HMS Lion (1910)

Context: "Lion" had two paired sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each driving two propeller shafts using steam provided by 42 Yarrow boilers. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , but achieved more than during her trials, although she did not exceed her designed speed of . She carried of coal, and an additional of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate. At full capacity, she could steam for at a speed of .

Question: В честь кого назван линейные крейсера типа «Лайон»?


HMS Lion (1910)

Context: "Lion" mounted eight BL Mk V guns in four twin-gun turrets, designated 'A', 'B', 'Q' and 'X' from front to rear. Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL Mark VII guns, most of which were mounted in casemates. The two guns mounted above the forward group of casemates were given gun shields during 1913–1914 to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action. The starboard forward group of 4-inch guns was removed after April 1917.

Question: В честь кого назван линейные крейсера типа «Лайон»?


HMS Lion (1910)

Context: She was built without anti-aircraft (AA) guns, but a single quick-firing (QF) 6-pounder (57 mm) Hotchkiss gun on a high-angle mounting was fitted from October 1914 to July 1915. A single QF AA gun was added in January 1915, and another the following July. Two submerged torpedo tubes were fitted, one on each broadside; fourteen torpedoes were carried.

Question: В честь кого назван линейные крейсера типа «Лайон»?


HMS Lion (1910)

Context: "Lion" received a fire-control director between mid-1915 and May 1916 that centralised the pointing and firing of the guns under the command of the director positioned on the foremast. The turret crewmen merely had to follow pointers controlled by the director to align their guns on the target. This greatly increased accuracy as it was easier to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the problem of the ship's roll dispersing the shells as each turret fired individually.

Question: В честь кого назван линейные крейсера типа «Лайон»?


HMS Lion (1910)

Context: By early 1918 "Lion" carried a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1½ Strutter on flying-off platforms fitted on top of 'Q' and 'X' turrets. Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather.

Question: В честь кого назван линейные крейсера типа «Лайон»?


Palace of Versailles

Context: Napoleon Bonaparte, following his takeover of France, used Versailles as a summer residence from 1810 to 1814, but did not restore it. When the French Monarchy was restored, it remained in Paris and it was not until the 1830s that meaningful repairs were made to the palace. A museum of French history was installed within it, replacing the apartments of the southern wing.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The palace and park were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979 for its importance as the center of power, art, and science in France during the 17th and 18th centuries. The French Ministry of Culture has placed the palace, its gardens, and some of its subsidiary structures on its list of culturally significant monuments.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: By 1687, however, it was evident to all that Versailles was the "de facto" capital of France, and Louis XIV succeeded in attracting the nobility to Versailles to pursue prestige and royal patronage within a strict court etiquette, thus eroding their traditional provincial power bases. It was at the Palace of Versailles that Louis XIV received the Doge of Genoa in 1685, an embassy from the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1686, and an embassy from Safavid Iran in 1715.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: In 1783, the Palace was the site of the signing of the last two of the three treaties of the Peace of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War. On September 3, British and American delegates, led by Benjamin Franklin, signed the Treaty of Paris at the Hôtel d'York (now 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris, granting the United States independence. On September 4, Spain and France signed separate treaties with England at the Palace of Versailles, formally ending the war.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: When Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French in 1804, he considered making Versailles his residence but abandoned the idea because of the cost of the renovation. Prior to his marriage with Marie-Louise in 1810, he had the Grand Trianon restored and refurnished as a springtime residence for himself and his family, in the style of furnishing that it is seen today.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: Emperor Napoleon III used the Palace on occasion as a stage for grand ceremonies. One of the most lavish was the banquet that he hosted for Queen Victoria in the Royal Opera of Versailles on 25 August 1855.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The end of the 19th and the early 20th century saw the beginning of restoration efforts at the Palace, first led by Pierre de Nolhac, poet and scholar and the first conservator, who began his work in 1892. The conservation and restoration were interrupted by two world wars but have continued until the present day.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Palace returned to the world stage in June 1919, when, after six months of negotiations, the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War, was signed in the Hall of Mirrors. Between 1925 and 1928, the American philanthropist and multi-millionaire John D. Rockefeller gave $2,166,000, the equivalent of about thirty million dollars today, to restore and refurbish the palace.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: More work took place after World War II, with the restoration of the Royal Opera of Versailles. The theater was reopened in 1957, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: One of the more costly endeavors for the museum and France's Fifth Republic has been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. Consequently, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought-after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palace's original furnishings.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which began with the replanting of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees during Cyclone Lothar on 26 December 1999. One part of the initiative, the restoration of the Hall of Mirrors, was completed in 2006. Another major project was the further restoration of the backstage areas Royal Opera of Versailles, which was completed on 9 April 1957.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Palace of Versailles is currently owned by the French state. Its formal title is the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. Since 1995, it has been run as a Public Establishment, with an independent administration and management supervised by the French Ministry of Culture.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The palace and its grounds have had a great influence on architecture and horticulture from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th century. Examples of works influenced by Versailles include Christopher Wren's work at Hampton Court Palace, Berlin Palace, the Palace of La Granja, Stockholm Palace, Ludwigsburg Palace, Karlsruhe Palace, Rastatt Palace, Nymphenburg Palace, Schleissheim Palace, and Esterházy Palace.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The king's State Apartment consisted of an enfilade of seven rooms, each dedicated to one of the known planets and their associated titular Roman deity. The queen's apartment formed a parallel enfilade with that of the "grand appartement du roi". After the addition of the Hall of Mirrors (1678–1684) the king's apartment was reduced to five rooms (until the reign of Louis XV, when two more rooms were added) and the queen's to four.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The queen's apartments served as the residence of three queens of France – Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche, wife of Louis XIV, Marie Leczinska, wife of Louis XV, and Marie-Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Additionally, Louis XIV's granddaughter-in-law, Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy, "duchesse de Bourgogne", wife of the Petit Dauphin, occupied these rooms from 1697 (the year of her marriage) to her death in 1712.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The ("Escalier des Ambassadeurs") was an imperial staircase built from 1674 to 1680 by d'Orbay. Until Louis XV had it demolished in 1752 to create a courtyard for his private apartments, the staircase was the primary entrance into the Palace of Versailles and the royal apartments especially. It was entered from the courtyard via a vestibule that, cramped and dark, contrasted greatly with the tall, open space of the staircase – famously lit naturally with a skylight – so as to overawe visitors.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The construction of the Hall of Mirrors between 1678 and 1686 coincided with a major alteration to the State Apartments. They were originally intended as his residence, but the King transformed them into galleries for his finest paintings, and venues for his many receptions for courtiers. During the season from All-Saints Day in November until Easter, these were usually held three times a week, from six to ten in the evening, with various entertainments.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: This was originally a chapel. It was rebuilt beginning in 1712 under the supervision of the First Architect of the King, Robert de Cotte, to showcase two paintings by Paolo Veronese, "Eleazar and Rebecca" and "Meal at the House of Simon the Pharisee", which was a gift to Louis XIV from the Republic of Venice in 1664. The painting on the ceiling, "The Apotheosis of Hercules", by François Lemoyne, was completed in 1736, and gave the room its name.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Salon of Abundance was the antechamber to the Cabinet of Curios (now the Games Room), which displayed Louis XIV's collection of precious jewels and rare objects. Some of the objects in the collection are depicted in René-Antoine Houasse's painting "Abundance and Liberality" (1683), located on the ceiling over the door opposite the windows.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: This salon was used for serving light meals during evening receptions. The principal feature in this room is Jean Warin's life-size statue of Louis XIV in the costume of a Roman emperor. On the ceiling in a gilded oval frame is another painting by Houasse, "Venus subjugating the Gods and Powers" (1672–1681). "Trompe-l'œil" paintings and sculpture around the ceiling illustrate mythological themes.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Salon of Mars was used by the royal guards until 1782, and was decorated on a military theme with helmets and trophies. It was turned into a concert room between 1684 and 1750, with galleries for musicians on either side. Portraits of Louis XV and his Queen, Marie Leszczinska, by the Flemish artist Carle Van Loo decorate the room today.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Salon of Apollo was the royal throne room under Louis XIV, and was the setting for formal audiences. The eight-foot-high silver throne was melted down in 1689 to help pay the costs of an expensive war, and was replaced by a more modest throne of gilded wood. The central painting on the ceiling, by Charles de la Fosse, depicts the Sun Chariot of Apollo, the King's favorite emblem, pulled by four horses and surrounded by the four seasons.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Salon of Diana was used by Louis XIV as a billiards room, and had galleries from which courtiers could watch him play. The decoration of the walls and ceiling depicts scenes from the life of the goddess Diana. The celebrated bust of Louis XIV by Bernini made during the famous sculptor's visit to France in 1665 is on display here.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The apartments of the King were the heart of the château; they were in the same location as the rooms of Louis XIII, the creator of the château, on the first floor (second floor US style). They were set aside for the personal use of Louis XIV in 1683. He and his successors Louis XV and Louis XVI used these rooms for official functions, such as the ceremonial "lever" ("waking up") and the "coucher" ("going to bed") of the monarch, which was attended by a crowd of courtiers.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The King's apartment was accessed from the Hall of Mirrors from the "Oeil de Boeuf" antechamber or from the Guardroom and the "Grand Couvert", the ceremonial room where Louis XIV often took his evening meals, seated alone at a table in front of the fireplace. His spoon, fork, and knife were brought to him in a golden box. The courtiers could watch as he dined.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The King's bedchamber had originally been a Drawing Room before Louis XIV transformed it into his own bedroom in 1701. He died there on 1 September 1715. Both Louis XV and Louis XVI continued to use the bedroom for their official awakening and going to bed. On 6 October 1789, from the balcony of this room Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, joined by the Marquis de Lafayette, looked down on the hostile crowd in the courtyard, shortly before the King was forced to return to Paris.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The bed of the King is placed beneath a carved relief by Nicolas Coustou entitled " France watching over the sleeping King". The decoration includes several paintings set into the paneling, including a self-portrait of Antony van Dyck.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The and the bookend the Hall of Mirrors on its northern and southern ends respectively. The Salon of War, constructed and decorated from 1678 to 1686, celebrates French victories in the Franco-Dutch War with marble panels, gilded bronze trophies of arms, and a stucco "bas-relief" of Louis XIV on horsebask riding over his enemies. The Salon of Peace is decorated in the same fashion but according to its eponymous theme.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: Louis XIV commissioned the chapel, its sixth, from Mansart and Le Brun in 1683–84. It was the last building constructed at Versailles during Louis XIV's reign. Construction was delayed until 1699, however, and it was not completed until 1710. The only major modification to the chapel since its completion was the removal of a lantern from its roof in 1765. A full restoration of the chapel began in late 2017 and lasted into early 2021.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: In October 1789, early in the French Revolution, the last banquet for the royal guardsmen was hosted by the King in the opera, before he departed for Paris. Following the Franco-German War in 1871 and then the Paris Commune until 1875, the French National Assembly met in the opera, until the proclamation of the Third French Republic and the return of the government to Paris.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The estate was established by Louis XIII as a hunting retreat, with a park just to the west of his château. From 1661, Louis XIV expanded the estate until, at its greatest extent, the estate was made up by the , a hunting ground of , and the gardens, called the Petit Parc, which covered . A long, high wall with 24 gateways enclosed the estate.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: La Lanterne, is a hunting lodge named after the lantern that topped the nearby Menagerie that was built in 1787 by Philippe Louis de Noailles, then the palace governor. It has since 1960 been a state residence.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: The Petit Trianon, whose construction from 1762 to 1768 led to the advent of the names "Grand" and "Petit Trianon", was constructed for Louis XV and the Madame du Barry in the Neoclassical style by Gabriel. The building has a "piano nobile", basement, and attic, with five windows on each floor. On becoming king, Louis XVI gave the Petit Trianon to Marie Antoinette, who remodeled it, relaid its gardens in the then-current English and Oriental styles, and formed her own court there.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Palace of Versailles

Context: Near the Trianons are the , built by Gabriel in 1750 between the two residences, and the and Hamlet, built by architect Richard Mique in 1780 and from 1783 to 1785 respectively. These were both built at the behest of Marie Antoinette; the theater, hidden in the gardens, indulged her appreciation of opera and is absolutely original, and the hamlet to extend her gardens with rustic amenities.

Question: Сколько комнат во дворце Версаля?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibers from wood, fiber crops, waste paper, or rags. Mixed with water and other chemical or plant-based additives, pulp is the major raw material used in papermaking and the industrial production of other paper products.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons (160 million tonnes). In the previous year, 63 million tons (57 million tonnes) of market pulp (not made into paper in the same facility) was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, followed by the United States at 16 percent. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are "45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, and 34% recycled paper" (Canada, 2014). Chemical pulp made up 93% of market pulp.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood. While in theory any tree can be used for pulp-making, coniferous trees are preferred because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, and therefore make stronger paper.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods (kraft and sulfite processes). The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibers (desired for papermaking), lignin (a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibres together) and hemicelluloses (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibres.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Wood chipping is the act and industry of chipping wood for pulp, but also for other processed wood products and mulch. Only the heartwood and sapwood are useful for making pulp. Bark contains relatively few useful fibers and is removed and used as fuel to provide steam for use in the pulp mill. Most pulping processes require that the wood be chipped and screened to provide uniform sized chips.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Recycled pulp is also called deinked pulp (DIP). DIP is recycled paper which has been processed by chemicals, thus removing printing inks and other unwanted elements and freed the paper fibres. The process is called deinking.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: DIP is used as raw material in papermaking. Many newsprint, toilet paper and facial tissue grades commonly contain 100 percent deinked pulp and in many other grades, such as lightweight coated for offset and printing and writing papers for office and home use, DIP makes up a substantial proportion of the furnish.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Organosolv pulping uses organic solvents at temperatures above 140 °C to break down lignin and hemicellulose into soluble fragments. The pulping liquor is easily recovered by distillation. The reason for using a solvent is to make the lignin more soluble in the cooking liquor. Most common used solvents are methanol, ethanol, formic acid and acetic acid often in combination with water.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Steam exploded fibre is a pulping and extraction technique that has been applied to wood and other fibrous organic material.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The pulp produced up to this point in the process can be bleached to produce a white paper product. The chemicals used to bleach pulp have been a source of environmental concern, and recently the pulp industry has been using alternatives to chlorine, such as chlorine dioxide, oxygen, ozone and hydrogen peroxide.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Today, some groups advocate using field crop fibre or agricultural residues instead of wood fibre as a more sustainable means of production.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: There is enough straw to meet much of North America's book, magazine, catalogue and copy paper needs. Agricultural-based paper does not come from tree farms. Some agricultural residue pulps take less time to cook than wood pulps. That means agricultural-based paper uses less energy, less water and fewer chemicals. Pulp made from wheat and flax straw has half the ecological footprint of pulp made from forests.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Hemp paper is a possible replacement, but processing infrastructure, storage costs and the low usability percentage of the plant means it is not a ready substitute.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: However, wood is also a renewable resource, with about 90 percent of pulp coming from plantations or reforested areas. Non-wood fibre sources account for about 5–10 percent of global pulp production, for a variety of reasons, including seasonal availability, problems with chemical recovery, brightness of the pulp etc. In China, as of 2009, a higher proportion of non-wood pulp processing increased use of water and energy.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Nonwovens are in some applications alternatives to paper made from wood pulp, like filter paper or tea bags.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Market pulp is any variety of pulp that is produced in one location, dried and shipped to another location for further processing. Important quality parameters for pulp not directly related to the fibres are brightness, dirt levels, viscosity and ash content. In 2004 it accounted for about 55 million metric tons of market pulp.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Air dry pulp is the most common form to sell pulp. This is pulp dried to about 10 percent moisture content. It is normally delivered as sheeted bales of 250 kg. The reason to leave 10 percent moisture in the pulp is that this minimizes the fibre to fibre bonding and makes it easier to disperse the pulp in water for further processing to paper.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Roll pulp or "reel pulp" is the most common delivery form of pulp to non traditional pulp markets. Fluff pulp is normally shipped on rolls (reels). This pulp is dried to 5–6 percent moisture content. At the customer this is going to a comminution process to prepare for further processing.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Some pulps are flash dried. This is done by pressing the pulp to about 50 percent moisture content and then let it fall through silos that are 15–17 m high. Gas fired hot air is the normal heat source. The temperature is well above the char point of cellulose, but large amount of moisture in the fibre wall and lumen prevents the fibres from being incinerated. It is often not dried down to 10 percent moisture (air dry). The bales are not as densely packed as air dry pulp.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The major environmental impacts of producing wood pulp come from its impact on forest sources and from its waste products.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The impact of logging to provide the raw material for wood pulp is an area of intense debate. Modern logging practices, using forest management seek to provide a reliable, renewable source of raw materials for pulp mills. The practice of clear cutting is a particularly sensitive issue since it is a very visible effect of logging. Reforestation, the planting of tree seedlings on logged areas, has also been criticized for decreasing biodiversity because reforested areas are monocultures.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10 percent of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The process effluents are treated in a biological effluent treatment plant, which guarantees that the effluents are not toxic in the recipient.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Mechanical pulp is not a major cause for environmental concern since most of the organic material is retained in the pulp, and the chemicals used (hydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite) produce benign byproducts (water and sodium sulfate (finally), respectively).

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Chemical pulp mills, especially kraft mills, are energy self-sufficient and very nearly closed cycle with respect to inorganic chemicals.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Bleaching with chlorine produces large amounts of organochlorine compounds, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). Many mills have adopted alternatives to chlorinated bleaching agents thereby reducing emissions of organochlorine pollution.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The main applications for pulp are paper and board production. The furnish of pulps used depends on the quality on the finished paper. Important quality parameters are wood furnish, brightness, viscosity, extractives, dirt count and strength.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: Speciality pulp grades have many other applications. Dissolving pulp is used in making regenerated cellulose that is used textile and cellophane production. It is also used to make cellulose derivatives. Fluff pulp is used in diapers, feminine hygiene products and nonwovens.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: The Fourdrinier Machine is the basis for most modern papermaking, and it has been used in some variation since its conception. It accomplishes all the steps needed to transform pulp into a final paper product.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Pulp (paper)

Context: In 2009, NBSK pulp sold for $650/ton in the United States. The price had dropped due to falling demand when newspapers reduced their size, in part, as a result of the recession.

Question: Из какой породы дерева делается бумага?


Sea otter

Context: The sea otter ("Enhydra lutris") is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Adult sea otters typically weigh between , making them the heaviest members of the weasel family, but among the smallest marine mammals. Unlike most marine mammals, the sea otter's primary form of insulation is an exceptionally thick coat of fur, the densest in the animal kingdom. Although it can walk on land, the sea otter is capable of living exclusively in the ocean.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: The sea otter is one of the smallest marine mammal species, but it is the heaviest mustelid. Male sea otters usually weigh and are in length, though specimens up to have been recorded. Females are smaller, weighing and measuring in length. For its size, the male otter's baculum is very large, massive and bent upwards, measuring in length and at the base.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: The sea otter is diurnal. It has a period of foraging and eating in the morning, starting about an hour before sunrise, then rests or sleeps in mid-day. Foraging resumes for a few hours in the afternoon and subsides before sunset, and a third foraging period may occur around midnight. Females with pups appear to be more inclined to feed at night. Observations of the amount of time a sea otter must spend each day foraging range from 24 to 60%, apparently depending on the availability of food in the area.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Sea otters spend much of their time grooming, which consists of cleaning the fur, untangling knots, removing loose fur, rubbing the fur to squeeze out water and introduce air, and blowing air into the fur. To casual observers, it appears as if the animals are scratching, but they are not known to have lice or other parasites in the fur. When eating, sea otters roll in the water frequently, apparently to wash food scraps from their fur.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: To eat large sea urchins, which are mostly covered with spines, the sea otter bites through the underside where the spines are shortest, and licks the soft contents out of the urchin's shell.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: The sea otter's use of rocks when hunting and feeding makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools. To open hard shells, it may pound its prey with both paws against a rock on its chest. To pry an abalone off its rock, it hammers the abalone shell using a large stone, with observed rates of 45 blows in 15 seconds. Releasing an abalone, which can cling to rock with a force equal to 4,000 times its own body weight, requires multiple dives.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Although each adult and independent juvenile forages alone, sea otters tend to rest together in single-sex groups called "rafts". A raft typically contains 10 to 100 animals, with male rafts being larger than female ones. The largest raft ever seen contained over 2000 sea otters. To keep from drifting out to sea when resting and eating, sea otters may wrap themselves in kelp.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: The species exhibits a variety of vocal behaviors. The cry of a pup is often compared to that of a gull. Females coo when they are apparently content; males may grunt instead. Distressed or frightened adults may whistle, hiss, or in extreme circumstances, scream. Although sea otters can be playful and sociable, they are not considered to be truly social animals. They spend much time alone, and each adult can meet its own hunting, grooming, and defense needs.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Sea otters are polygynous: males have multiple female partners, typically those that inhabit their territory. If no territory is established, they seek out females in estrus. When a male sea otter finds a receptive female, the two engage in playful and sometimes aggressive behavior. They bond for the duration of estrus, or 3 days. The male holds the female's head or nose with his jaws during copulation. Visible scars are often present on females from this behavior.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Births occur year-round, with peaks between May and June in northern populations and between January and March in southern populations. Gestation appears to vary from four to twelve months, as the species is capable of delayed implantation followed by four months of pregnancy. In California, sea otters usually breed every year, about twice as often as those in Alaska.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Birth usually takes place in the water and typically produces a single pup weighing . Twins occur in 2% of births; however, usually only one pup survives. At birth, the eyes are open, ten teeth are visible, and the pup has a thick coat of baby fur. Mothers have been observed to lick and fluff a newborn for hours; after grooming, the pup's fur retains so much air, the pup floats like a cork and cannot dive. The fluffy baby fur is replaced by adult fur after about 13 weeks.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: In about two-thirds of its former range, the species is at varying levels of recovery, with high population densities in some areas and threatened populations in others. Sea otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, with reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan. Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 sea otters.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Adele Ogden wrote in "The California Sea Otter Trade" that sea otter were hunted "from Yezo northeastward past the Kuril Group and Kamchatka to the Aleutian Chain". "Yezo" refers to the island of Hokkaido in northern Japan; the only confirmed sea otter population in Japanese territory is on the coast surrounding the town of Erimo, Hokkaido.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: In 1969 and 1970, 59 sea otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington, and released near La Push and Point Grenville. The translocated population is estimated to have declined to between 10 and 43 individuals before increasing, reaching 208 individuals in 1989. As of 2017, the population was estimated at over 2,000 individuals, and their range extends from Point Grenville in the south to Cape Flattery in the north and east to Pillar Point along the Strait of Juan de Fuca.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: In Washington, sea otters are found almost exclusively on the outer coasts. They can swim as close as six feet off shore along the Olympic coast. Reported sightings of sea otters in the San Juan Islands and Puget Sound almost always turn out to be North American river otters, which are commonly seen along the seashore. However, biologists have confirmed isolated sightings of sea otters in these areas since the mid-1990s.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: High energetic requirements of sea otter metabolism require them to consume at least 20% of their body weight a day. Surface swimming and foraging are major factors in their high energy expenditure due to drag on the surface of the water when swimming and the thermal heat loss from the body during deep dives when foraging. Sea otter muscles are specially adapted to generate heat without physical activity.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Sea otters affect rocky ecosystems that are dominated by mussel beds by removing mussels from rocks. This allows space for competing species and increases species diversity.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Leading mammalian predators of this species include orcas and sea lions, and bald eagles may grab pups from the surface of the water. Young predators may kill an otter and not eat it. On land, young sea otters may face attack from bears and coyotes. In California, great white sharks are their primary predator but there is no evidence that the sharks eat them.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Urban runoff transporting cat feces into the ocean brings "Toxoplasma gondii", an obligate parasite of felids, which has killed sea otters. Parasitic infections of "Sarcocystis neurona" are also associated with human activity. According to the U.S. Geological Survey and the CDC, northern sea otters off Washington have been infected with the H1N1 flu virus and "may be a newly identified animal host of influenza viruses".

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Under Aleksander I, the administration of the merchant-controlled company was transferred to the Imperial Navy, largely due to the alarming reports by naval officers of native abuse; in 1818, the indigenous peoples of Alaska were granted civil rights equivalent to a townsman status in the Russian Empire.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Sea otter habitat is preserved through several protected areas in the United States, Russia and Canada. In marine protected areas, polluting activities such as dumping of waste and oil drilling are typically prohibited. An estimated 1,200 sea otters live within the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, and more than 500 live within the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Some of the sea otter's preferred prey species, particularly abalone, clams, and crabs, are also food sources for humans. In some areas, massive declines in shellfish harvests have been blamed on the sea otter, and intense public debate has taken place over how to manage the competition between sea otters and humans for seafood.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Sea otter

Context: Since the mid-1970s, the beauty and charisma of the species have gained wide appreciation, and the sea otter has become an icon of environmental conservation. The round, expressive face and soft, furry body of the sea otter are depicted in a wide variety of souvenirs, postcards, clothing, and stuffed toys.

Question: Сколько зубов у выдры?


Diesel locomotive

Context: A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotives have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which mechanical power is conveyed to the driving wheels.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The economic recovery from World War II caused the widespread adoption of diesel locomotives in many countries. They offered greater flexibility and performance than steam locomotives, as well as substantially lower operating and maintenance costs.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Small numbers of prototype diesel locomotives were produced in a number of countries through the mid-1920s.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Adolphus Busch purchased the American manufacturing rights for the diesel engine in 1898 but never applied this new form of power to transportation. He founded the Busch-Sulzer company in 1911.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Only limited success was achieved in the early twentieth century with internal combustion engined railcars, due, in part, to difficulties with mechanical drive systems.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: A significant breakthrough occurred in 1914, when Hermann Lemp, a GE electrical engineer, developed and patented a reliable control system that controlled the engine and traction motor with a single lever; subsequent improvements were also patented by Lemp. Lemp's design solved the problem of overloading and damaging the traction motors with excessive electrical power at low speeds, and was the prototype for all internal combustion–electric drive control systems.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In 1917–1918, GE produced three experimental diesel–electric locomotives using Lemp's control design, the first known to be built in the United States. Following this development, the 1923 Kaufman Act banned steam locomotives from New York City, because of severe pollution problems. The response to this law was to electrify high-traffic rail lines. However, electrification was uneconomical to apply to lower-traffic areas.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Early diesel–electric locomotives in the United States used direct current (DC) traction motors, but alternating current (AC) motors came into widespread use in the 1990s, starting with the Electro-Motive SD70MAC in 1993 and followed by General Electric's AC4400CW in 1994 and AC6000CW in 1995.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Fiat claims to have built the first Italian diesel–electric locomotive in 1922, but little detail is available. Several Fiat-TIBB Bo'Bo' diesel–locomotives were built for service on the narrow gauge Ferrovie Calabro Lucane and the Società per le Strade Ferrate del Mediterrano in southern Italy in 1926, following trials in 1924–25. The six cylinder two stroke motor produced at 500 rpm, driving four DC motors, one for each axle. These locomotives with top speed proved quite successful.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In 1924, two diesel–electric locomotives were taken in service by the Soviet railways, almost at the same time:

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In 1935, Krauss-Maffei, MAN and Voith built the first diesel–hydraulic locomotive, called V 140, in Germany. Diesel–hydraulics became the mainstream in diesel locomotives in Germany since the German railways (DRG) were pleased with the performance of that engine. Serial production of diesel locomotives in Germany began after World War II.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In many railway stations and industrial compounds, steam shunters had to be kept hot during many breaks between scattered short tasks. Therefore, diesel traction became economical for shunting before it became economical for hauling trains. The construction of diesel shunters began in 1920 in France, in 1925 in Denmark, in 1926 in the Netherlands, and in 1927 in Germany. After a few years of testing, hundreds of units were produced within a decade.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In Italy, after 6 Gasoline cars since 1931, Fiat and Breda built a lot of diesel railmotors, more than 110 from 1933 to 1938 and 390 from 1940 to 1953, Class 772 known as "Littorina", and Class ALn 900.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In 1945, a batch of 30 Baldwin diesel–electric locomotives, Baldwin 0-6-6-0 1000, was delivered from the United States to the railways of the Soviet Union.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In 1947, the London Midland & Scottish Railway introduced the first of a pair of Co-Co diesel–electric locomotives (later British Rail Class D16/1) for regular use in the United Kingdom, although British manufacturers such as Armstrong Whitworth had been exporting diesel locomotives since 1930. Fleet deliveries to British Railways, of other designs such as Class 20 and Class 31, began in 1957.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Series production of diesel locomotives in Italy began in the mid-1950s. Generally, diesel traction in Italy was of less importance than in other countries, as it was amongst the most advanced countries in the electrification of the main lines and as Italian geography makes freight transport by sea cheaper than rail transportation even on many domestic connections.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In Japan, starting in the 1920s, some petrol–electric railcars were produced. The first diesel–electric traction and the first air-streamed vehicles on Japanese rails were the two DMU3s of class Kiha 43000 (キハ43000系). Japan's first series of diesel locomotives was class DD50 (国鉄DD50形), twin locomotives, developed since 1950 and in service since 1953.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: One of the first domestically-developed Diesel vehicles of China was the DMU Dongfeng (东风), produced in 1958 by CSR Sifang. Series production of China's first Diesel locomotive class, the DFH 1, began in 1964 following the construction of a prototype in 1959.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The Trans-Australian Railway built 1912 to 1917 by Commonwealth Railways (CR) passes through 2000 km of waterless (or salt watered) desert terrain unsuitable for steam locomotives. The original engineer Henry Deane envisaged diesel operation to overcome such problems. Some have suggested that the CR worked with the South Australian Railways to trial diesel traction. However, the technology was not developed enough to be reliable.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: As in Europe, the usage of internal combustion engines advanced more readily in self-propelled railcars than in locomotives.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Unlike steam engines, internal combustion engines require a transmission to power the wheels. The engine must be allowed to continue to run when the locomotive is stopped.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: A diesel–mechanical locomotive uses a mechanical transmission in a fashion similar to that employed in most road vehicles. This type of transmission is generally limited to low-powered, low speed shunting (switching) locomotives, lightweight multiple units and self-propelled railcars.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The mechanical transmissions used for railroad propulsion are generally more complex and much more robust than standard-road versions. There is usually a fluid coupling interposed between the engine and gearbox, and the gearbox is often of the epicyclic (planetary) type to permit shifting while under load. Various systems have been devised to minimise the break in transmission during gear changing; e.g., the S.S.S. (synchro-self-shifting) gearbox used by Hudswell Clarke.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Diesel–mechanical propulsion is limited by the difficulty of building a reasonably sized transmission capable of coping with the power and torque required to move a heavy train. A number of attempts to use diesel–mechanical propulsion in high power applications have been made (e.g., the British Rail 10100 locomotive), although none have proved successful in the end.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In a diesel–electric locomotive, the diesel engine drives either an electrical DC generator (generally, less than net for traction), or an electrical AC alternator-rectifier (generally net or more for traction), the output of which provides power to the traction motors that drive the locomotive. There is no mechanical connection between the diesel engine and the wheels.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Current North American practice is for four axles for high-speed passenger or "time" freight, or for six axles for lower-speed or "manifest" freight. The most modern units on "time" freight service tend to have six axles underneath the frame. Unlike those in "manifest" service, "time" freight units will have only four of the axles connected to traction motors, with the other two as idler axles for weight distribution.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In the late 1980s, the development of high-power variable-voltage/variable-frequency (VVVF) drives, or "traction inverters", allowed the use of polyphase AC traction motors, thereby also eliminating the motor commutator and brushes. The result is a more efficient and reliable drive that requires relatively little maintenance and is better able to cope with overload conditions that often destroyed the older types of motors.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The prime mover's power output is primarily determined by its rotational speed (RPM) and fuel rate, which are regulated by a governor or similar mechanism. The governor is designed to react to both the throttle setting, as determined by the engine driver and the speed at which the prime mover is running (see Control theory).

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: North American locomotives, such as those built by EMD or General Electric, have eight throttle positions or "notches" as well as a "reverser" to allow them to operate bi-directionally. Many UK-built locomotives have a ten-position throttle. The power positions are often referred to by locomotive crews depending upon the throttle setting, such as "run 3" or "notch 3".

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: When the throttle is in the idle position, the prime mover will be receiving minimal fuel, causing it to idle at low RPM. In addition, the traction motors will not be connected to the main generator and the generator's field windings will not be excited (energized) – the generator will not produce electricity with no excitation. Therefore, the locomotive will be in "neutral". Conceptually, this is the same as placing an automobile's transmission into neutral while the engine is running.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The propulsion system is designed to produce maximum traction motor torque at start-up, which explains why modern locomotives are capable of starting trains weighing in excess of 15,000 tons, even on ascending grades.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Current technology allows a locomotive to develop as much as 30% of its loaded driver weight in tractive force, amounting to of tractive force for a large, six-axle freight (goods) unit.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: As the load on the engine changes, its rotational speed will also change. This is detected by the governor through a change in the engine speed feedback signal. The net effect is to adjust both the fuel rate and the load regulator position so that engine RPM and torque (and therefore power output) will remain constant for any given throttle setting, regardless of actual road speed.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Traction motor performance is controlled either by varying the DC voltage output of the main generator, for DC motors, or by varying the frequency and voltage output of the VVVF for AC motors. With DC motors, various connection combinations are utilized to adapt the drive to varying operating conditions.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Modern locomotives incorporate traction "inverters", AC to DC, capable of delivering 1,200 volts (earlier traction "generators", DC to DC, were capable of delivering only 600 volts). This improvement was accomplished largely through improvements in silicon diode technology. With the capability of delivering 1,200 volts to the traction motors, the need for "transition" was eliminated.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Dynamic braking takes advantage of the fact that the traction motor armatures are always rotating when the locomotive is in motion and that a motor can be made to act as a generator by separately exciting the field winding. When dynamic braking is utilized, the traction control circuits are configured as follows:

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The aggregate effect of the above is to cause each traction motor to generate electric power and dissipate it as heat in the dynamic braking grid. A fan connected across the grid provides forced-air cooling. Consequently, the fan is powered by the output of the traction motors and will tend to run faster and produce more airflow as more energy is applied to the grid.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Ultimately, the source of the energy dissipated in the dynamic braking grid is the motion of the locomotive as imparted to the traction motor armatures. Therefore, the traction motors impose drag and the locomotive acts as a brake. As speed decreases, the braking effect decays and usually becomes ineffective below approximately 16 km/h (10 mph), depending on the gear ratio between the traction motors and axles.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Hydraulic drive systems using a hydrostatic hydraulic drive system have been applied to rail use. Modern examples included shunting locomotives by Cockerill (Belgium), 4 to 12 tonne narrow gauge industrial locomotives by Atlas Copco subsidiary GIA. Hydrostatic drives are also utilised in railway maintenance machines (tampers, rail grinders).

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Application of hydrostatic transmissions is generally limited to small shunting locomotives and rail maintenance equipment, as well as being used for non-tractive applications in diesel engines such as drives for traction motor fans.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: By the 21st century, for diesel locomotive traction worldwide the majority of countries used diesel–electric designs, with diesel-hydraulic designs not found in use outside Germany and Japan, and some neighbouring states, where it is used in designs for freight work.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In Germany and Finland, diesel–hydraulic systems have achieved high reliability in operation. In the UK the diesel–hydraulic principle gained a poor reputation due to the poor durability and reliability of the Maybach Mekydro hydraulic transmission. Argument continues over the relative reliability of hydraulic systems, with questions over whether data has been manipulated to favour local suppliers over non-German ones.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Diesel–hydraulic drive is common in multiple units, with various transmission designs used including Voith torque converters, and fluid couplings in combination with mechanical gearing.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The majority of British Rail's second generation passenger DMU stock used hydraulic transmission. In the 21st century, designs using hydraulic transmission include Bombardier Turbostar, Talent, RegioSwinger families; diesel engined versions of the Siemens Desiro platform, and the Stadler Regio-Shuttle.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Other main-line locomotives of the post-war period included the 1950s GMD GMDH-1 experimental locomotives; the Henschel & Son built South African Class 61-000; in the 1960s Southern Pacific bought 18 Krauss-Maffei KM ML-4000 diesel–hydraulic locomotives. The Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad also bought three, all of which were later sold to SP.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In Finland, over 200 Finnish-built VR class Dv12 and Dr14 diesel–hydraulics with Voith transmissions have been continuously used since the early 1960s. All units of Dr14 class and most units of Dv12 class are still in service. VR has abandoned some weak-conditioned units of 2700 series Dv12s.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In the 21st century series production standard gauge diesel–hydraulic designs include the Voith Gravita, ordered by Deutsche Bahn, and the Vossloh G2000 BB, G1206 and G1700 designs, all manufactured in Germany for freight use.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Steam-diesel hybrid locomotives can use steam generated from a boiler or diesel to power a piston engine. The "Cristiani Compressed Steam System" used a diesel engine to power a compressor to drive and recirculate steam produced by a boiler; effectively using steam as the power transmission medium, with the diesel engine being the prime mover

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The result is that all locomotives in a consist behave as one in response to the engine driver's control movements.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In mountainous regions, it is common to interpose helper locomotives in the middle of the train, both to provide the extra power needed to ascend a grade and to limit the amount of stress applied to the draft gear of the car coupled to the head-end power. The helper units in such distributed power configurations are controlled from the lead unit's cab through coded radio signals. Although this is technically not an MU configuration, the behaviour is the same as with physically interconnected units.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Cow-calves have largely disappeared as these engine combinations exceeded their economic lifetimes many years ago.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Present North American practice is to pair two GP40-2 or SD40-2 road switchers, often nearly worn-out and very soon ready for rebuilding or scrapping, and to utilize these for so-called "transfer" uses, for which the TR-2, TR-3 and TR-4 engines were originally intended, hence the designation TR, for "transfer".

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Occasionally, the second unit may have its prime-mover and traction alternator removed and replaced by concrete or steel ballast and the power for traction obtained from the master unit. As a 16-cylinder prime-mover generally weighs in the range, and a traction alternator generally weighs in the range, this would mean that would be needed for ballast.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: A pair of fully capable "Dash 2" units would be rated . A "Dash 2" pair where only one had a prime-mover/alternator would be rated , with all power provided by master, but the combination benefits from the tractive effort provided by the slave as engines in transfer service are seldom called upon to provide much less on a continuous basis.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: A standard diesel locomotive presents a very low fire risk but "flame proofing" can reduce the risk even further. This involves fitting a water-filled box to the exhaust pipe to quench any red-hot carbon particles that may be emitted. Other precautions may include a fully insulated electrical system (neither side earthed to the frame) and all electric wiring enclosed in conduit.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The flameproof diesel locomotive has replaced the fireless steam locomotive in areas of high fire risk such as oil refineries and ammunition dumps. Preserved examples of flameproof diesel locomotives include:

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Latest development of the "Flameproof Diesel Vehicle Applied New Exhaust Gas Dry Type Treatment System" does not need the water supply.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: The lights fitted to diesel locomotives vary from country to country. North American locomotives are fitted with two headlights (for safety in case one malfunctions) and a pair of ditch lights. The latter are fitted low down at the front and are designed to make the locomotive easily visible as it approaches a grade crossing. Older locomotives may be fitted with a Gyralite or Mars Light instead of the ditch lights.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Although diesel locomotives generally emit less sulphur dioxide, a major pollutant to the environment, and greenhouse gases than steam locomotives, they are not completely clean in that respect. Furthermore, like other diesel powered vehicles, they emit nitrogen oxides and fine particles, which are a risk to public health. In fact, in this last respect diesel locomotives may perform worse than steam locomotives.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Diesel locomotive pollution has been of particular concern in the city of Chicago. The "Chicago Tribune" reported levels of diesel soot inside locomotives leaving Chicago at levels hundreds of times above what is normally found on streets outside. Residents of several neighborhoods are most likely exposed to diesel emissions at levels several times higher than the national average for urban areas.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: In 2008, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) mandated regulations requiring all new or refurbished diesel locomotives to meet Tier II pollution standards that slash the amount of allowable soot by 90% and require an 80% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions. "See" List of low emissions locomotives.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: Steam engines required large quantities of coal and water, which were expensive variable operating costs. Further, the thermal efficiency of steam was considerably less than that of diesel engines. Diesel's theoretical studies demonstrated potential thermal efficiencies for a compression ignition engine of 36% (compared with 6–10% for steam), and an 1897 one-cylinder prototype operated at a remarkable 26% efficiency.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: However, one study published in 1959 suggested that many of the comparisons between diesel and steam locomotives were made unfairly, mostly because diesels were a newer technology. After painstaking analysis of financial records and technological progress, the author found that if research had continued on steam technology instead of diesel, there would be negligible financial benefit in converting to diesel locomotion.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


Diesel locomotive

Context: By the mid-1960s, diesel locomotives had effectively replaced steam locomotives where electric traction was not in use. Attempts to develop advanced steam technology continue in the 21st century, but have not had a significant effect.

Question: В каком городе был изобретен первый тепловоз?


List of Russian philosophers

Context: Russian philosophy includes a variety of philosophical movements. Authors who developed them are listed below sorted by movement.

Question: Когда зародилась русская философия?


List of Russian philosophers

Context: While most authors listed below are primarily philosophers, also included here are some Russian fiction writers, such as Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, who are also known as philosophers.

Question: Когда зародилась русская философия?


List of Russian philosophers

Context: In its further development, Russian philosophy was also marked by deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics and nationalism; cosmos and religion were other notable subjects.

Question: Когда зародилась русская философия?


List of Russian philosophers

Context: Notable philosophers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Vladimir Solovyev, Vasily Rozanov, Lev Shestov, Leo Tolstoy, Sergei Bulgakov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, Pitirim Sorokin, and Vladimir Vernadsky.

Question: Когда зародилась русская философия?


List of Russian philosophers

Context: From the early 1920s to late 1980s, Russian philosophy was dominated by Marxism presented as dogma and not grounds for discussion. Stalin's purges, culminating in 1937, delivered a deadly blow to the development of philosophy.

Question: Когда зародилась русская философия?


List of Russian philosophers

Context: A handful of dissident philosophers survived through the Soviet period, among them Aleksei Losev. Stalin's death in 1953 gave way for new schools of thought to spring up, among them Moscow Logic Circle, and Tartu-Moscow Semiotic School.

Question: Когда зародилась русская философия?


Harappan language

Context: There are a handful of possible loanwords from the language of the Indus Valley civilization. Sumerian "Meluhha" may be derived from a native term for the Indus Valley civilization, also reflected in Sanskrit "mleccha" meaning "non-Vedic" or "native", and Witzel (2000) further suggests that Sumerian GIŠ"šimmar" (a type of tree) may be cognate to Rigvedic "śimbala" and "śalmali" (also names of trees).

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хара́ппской цивилизации?


Harappan language

Context: the hypothesis has gained some plausibility and is endorsed by Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хара́ппской цивилизации?


Harappan language

Context: As of 2019, Witzel prefers to leave the question of the original Indian language(s) open until better reconstructions for Dravidian and Munda substrate components in Indo-Aryan languages have been done.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хара́ппской цивилизации?


Western Wall

Context: In one of several varying Muslim traditions, it is the site where the Islamic Prophet Muhammad tied his winged steed, al-Buraq, on his Isra and Mi'raj to Jerusalem before ascending to paradise, and constitutes the western border of "al-Haram al-Sharif", the Noble Sanctuary of the Al-Aqsa Mosque.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Whilst the wall was considered Muslim property as an integral part of the Haram esh-Sharif and waqf property of the Moroccan Quarter, a right of Jewish prayer and pilgrimage existed as part of the Status Quo. This position was confirmed in a 1930 international commission during the British Mandate period.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Early Jewish texts referred to a "western wall of the Temple", but there is doubt whether the texts were referring to the outer, retaining wall called today "the Western Wall", or to the western wall of the actual Temple. The earliest Jewish use of the Hebrew term "ha-kotel ha-ma'aravi", "the Western Wall", as referring to the wall visible today, was by the 11th-century poet Ahimaaz ben Paltiel.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The name "Wailing Wall", and descriptions such as "wailing place", appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century. The name "Mur des Lamentations" was used in French and "Klagemauer" in German. This term itself was a translation of the Arabic "el-Mabka", or "Place of Weeping", the traditional Arabic term for the wall. This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn and bemoan the destruction of the Temple and the loss of national freedom it symbolized.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The term Western Wall commonly refers to a exposed section of a much longer retaining wall, built by Herod on the western flank of the Temple Mount. Only when used in this sense is it synonymous with the term Wailing Wall. This section faces a large plaza and is set aside for prayer.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In its entirety, the western retaining wall of the Herodian Temple Mount complex stretches for , most of which is hidden behind medieval residential structures built along its length.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: There are only two other revealed sections: the southern part of the Wall (see Robinson's Arch area), which measures approximately , and is separated from the prayer area by just a narrow stretch of archaeological remains; and another, much shorter section, known as the Little Western Wall, which is located close to the Iron Gate.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The next four courses, consisting of smaller plainly dressed stones, are Umayyad work (8th century, Early Muslim period). Above that are 16 to 17 courses of small stones from the Mamluk period (13th–16th centuries) and later.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Herod's Temple was destroyed by the Romans, along with the rest of Jerusalem, in 70 CE, during the First Jewish–Roman War.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Discovery of underground rooms that could have been used as food storage carved out of the bedrock under the 1,400-year-old mosaic floor of Byzantine structure was announced by Israel Antiquities Authority in May in 2020.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: "At first we were very disappointed because we found we hit the bedrock, meaning that the material culture, the human activity here in Jerusalem ended. What we found here was a rock-cut system—three rooms, all hewn in the bedrock of ancient Jerusalem" said co-director of the excavation Barak Monnickendam-Givon.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Shortly after Saladin's 1187 siege of the city, in 1193, the sultan's son and successor al-Afdal established the land adjacent to the wall as a charitable trust. It was named after an important mystic, Abu Madyan Shu'aib, and dedicated to Moroccan settlers who had taken up residence there. Houses were built only away from the wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The first mention of the Islamic tradition that Buraq was tethered at the site is from the 14th century. A manuscript by Ibn Furkah, (d. 1328), refers to Bab al-Nabi (lit. "Gate of the Prophet"), an old name for a gate along the southwestern wall of the Haram al-Sharif.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Over the centuries, land close to the Wall became built up. Public access to the Wall was through the Moroccan Quarter, a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. In May 1840 a firman issued by Ibrahim Pasha forbade the Jews to pave the passageway in front of the Wall. It also cautioned them against "raising their voices and displaying their books there." They were, however, allowed "to pay visits to it as of old."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Over time the increased numbers of people gathering at the site resulted in tensions between the Jewish visitors who wanted easier access and more space, and the residents, who complained of the noise. This gave rise to Jewish attempts at gaining ownership of the land adjacent to the Wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: "* These firmans were cited by the Jewish contingent at the International Commission, 1930, as proof for rights at the Wall. Muslim authorities responded by arguing that historic sanctions of Jewish presence were acts of tolerance shown by Muslims, who, by doing so, did not concede any positive rights."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In December 1917, Allied forces under Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem from the Turks. Allenby pledged "that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine, traditional site, endowment, pious bequest, or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred".

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: "The acceptance of the proposals, had it been practicable, would have obviated years of wretched humiliations, including the befouling of the Wall and pavement and the unmannerly braying of the tragi-comic Arab band during Jewish prayer, and culminating in the horrible outrages of 1929"

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In early 1920, the first Jewish-Arab dispute over the Wall occurred when the Muslim authorities were carrying out minor repair works to the Wall's upper courses. The Jews, while agreeing that the works were necessary, appealed to the British that they be made under supervision of the newly formed Department of Antiquities, because the Wall was an ancient relic.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 1928 the World Zionist Organization reported that John Chancellor, High Commissioner of Palestine, believed that the Western Wall should come under Jewish control and wondered "why no great Jewish philanthropist had not bought it yet".

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: A few months later, Haj Amin complained to Chancellor that "Jews were bringing benches and tables in increased numbers to the wall and driving nails into the wall and hanging lamps on them."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In the summer of 1929, the Mufti Haj Amin Al Husseinni ordered an opening be made at the southern end of the alleyway which straddled the Wall. The former cul-de-sac became a thoroughfare which led from the Temple Mount into the prayer area at the Wall. Mules were herded through the narrow alley, often dropping excrement. This, together with other construction projects in the vicinity, and restricted access to the Wall, resulted in Jewish protests to the British, who remained indifferent.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: One hundred and thirty-three Jews were killed and 339 injured in the Arab riots, and in the subsequent process of quelling the riots 110 Arabs were killed by British police. This was by far the deadliest attack on Jews during the period of British Rule over Palestine.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 1930, in response to the 1929 riots, the British Government appointed a commission "to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall", and to determine the causes of the violence and prevent it in the future. The League of Nations approved the commission on condition that the members were not British.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The Commission noted that 'the Jews do not claim any proprietorship to the Wall or to the Pavement in front of it (concluding speech of Jewish Counsel, Minutes, page 908).'

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The Commission concluded that the wall, and the adjacent pavement and Moroccan Quarter, were solely owned by the Muslim "waqf". However, Jews had the right to "free access to the Western Wall for the purpose of devotions at all times", subject to some stipulations that limited which objects could be brought to the Wall and forbade the blowing of the shofar, which was made illegal. Muslims were forbidden to disrupt Jewish devotions by driving animals or other means.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The recommendations of the Commission were brought into law by the Palestine (Western or Wailing Wall) Order in Council, 1931, which came into effect on June 8, 1931. Persons violating the law were liable to a fine of 50 pounds or imprisonment up to 6 months, or both.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: During the 1930s, at the conclusion of Yom Kippur, young Jews persistently flouted the shofar ban each year and blew the shofar resulting in their arrest and prosecution. They were usually fined or sentenced to imprisonment for three to six months. The Shaw commission determined that the violence occurred due to "racial animosity on the part of the Arabs, consequent upon the disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear for their economic future."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: This act signaled the climax of the capture of the Old City and the ability of Jews to once again access their holiest sites. Emotional recollections of this event are related by David Ben-Gurion and Shimon Peres.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Following Israel's victory during the 1967 Six-Day War, the Western Wall came under Israeli control. Brigadier Rabbi Shlomo Goren proclaimed after its capture that "Israel would never again relinquish the Wall", a stance supported by Israeli Minister for Defence Moshe Dayan and Chief of Staff General Yitzhak Rabin. Rabin described the moment Israeli soldiers reached the Wall:

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: According to Eyal Weizman, Chaim Herzog, who later became Israel's sixth president, took much of the credit for the destruction of the neighbourhood:

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: When we visited the Wailing Wall we found a toilet attached to it ... we decided to remove it and from this we came to the conclusion that we could evacuate the entire area in front of the Wailing Wall ... a historical opportunity that will never return ... We knew that the following Saturday [sic Wednesday], June 14, would be the Jewish festival of Shavuot and that many will want to come to pray ... it all had to be completed by then.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The narrow pavement, which could accommodate a maximum of 12,000 per day, was transformed into an enormous plaza that could hold in excess of 400,000.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Several months later, the pavement close to the wall was excavated to a depth of two and half metres, exposing an additional two courses of large stones.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: A complex of buildings against the wall at the southern end of the plaza, that included Madrasa Fakhriya and the house that the Abu al-Sa'ud family had occupied since the 16th century, were spared in the 1967 destruction, but demolished in 1969. The section of the wall dedicated to prayers was thus extended southwards to double its original length, from , while the space facing the wall grew to .

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The narrow, approximately pre-1948 alley along the wall, used for Jewish prayer, was enlarged to , with the entire Western Wall Plaza covering , stretching from the wall to the Jewish Quarter.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The new plaza created in 1967 is used for worship and public gatherings, including Bar mitzvah celebrations and the swearing-in ceremonies of newly full-fledged soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces. Tens of thousands of Jews flock to the wall on the Jewish holidays, and particularly on the fast of Tisha B'Av, which marks the destruction of the Temple and on Jerusalem Day, which commemorates the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the delivery of the Wall into Jewish hands.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In November 2010, the government approved a NIS 85m ($23m) scheme to improve access from the Jewish Quarter and upgrade infrastructure at the Wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 2005, the Western Wall Heritage Foundation initiated a major renovation effort under Rabbi-of-the-Wall Shmuel Rabinovitch. Its goal was to renovate and restructure the area within Wilson's Arch, the covered area to the left of worshipers facing the Wall in the open prayer plaza, in order to increase access for visitors and for prayer.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: At the southern end of the Western Wall, Robinson's Arch along with a row of vaults once supported stairs ascending from the street to the Temple Mount.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: After the 1967 Arab–Israeli war, Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz was named the overseer of proceedings at the wall. After Rabbi Getz's death in 1995, Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz was given the position.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The Scroll of Ahimaaz, a historical document written in 1050 CE, distinctly describes the Western Wall as a place of prayer for the Jews. In around 1167 CE during the late Crusader Period, Benjamin of Tudela wrote that "In front of this place is the western wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court".

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 1625 "arranged prayers" at the Wall are mentioned for the first time by a scholar whose name has not been preserved.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 1994, Shlomo Goren wrote that the tradition of the wall as a Jewish prayer site was only 300 years old, the Jews being compelled to pray there after being forbidden to assemble on the mount itself.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Scrolls of the Law were brought to the Wall on occasions of public distress and calamity, as testified to in a narrative written by Rabbi Gedaliah of Semitizi who went to Jerusalem in 1699.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In the past women could be found sitting at the entrance to the Wall every Sabbath holding fragrant herbs and spices in order to enable worshipers to make additional blessings. In the hot weather they would provide cool water. The women also used to cast lots for the privilege of sweeping and washing the alleyway at the foot of the Wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Rabbinic tradition teaches that the western wall was built upon foundations laid by the biblical King Solomon from the time of the First Temple.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Some medieval rabbis claimed that today's Western Wall is a surviving wall of the Temple itself and cautioned Jews from approaching it, lest they enter the Temple precincts in a state of impurity. Many contemporary rabbis believe that the rabbinic traditions were made in reference to the Temple Mount's Western Wall, which accordingly endows the Wall with inherent holiness.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: A Midrash compiled in Late Antiquity refers to a western wall of the Temple which "would never be destroyed", and Lamentations Rabbah mentions how Rome was unable to topple the western wall due to the Divine oath promising its eternal survival.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Another Midrash quotes a 4th-century scholar: "Rav Acha said that the Divine Presence has never departed from the Western Wall", and the Zohar similarly writes that "the Divine Presence rests upon the Western Wall".

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Eighteenth-century scholar Jonathan Eybeschutz writes that "after the destruction of the Temple, God removed His Presence from His sanctuary and placed it upon the Western Wall where it remains in its holiness and honour". It is told that great Jewish sages, including Isaac Luria and the Radvaz, experienced a revelation of the Divine Presence at the wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kaindenover discusses the mystical aspect of the Hebrew word "kotel" when discussing the significance of praying against a wall. He cites the Zohar which writes that the word "kotel", meaning wall, is made up of two parts: "Ko", which has the numerical value of God's name, and "Tel", meaning mount, which refers to the Temple and its Western Wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Some Orthodox Jewish codifiers warn against inserting fingers into the cracks of the Wall as they believe that the breadth of the Wall constitutes part of the Temple Mount itself and retains holiness, while others who permit doing so claim that the Wall is located outside the Temple area.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: While during the late 19th century, no formal segregation of men and women was to be found at the Wall, conflict erupted in July 1968 when members of the World Union for Progressive Judaism were denied the right to host a mixed-gender service at the site after the Ministry of Religious Affairs insisted on maintaining the gender segregation customary at Orthodox places of worship. The progressives responded by claiming that "the Wall is a shrine of all Jews, not one particular branch of Judaism."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 1988, the small but vocal group called Women of the Wall launched a campaign for recognition of non-Orthodox prayer at the Wall. Their form and manner of prayer elicited a violent response from some Orthodox worshippers and they were subsequently banned from holding services at the site. After repeated attacks by haredim, in 1989 the Women of the Wall petitioned to secure the right of women to pray at the wall without restrictions.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: A decade on, some commentators called for the closure of the Wall unless an acceptable solution to the controversy was found.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 2003 Israel's Supreme Court upheld the ban on non-Orthodox worship at the Wall, disallowing any women from reading publicly from the Torah or wearing traditional prayer shawls at the plaza itself, but instructed the Israeli government to prepare the site of Robinson's Arch to host such events, given that this area does not come under the direct control of the Rabbi of the Wall or the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The government responded by allocating Robinson's Arch for such purposes.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The Robinson's Arch worship site was inaugurated in August 2004 and has since hosted services by Reform and Conservative groups, as well as services by the Women of the Wall.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 2012, critics still complained about the restrictions at the Western Wall, saying Israel had "turned a national monument into an ultra-Orthodox synagogue,"

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: There is a much publicised practice of placing slips of paper containing written prayers into the crevices of the Wall. The earliest account of this practice is attributed to Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar, (d. 1743). More than a million notes are placed each year and the opportunity to e-mail notes is offered by a number of organisations. It has become customary for visiting dignitaries to place notes too.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: When a British Jew asked the Egyptian authorities in 1840 for permission to re-pave the ground in front of the Western Wall, the governor of Syria wrote:

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: It is evident from the copy of the record of the deliberations of the Consultative Council in Jerusalem that the place the Jews asked for permission to pave adjoins the wall of the Haram al-Sharif and also the spot where al-Buraq was tethered, and is included in the endowment charter of Abu Madyan, may God bless his memory; that the Jews never carried out any repairs in that place in the past. ... Therefore the Jews must not be enabled to pave the place.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: The name Hosh al Buraq appeared on the maps of Wilson's 1865 survey, its revised editions of 1876 and 1900, and other maps in the early 20th century. In 1922, it was the street name specified by the official Pro-Jerusalem Council.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Most Jews, religious and secular, consider the wall to be important to the Jewish people since it was originally built to hold the Second Temple. They consider the capture of the wall by Israel in 1967 as a historic event since it restored Jewish access to the site after a 19-year gap.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Some haredi Jews also hold different views. Most notable are the adherents of the Satmar hasidic dynasty, who retain the views espoused by their Grand Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum, who would not approach the Wall after the 1967 conquest because of his opposition to Zionism, although he did visit the site during his visits to the Holy Land in the 1920s.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: A poll carried out in 2007 by the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies indicated that 96% of Israeli Jews were against Israel relinquishing the Western Wall. During a speech at Israel's Mercaz HaRav yeshivah on Jerusalem Day in 2009, Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu declared: "The flag that flies over the Kotel is the Israeli flag... Our holy places, the Temple Mount—will remain under Israeli sovereignty forever."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: Yitzhak Reiter writes that "the Islamization and de-Judaization of the Western Wall are a recurrent motif in publications and public statements by the heads of the Islamic Movement in Israel."

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In December 1973, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia stated that "Only Muslims and Christians have holy places and rights in Jerusalem". The Jews, he maintained, had no rights there at all. As for the Western Wall, he said, "Another wall can be built for them. They can pray against that". Raed Salah, leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel wrote that:

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: "The Western Wall—all its various parts, structures and gates—are an inseparable part of the al-Aqsa compound...The Western Wall is part of Al-Aqsa's western tower, which the Israeli establishment fallaciously and sneakily calls the 'Wailing Wall'. The wall is part of the holy al-Aqsa Mosque".

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: According to the Palestinian National Authority, the Jews did not consider the Wall as a place for worship until after the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917. The PA-appointed Mufti of Jerusalem, Sheikh Ekrima Sa'id Sabri, believes that the Wall belongs to the Muslims alone. In 2000 he related that:

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In 2006, Dr. Hassan Khader, founder of the Al Quds Encyclopedia, told PA television that the first connection of the Jews to the Wall is "a recent one, which began in the 16th century...not ancient...like the roots of the Islamic connection".

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Western Wall

Context: In November 2010, an official paper published by the PA Ministry of Information denied Jewish rights to the Wall. It stated that "Al-Buraq Wall is in fact the western wall of Al-Aksa Mosque" and that Jews had only started using the site for worship after the 1917 Balfour Declaration.

Question: Сколько лет Стене Плача?


Transport Layer Security

Context: Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide communications security over a computer network. The protocol is widely used in applications such as email, instant messaging, and voice over IP, but its use in securing HTTPS remains the most publicly visible.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: The TLS protocol aims primarily to provide cryptography, including privacy (confidentiality), integrity, and authenticity through the use of certificates, between two or more communicating computer applications. It runs in the application layer and is itself composed of two layers: the TLS record and the TLS handshake protocols.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: TLS is a proposed Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard, first defined in 1999, and the current version is TLS 1.3, defined in August 2018. TLS builds on the earlier SSL specifications (1994, 1995, 1996) developed by Netscape Communications for adding the HTTPS protocol to their Navigator web browser.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: Client-server applications use the TLS protocol to communicate across a network in a way designed to prevent eavesdropping and tampering.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: Once the client and server have agreed to use TLS, they negotiate a stateful connection by using a handshaking procedure. The protocols use a handshake with an asymmetric cipher to establish not only cipher settings but also a session-specific shared key with which further communication is encrypted using a symmetric cipher. During this handshake, the client and server agree on various parameters used to establish the connection's security:

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: This concludes the handshake and begins the secured connection, which is encrypted and decrypted with the session key until the connection closes. If any one of the above steps fails, then the TLS handshake fails and the connection is not created.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: When secured by TLS, connections between a client (e.g., a web browser) and a server (e.g., wikipedia.org) should have one or more of the following properties:

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: In addition to the above, careful configuration of TLS can provide additional privacy-related properties such as forward secrecy, ensuring that any future disclosure of encryption keys cannot be used to decrypt any TLS communications recorded in the past.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: TLS supports many different methods for exchanging keys, encrypting data, and authenticating message integrity. As a result, secure configuration of TLS involves many configurable parameters, and not all choices provide all of the privacy-related properties described in the list above (see the tables below § Key exchange, , and ).

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: Attempts have been made to subvert aspects of the communications security that TLS seeks to provide, and the protocol has been revised several times to address these security threats. Developers of web browsers have repeatedly revised their products to defend against potential security weaknesses after these were discovered (see TLS/SSL support history of web browsers).

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: Early research efforts towards transport layer security included the Secure Network Programming (SNP) application programming interface (API), which in 1993 explored the approach of having a secure transport layer API closely resembling Berkeley sockets, to facilitate retrofitting pre-existing network applications with security measures.

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: These flaws necessitated the complete redesign of the protocol to SSL version 3.0. Released in 1996, it was produced by Paul Kocher working with Netscape engineers Phil Karlton and Alan Freier, with a reference implementation by Christopher Allen and Tim Dierks of Consensus Development. Newer versions of SSL/TLS are based on SSL 3.0. The 1996 draft of SSL 3.0 was published by IETF as a historical document in .

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?


Transport Layer Security

Context: SSL 2.0 was deprecated in 2011 by . In 2014, SSL 3.0 was found to be vulnerable to the POODLE attack that affects all block ciphers in SSL; RC4, the only non-block cipher supported by SSL 3.0, is also feasibly broken as used in SSL 3.0. SSL 3.0 was deprecated in June 2015 by .

Question: SSL протоколом можно пользоваться бесплатно в России?