other Greek city-states of the 6th to 4th centuries BC, the first documented political entity historically verifiable in Europe was the Roman Republic, traditionally founded in 509 BC, the successor-state to the Etruscan city-state confederacies.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: There are large Chinese communities in France, Spain, Italy, and other countries. Some countries have Chinatowns. Old and recent Chinese migrants speak a number of Chinese varieties, in particular Cantonese and other southern Chinese varieties. However, Mandarin is becoming increasingly more prevalent due to the opening of the People's Republic of China.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Many immigrant communities in the EU have been in place for several generations now, and their members are bilingual, at ease both in the local language and in that of their community.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: A wide variety of sign languages are used in the EU, with around 500,000 people using a sign language as their first language. None of these languages are recognised as an official language of an EU member state, with the exception of Ireland passing the Irish Sign Language Act 2017 that granted it official status alongside Irish and English, and only two states (Finland and Portugal) refer to sign languages in their constitution.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Several NGOs exist which support signers, such as the European Union of the Deaf and the European Sign Language Centre. The European Commission has also supported some initiatives to produce digital technologies that can better support signers, such as Dicta-Sign and SignSpeak.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Esperanto is not mentioned by the EU Commission as an EU language; the Commission mentions only official, indigenous regional and minority languages as well as languages of immigrants. Following estimates there are approximately 100,000 Europeans sometimes using Esperanto (and several millions having learned Esperanto); the language has several thousand native speakers, some of them of the second or third generation.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The European Esperanto Union also promotes Esperanto as the international auxiliary language of Europe.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The European Parliament translates its proceedings into all official languages so that fellow MEPs can understand them better than if they had the delayed translation. Committee meetings also often default to the language most understood by those attending instead of listening to the translation.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: In the Charter of Fundamental Rights, legally binding since its inclusion in the Lisbon Treaty, the EU declares that it respects linguistic diversity (Article 22) and prohibits discrimination on grounds of language (Article 21). Respect for linguistic diversity is a fundamental value of the European Union, in the same way as respect for the person, openness towards other cultures, and tolerance and acceptance of other people.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Beginning with the "" in 1990, the European Union invests more than €30 million a year (out of a €120 billion EU budget) promoting language learning through the "Socrates" and "Leonardo da Vinci" programmes in bursaries to enable language teachers to be trained abroad, placing foreign language assistants in schools, funding class exchanges to motivate pupils to learn languages, creating new language courses on CDs and the Internet, and projects that raise awareness of the benefits of language learning.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Through strategic studies, the Commission promotes debate, innovation, and the exchange of good practice. In addition, the mainstream actions of Community programmes which encourage mobility and transnational partnerships motivate participants to learn languages.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Youth exchanges, town twinning projects, and the European Voluntary Service also promote multilingualism. Since 1997, the Culture 2000 programme has financed the translation of around 2,000 literary works from and into European languages.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: The new programmes proposed for implementation for the financial perspective 2007–2013 (Culture 2007, Youth in Action, and Lifelong Learning) will continue and develop this kind of support.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: Although not an EU treaty, most EU member states have ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: To encourage language learning, the EU supported the Council of Europe initiatives for European Year of Languages 2001 and the annual celebration of European Day of Languages on 26 September.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: To encourage the member states to cooperate and to disseminate best practice the Commission issued a Communication on 24 July 2003, on Promoting Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity: an Action Plan 2004–2006 and a Communication on 22 November 2005, on A New Framework Strategy for Multilingualism.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Languages of the European Union

Context: From 22 November 2004, the European Commissioner for Education and Culture portfolio included an explicit reference to languages and became European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Multilingualism with Ján Figeľ at the post. From 2007 until 2010, the European Commission had a special portfolio on languages, European Commissioner for Multilingualism. The post was held by Leonard Orban. Since 2010, the portfolio was merged with education and culture, again.

Question: На каком языке говорят в Стасбургском суде?


Still life

Context: The term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered animal art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. Because of the use of plants and animals as a subject, the still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration. However, with visual or fine art, the work is not intended merely to illustrate the subject correctly.

Question: Чем пейзаж отличается от натюрморта?