Robert E. Lee

Context: Even though he scored another impressive victory over an enemy army much larger than his own, Lee felt unsatisfied by the fact that he had made little territorial gains up to that point. Things were going poorly for the Confederacy in the West, and Lee started to grow restless; he devised a plan to once again invade the North, for similar reasons to before: relieve Virginia and its citizens of the weariness of battle, and potentially march on the Federal Capital and force terms of peace.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In 1864 the new Union general-in-chief, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, sought to use his large advantages in manpower and material resources to destroy Lee's army by attrition, pinning Lee against his capital of Richmond. Lee successfully stopped each attack, but Grant with his superior numbers kept pushing each time a bit farther to the southeast. These battles in the Overland Campaign included the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House and Cold Harbor.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee resisted calls by some officers to reject surrender and allow small units to melt away into the mountains, setting up a lengthy guerrilla war. He insisted the war was over and energetically campaigned for inter-sectional reconciliation. "So far from engaging in a war to perpetuate slavery, I am rejoiced that slavery is abolished. I believe it will be greatly for the interests of the South."

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: The following are summaries of Civil War campaigns and major battles where Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: After the war, Lee was not arrested or punished (although he was indicted), but he did lose the right to vote as well as some property. Lee's prewar family home, the Custis-Lee Mansion, was seized by Union forces during the war and turned into Arlington National Cemetery, and his family was not compensated until more than a decade after his death.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: While at Washington College, Lee told a colleague that the greatest mistake of his life was taking a military education. He also defended his father in a biographical sketch.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: On May 29, 1865, President Andrew Johnson issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Pardon to persons who had participated in the rebellion against the United States. There were fourteen excepted classes, though, and members of those classes had to make special application to the president. Lee sent an application to Grant and wrote to President Johnson on June 13, 1865:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: On October 2, 1865, the same day that Lee was inaugurated as president of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia, he signed his Amnesty Oath, thereby complying fully with the provision of Johnson's proclamation. Lee was not pardoned, nor was his citizenship restored.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Three years later, on December 25, 1868, Johnson proclaimed a second amnesty which removed previous exceptions, such as the one that affected Lee.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In an interview in May 1866, Lee said: "The Radical party are likely to do a great deal of harm, for we wish now for good feeling to grow up between North and South, and the President, Mr. Johnson, has been doing much to strengthen the feeling in favor of the Union among us. The relations between the Negroes and the whites were friendly formerly, and would remain so if legislation be not passed in favor of the blacks, in a way that will only do them harm."

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: On September 28, 1870, Lee suffered a stroke. He died two weeks later, shortly after 9 a.m. on October 12, 1870, in Lexington, Virginia, from the effects of pneumonia. According to one account, his last words on the day of his death, were "Tell Hill he "must" come up! Strike the tent", but this is debatable because of conflicting accounts and because Lee's stroke had resulted in aphasia, possibly rendering him unable to speak.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Among the supporters of the Confederacy, Lee came to be even more revered after his surrender than he had been during the war, when Stonewall Jackson had been the great Confederate hero. In an 1874 address before the Southern Historical Society in Atlanta, Georgia, Benjamin Harvey Hill described Lee in this way:

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: By the end of the 19th century, Lee's popularity had spread to the North. Lee's admirers have pointed to his character and devotion to duty, and his occasional tactical successes in battles against a stronger foe.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Military historians continue to pay attention to his battlefield tactics and maneuvering, though many think he should have designed better strategic plans for the Confederacy. He was not given full direction of the Southern war effort until late in the conflict.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: "Lee had become the embodiment of the Southern cause. A generation later, he was a national hero. The 1890s and early 20th century witnessed the consolidation of white supremacy in the post-Reconstruction South and widespread acceptance in the North of Southern racial attitudes."

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Robert E. Lee has been commemorated on U.S. postage stamps at least five times, the first one being a commemorative stamp that also honored Stonewall Jackson, issued in 1936. A second "regular-issue" stamp was issued in 1955. He was commemorated with a 32-cent stamp issued in the American Civil War Issue of June 29, 1995. His horse Traveller is pictured in the background.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Stone Mountain also led to Lee's appearance on a commemorative coin, the 1925 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar. During the 1920s and '30s dozens of specially designed half dollars were struck to raise money for various events and causes. This issue had a particularly wide distribution, with 1,314,709 minted. Unlike some of the other issues it remains a very common coin.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: Lee is also shown mounted on Traveller in Gettysburg National Military Park on top of the Virginia Monument; he is facing roughly in the direction of Pickett's Charge. Lee's portrayal on a mural on Richmond's flood wall on the James River, considered offensive by some, was removed in the late 1990s, but currently is back on the flood wall.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: A statue of Robert E. Lee was one of the two statues (the other is George Washington) representing Virginia in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. It was removed from the Capitol on December 21, 2020, after a state commission voted to replace it with a statue of Civil Rights activist Barbara Rose Johns. Lee is one of the figures depicted in bas-relief carved into Stone Mountain near Atlanta. Accompanying him on horseback in the relief are Stonewall Jackson and Jefferson Davis.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: One United States college and one junior college are named for Lee: Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia; and Lee College in Baytown, Texas, respectively. University Chapel at Washington and Lee University marks Lee's final resting place. Throughout the South, many primary and secondary schools were also named for him as well as private schools such as Robert E. Lee Academy in Bishopville, South Carolina.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In 1862, the newly formed Confederate Navy purchased a 642-ton iron-hulled side-wheel gunboat, built in at Glasgow, Scotland, and gave her the name of CSS "Robert E. Lee" in honor of this Confederate General. During the next year, she became one of the South's most famous Confederate blockade runners, successfully making more than twenty runs through the Union blockade.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: The Mississippi River steamboat "Robert E. Lee" was named for Lee after the Civil War. It was the participant in an 1870 St. Louis – New Orleans race with the "Natchez VI", which was featured in a Currier and Ives lithograph. The "Robert E. Lee" won the race. The steamboat inspired the 1912 song "Waiting for the Robert E. Lee" by Lewis F. Muir and L. Wolfe Gilbert. In more modern times, the , a built in 1958, was named for Lee, as was the M3 Lee tank, produced in 1941 and 1942.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: The Commonwealth of Virginia issues an optional license plate honoring Lee, making reference to him as 'The Virginia Gentleman'. In February 2014, a road at Fort Bliss previously named for Lee was renamed to honor Buffalo Soldiers.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: A recent biographer, Jonathan Horn, outlines the unsuccessful efforts in Washington to memorialize Lee in the naming of the Arlington Memorial Bridge after both Grant and Lee.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: More recent biographies offer a broader variety of perspectives. Thomas L. Connelly’s "The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society" (1977) was an iconoclastic revision of Lee's mythical status in the South. "Robert E. Lee: A Biography" (1995) by Emory M. Thomas attempted a "post-revisionist" compromise between the traditional and more recent views. "Robert E. Lee: A Life" (2021) by Allen C. Guelzo focuses on a study of Lee's character.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: In Connie Willis' 1987 novel "Lincoln's Dreams", a research assistant meets a young woman who dreams about the Civil War from Robert E. Lee's point of view.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Robert E. Lee

Context: The Dodge Charger featured in the CBS television series "The Dukes of Hazzard" (1979–1985) was named The General Lee. In the 2005 film based on this series, the car is driven past a statue of Lee, while the car's occupants salute him.

Question: Когда Ро́берт Э́двард Ли стал командующим Северовирджинской армией?


Russian language

Context: Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide. It is the most spoken Slavic language, and the most spoken native language in Europe, as well as the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia. It is the world's seventh-most spoken language by number of native speakers, and the world's eighth-most spoken language by total number of speakers. Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, German, French, Italian, and English, and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic, Turkic, Persian, Arabic, and Hebrew.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency. It is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a "hard target" language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in U.S. world policy.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Mikhail Lomonosov compiled the first book of Russian grammar aimed at standardization in 1755. The Russian Academy's first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared in 1783. In the 18th and the late 19th centuries, a period known as the "Golden Age" of Russian Literature, the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the Russian language in a standardized literary form emerged.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930:

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features (such as fricative in Southern Russian dialects) are still observed in colloquial speech.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Belarus, Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus. 77% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Estonia, Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook, and is officially considered a foreign language. School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics, but as of 2019 promises have been given that such schools will remain open in the near future.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Lithuania, Russian has no official or any legal status, but the use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language. However, English has replaced Russian as "lingua franca" in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as the first foreign language. In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as of 2008).

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Moldova, Russian is considered to be the language of inter-ethnic communication under a Soviet-era law. 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: According to the 2010 census in Russia, Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people (99.4% of the respondents), while according to the 2002 census – 142.6 million people (99.2% of the respondents).

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In the 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey, fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular those where the people speak a Slavic language and thereby have an edge in learning Russian (namely, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria).

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Norway, and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a "lingua franca" of the country. 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In China, Russian has no official status, but it is spoken by the small Russian communities in the northeastern Heilongjiang province and the northwestern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook. Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration. The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan. The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population. Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan and is permitted in official documentation. 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work. The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official "lingua franca" in 1996. Among 12% of the population who grew up in the Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent. Nevertheless, the Turkmen state press and newspaper Neytralny Turkmenistan regularly publish material version in Russian-language, and there are schools like Joint Turkmen-Russian Secondary School.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Uzbekistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication. It has some official roles, being permitted in official documentation and is the "lingua franca" of the country and the language of the elite. Russian is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia, and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian is also spoken in Israel. The number of native Russian-speaking Israelis numbers around 1.5 million Israelis, 15% of the population. The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian and there are Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets based in the country. There is an Israeli TV channel mainly broadcasting in Russian with Israel Plus. See also Russian language in Israel.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In Vietnam, Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian) of the following:

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station – NASA astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes back to the Apollo-Soyuz mission, which first flew in 1975.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian is a rather homogeneous language, in dialectal variation, due to the early political centralization under Moscow's rule, compulsory education, mass migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century, and other factors. The standard language is used in written and spoken form almost everywhere in the country, from Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg in the West to Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the East, the enormous distance between notwithstanding.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed clearly, a phenomenon called okanye (). Besides the absence of vowel reduction, some dialects have high or diphthongal in place of and in stressed closed syllables (as in Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian and . Another Northern dialectal morphological feature is a post-posed definite article "-to", "-ta", "-te" similarly to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The city of Veliky Novgorod has historically displayed a feature called chokanye or tsokanye ( or ), in which and were switched or merged. So, (tsaplya, 'heron') has been recorded as (chaplya). Also, the second palatalization of velars did not occur there, so the so-called ě² (from the Proto-Slavic diphthong *ai) did not cause to shift to ; therefore, where Standard Russian has ('chain'), the form is attested in earlier texts.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Among the first to study Russian dialects was Lomonosov in the 18th century. In the 19th, Vladimir Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the 20th century. In modern times, the monumental "Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language" ( – "Dialektologichesky atlas russkogo yazyka"), was published in three folio volumes 1986–1989, after four decades of preparatory work.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: During the Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) times all Slavs spoke one mutually intelligible language or group of dialects. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, and a moderate degree of it across all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their upper case forms, along with values for each letter's typical sound:

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Older letters of the Russian alphabet include , which merged to ( or ); and , which both merged to (); , which merged to (); , which merged to (); , which merged to ( or ); and and , which later were graphically reshaped into and merged phonetically to or . While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The yers and originally indicated the pronunciation of "ultra-short" or "reduced" , .

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: All the obsolete 8-bit encodings are rarely used in the communication protocols and text-exchange data formats, having been mostly replaced with UTF-8. A number of encoding conversion applications were developed. "iconv" is an example that is supported by most versions of Linux, Macintosh and some other operating systems; but converters are rarely needed unless accessing texts created more than a few years ago.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: In addition to the modern Russian alphabet, Unicode (and thus UTF-8) encodes the Early Cyrillic alphabet (which is very similar to the Greek alphabet), and all other Slavic and non-Slavic but Cyrillic-based alphabets.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The current spelling follows the major reform of 1918, and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed in the late 1990s has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted. The punctuation, originally based on Byzantine Greek, was in the 17th and 18th centuries reformulated on the French and German models.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic; it underwent considerable modification in the early historical period before being largely settled around the year 1400.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the maximal structure can be described as follows:

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: However, Russian has a constraint on syllabification such that syllables cannot span multiple morphemes.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Clusters of four consonants are not very common, especially within a morpheme. Some examples are: ( "vzglyad", 'glance'), ( "gosudarstv", 'of the states'), ( "stroitelstv", 'of the constructions').

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian has five or six vowels in stressed syllables, , and in some analyses , but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two to four vowels when unstressed: (or ) after hard consonants and after soft ones. These vowels have several allophones, which are displayed on the diagram to the right.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Russian has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflectional structure, although considerable levelling has occurred.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the past two centuries, are as follows:

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100. On the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine emerged Ruthenian and in modern Russia medieval Russian. They became distinct since the 13th century, i.e. following the division of the land between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Poland in the west and independent Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics plus numerous small duchies (which came to be vassals of the Tatars) in the east.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The official language in Moscow and Novgorod, and later, in the growing Muscovy, was Church Slavonic, which evolved from Old Church Slavonic and remained the literary language for centuries, until the Petrine age, when its usage became limited to biblical and liturgical texts. Russian developed under a strong influence of Church Slavonic until the close of the 17th century; afterward the influence reversed, leading to corruption of liturgical texts.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The political upheavals of the early 20th century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the spelling reform of 1918. Political circumstances and Soviet accomplishments in military, scientific, and technological matters (especially cosmonautics), gave Russian a worldwide prestige, especially during the mid-20th century.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Russian language

Context: The Russian language in the world declined after 1991 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and decrease in the number of Russians in the world and diminution of the total population in Russia (where Russian is an official language), however this has since been reversed.

Question: В скольких странах русский язык является официальным?


Power Rangers

Context: Despite initial criticism that its action violence targeted child audiences, the franchise has been commercially successful. As of 2022, "Power Rangers" consists of 29 television seasons of 21 different themed series and three theatrical films released in 1995, 1997, and 2017.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: In 2010, Haim Saban, creator of the series, regained ownership of the franchise. It was previously owned for eight years by The Walt Disney Company. In 2018, Hasbro was named the new master toy licensee. Shortly afterwards, Saban Brands and Hasbro announced that the latter would acquire the franchise and the rest of the former's entertainment assets in a $522 million deal, with the first products from Hasbro becoming available in early 2019.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: As in "Super Sentai", the color palette of each "Power Rangers" team changes every series. Only Red and Blue appear in every Ranger team, while a Yellow Ranger has been present in every series except "Power Rangers Dino Charge" and "Power Rangers Dino Fury". Other colors and designations also appear throughout the series. A Rangers' color designation also influences their wardrobe throughout the series: civilian clothing often matches Ranger color.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: The idea of adapting Sentai series for America emerged in the late 1970s after the agreement between Toei Company and Marvel Comics to exchange concepts to adapt them to their respective audiences. Toei, with Marvel Productions, created the Japanese "Spider-Man" television series, and produced three Super Sentai series, which had great success in Japan. Marvel and Stan Lee tried to sell the "Sun Vulcan" series to American television stations including HBO, but found no buyers and the agreement ended.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: Along with adapting the villains from the Super Sentai counterparts, most "Power Rangers" series also feature villains with no Sentai counterpart. Generally, the primary antagonist of a "Power Rangers" series (for example, Lord Zedd, Divatox, etc.) are not adapted from the Sentai. Exceptions to this includes "Mighty Morphin", "Zeo", "Lightspeed Rescue" and a few others which only use villains adapted from the Japanese shows.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: The series that began the franchise, "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" (an American adaptation of the 1992 Japanese Super Sentai Series, "Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger"), began broadcasting as part of the Fox Kids block of programing that aired on the FOX network. It lasted for three seasons (from 1993 to 1996).

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On October 1, 2009, Bandai released a press release that Disney would re-broadcast "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" starting in January 2010 on ABC Kids in lieu of a new series using footage from the 2009 "Super Sentai" television series. A new toy line accompanied the series and appeared in stores in the later part of 2009.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On May 12, 2010, Haim Saban bought back the "Power Rangers" franchise from Disney for $43 million and announced plans to produce a new season of the television series. The eighteenth season, "Samurai", began airing on Nickelodeon on February 7, 2011, with the previous episodes beginning rebroadcast on Nicktoons later that year. It was also announced that Saban plans to make a new Power Rangers movie.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On July 2, 2012, it was announced that Saban Brands would launch a Saturday morning cartoon block on The CW, called Vortexx, on August 25, 2012, that would air "Power Rangers Lost Galaxy". The series was removed before the season even finished, ending up doing so on the Vortexx website. The block itself ended in fall 2014.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: To commemorate the series' 20th anniversary, Nickelodeon began airing "Power Rangers Megaforce" on February 2, 2013. On October 1, 2013, Saban Brands announced that it had extended agreements for the franchise with Nickelodeon and Bandai America Incorporated through 2016. The 90s Are All That aired "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" as part of Mighty Morphin Weekend in 2013.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: In January 2016, Saban and Nickelodeon extended their broadcast partnership through 2018. In February 2018, it was announced that "Power Rangers" would continue airing on Nickelodeon through 2021.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: In late April 2021, actor Chance Perez announced in an interview that the second season of "Dino Fury" (and the twenty-ninth season overall) would premiere on Netflix in 2022; making it the first season of the show to air exclusively online through a streaming service. Meanwhile, new episodes of the series moved to the streaming service on June 15, 2021.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: The first six seasons (beginning with "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" and ending with "In Space") followed an overarching, evolving storyline. The second season began the annual tradition of the Rangers acquiring new Zords to battle enemies while the core suits from the first season were used, except for that of the White Ranger. With the fourth season, "Zeo", "Power Rangers" began following the "Super Sentai" series' practice of annual Ranger suit changes.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: Although the seventh season, "Lost Galaxy", had ties with the preceding season, it was otherwise the first season to follow a self-contained story, as would later seasons of the show up until the seventeenth, "RPM". The season also began the tradition of team-up episodes featuring Rangers, villains, and other characters from past seasons.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: Beginning with the eighteenth season, "Samurai", the show returned to a multi-season format similar to "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers", with self-contained storylines told across two seasons each.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: During its second season, and the twenty-seventh season overall, "Beast Morphers" would later reveal itself to be a direct sequel to "RPM".

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: "Power Rangers" has been adapted into three theatrical motion pictures. The first two are distributed by 20th Century Fox, while the third film was released in 2017 by Lionsgate.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On June 15, 2011, all episodes of "Power Rangers" from "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1" to "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers re-version" were made available for instant streaming on Netflix. In 2015, Power Rangers became available on the iTunes Store. In 2021, all episodes of "Power Rangers" (excluding "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (season 1)" and "Power Rangers Beast Morphers") were removed from Netflix.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On March 12, 2012, Shout! Factory announced a home video distribution deal with Saban, which includes the first 17 series of Power Rangers. Shout! Factory released the first seven seasons on DVD in August 2012, seasons 8–12 in November 2013, a 20-year collection in December 2013, and seasons 13–17 in April 2014.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On March 22, 2012 Lionsgate Home Entertainment reached a home media distribution deal with Saban to release "Power Rangers Samurai" to DVD and Blu-ray.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: On February 15, 2018, Saban Brands announced that their 25-year partnership with Bandai would end in 2019. The next day, it was confirmed that Hasbro would be the new "global master toy licensee" for the franchise starting in April 2019, with a future option for Hasbro to buy the entire franchise.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: In 2015, Boom Studios won the Power Rangers comics license, which brought a lot of award-winning publications.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Power Rangers

Context: In November 2018, Insight Editions released "Power Rangers: The Ultimate Visual History", detailing the various toys and television seasons over the franchise's 25-year run.

Question: Как зовут создателя телесериала «Могучие рейнджеры»?


Frank Herbert

Context: Franklin Patrick Herbert Jr. (October 8, 1920February 11, 1986) was an American science fiction author best known for the 1965 novel "Dune" and its five sequels. Though he became famous for his novels, he also wrote short stories and worked as a newspaper journalist, photographer, book reviewer, ecological consultant, and lecturer.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Herbert married Flora Lillian Parkinson in San Pedro, California, in 1941. They had one daughter, Penelope (b. February 16, 1942), and divorced in 1943. During 1942, after the U.S. entry into World War II, he served in the Navy's Seabees for six months as a photographer, but suffered an accidental head injury and was given a medical discharge. Herbert subsequently moved to Portland, Oregon where he reported for "The Oregon Journal".

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: In 1949 Herbert and his wife moved to California to work on the Santa Rosa "Press-Democrat". Here they befriended the psychologists Ralph and Irene Slattery. The Slatterys introduced Herbert to the work of several thinkers who would influence his writing, including Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger; they also familiarized Herbert with Zen Buddhism.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Herbert never graduated from university. According to his son Brian, he wanted to study only what interested him and so did not complete the required curriculum. He returned to journalism and worked at the "Seattle Star" and the "Oregon Statesman". He was a writer and editor for the "San Francisco Examiner" "California Living" magazine for a decade.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: In a 1973 interview, Herbert stated that he had been reading science fiction "about ten years" before he began writing in the genre, and he listed his favorite authors as H. G. Wells, Robert A. Heinlein, Poul Anderson and Jack Vance.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Sterling E. Lanier, an editor of Chilton Book Company (known mainly for its auto-repair manuals) had read the Dune serials and offered a $7,500 advance plus future royalties for the rights to publish them as a hardcover book. Herbert rewrote much of his text. "Dune" was soon a critical success. It won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1965 and shared the Hugo Award in 1966 with "...And Call Me Conrad" by Roger Zelazny.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: By the end of 1972, Herbert had retired from newspaper writing and become a full-time fiction writer. During the 1970s and 1980s, he enjoyed considerable commercial success as an author. He divided his time between homes in Hawaii and Washington's Olympic Peninsula; his home in Port Townsend on the peninsula was intended to be an "ecological demonstration project".

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: During this time he wrote numerous books and pushed ecological and philosophical ideas. He continued his "Dune" saga with "Dune Messiah" (1969), "Children of Dune" (1976), "God Emperor of Dune" (1981), "Heretics of Dune" (1984) and "" (1985). Herbert planned to write a seventh novel to conclude the series, but his death in 1986 left storylines unresolved.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Other works by Herbert include "The Godmakers" (1972), "The Dosadi Experiment" (1977), "The White Plague" (1982) and the books he wrote in partnership with Bill Ransom: "The Jesus Incident" (1979), "The Lazarus Effect" (1983) and "The Ascension Factor" (1988), which were sequels to Herbert's 1966 novel "". He also helped launch the career of Terry Brooks with a very positive review of Brooks' first novel, "The Sword of Shannara", in 1977.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: In 1983, British heavy metal band Iron Maiden requested permission from Herbert's publisher to name a song on their album "Piece of Mind" after "Dune", but were told that the author had a strong distaste for their style of music. They instead titled the song "To Tame a Land".

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: 1984 was a tumultuous year in Herbert's life. During this same year of his wife's death, his career took off with the release of David Lynch's film version of "Dune". Despite high expectations, a big-budget production design and an A-list cast, the movie drew mostly poor reviews in the United States. However, despite a disappointing response in the US, the film was a critical and commercial success in Europe and Japan.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: In 1985, after Beverly's death, Herbert married his former Putnam representative Theresa Shackleford. The same year he published "Chapterhouse: Dune", which tied up many of the saga's story threads. This would be Herbert's final single work (the collection "Eye" was published that year, and "Man of Two Worlds" was published in 1986). He died of a massive pulmonary embolism while recovering from surgery for pancreatic cancer on February 11, 1986, in Madison, Wisconsin, age 65.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Frank Herbert refrained from offering his readers formulaic answers to many of the questions he explored.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: "Dune" and the "Dune" saga constitute one of the world's best-selling science fiction series and novels; "Dune" in particular has received widespread critical acclaim, winning the Nebula Award in 1965 and sharing the Hugo Award in 1966, and is frequently considered one of the best science fiction novels ever, if not the best. "Locus" subscribers voted it the all-time best SF novel in 1975, again in 1987, and the best "before 1990" in 1998.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Herbert never again equalled the critical acclaim he received for "Dune". Neither his sequels to "Dune" nor any of his other books won a Hugo or Nebula Award, although almost all of them were "New York Times" Best Sellers.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: California State University, Fullerton's Pollack Library has several of Herbert's draft manuscripts of "Dune" and other works, with the author's notes, in their Frank Herbert Archives.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Metro Parks Tacoma built Dune Peninsula and the Frank Herbert Trail at Point Defiance Park in July 2019 to honor the hometown writer.

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Frank Herbert

Context: Beginning in 2012, Herbert's estate and WordFire Press have released four previously unpublished novels in e-book and paperback formats: "High-Opp" (2012), "Angels' Fall" (2013), "A Game of Authors" (2013), and "A Thorn in the Bush" (2014).

Question: Сколько детей было у Фрэнка Герберта?


Blue whale

Context: The blue whale was once abundant in nearly all the Earth's oceans until the end of the 19th century. It was hunted almost to the point of extinction by whalers until the International Whaling Commission banned all blue whale hunting in 1966. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed blue whales as "endangered" as of 2018. It continues to face numerous man-made threats such as ship strikes, pollution, ocean noise and climate change.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Blue whales are rorquals in the family Balaenopteridae. A 2018 analysis estimates that the Balaenopteridae family diverged from other families in between 10.48 and 4.98 million years ago during the late Miocene.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: The earliest discovered anatomically modern blue whale is a partial skull fossil found in southern Italy, dating to the Early Pleistocene, roughly 1.5–1.25 million years ago. The Australian pygmy blue whale diverged during the Last Glacial Maximum. Their more recent divergence has resulted in the subspecies having a relatively low genetic diversity, and New Zealand blue whales have an even lower genetic diversity.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Whole genome sequencing suggests that blue whales are most closely related to sei whales with gray whales as a sister group. This study also found significant gene flow between minke whales and the ancestors of the blue and sei whale. Blue whales also displayed high genetic diversity.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Blue whales are known to interbreed with fin whales. The earliest description of a possible hybrid between a blue and fin whale was a anomalous female whale with the features of both the blue and the fin whales taken in the North Pacific. A whale captured off northwestern Spain in 1984, was found to have been the product of a blue whale mother and a fin whale father.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: There is reference to a humpback-blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific, attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: At least four subspecies of blue whale are recognized, some of which are divided into population stocks or "management units". They have a worldwide distribution, but are mostly absent from the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean, Okhotsk, and Bering Sea.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Blue whales off the Chilean coast may be a separate subspecies based on geographic separation, genetics, and unique song types. Chilean blue whales may overlap in the Eastern Tropical Pacific with Antarctica blue whales and Eastern North Pacific blue whales. Chilean blue whales are genetically differentiated from Antarctica blue whales and are unlikely to be interbreeding. However, the genetic distinction is less with the Eastern North Pacific blue whale and there may be gene flow between hemispheres.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: The average length of sexually mature female blue whales is for Eastern North Pacific blue whales, for central and western North Pacific blue whales, for North Atlantic blue whales, for Antarctic blue whales, for Chilean blue whales, and for pygmy blue whales.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: In the Northern Hemisphere, males weigh an average and females . Eastern North Pacific blue whale males average and females . Antarctic males average and females . Pygmy blue whale males average to . The weight measured of the heart from a stranded North Atlantic blue whale was , the largest known in any animal.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: The greatest dive depth reported from tagged blue whales was . Their theoretical aerobic dive limit was estimated at 31.2 minutes, however, the longest dive measured was 15.2 minutes. The deepest confirmed dive from a pygmy blue whale was . A blue whale's heart rate can drop to 2 beats per minute (bpm) at deep depths, but upon surfacing, can rise to 37 bpm, which is close to its maximum possible heart rate.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: The blue whale's diet consists almost exclusively of krill. Blue whales capture krill through lunge feeding, they swim towards them at high speeds as they open their mouths up to 80° They may engulf of water at one time. They squeeze the water out through their baleen plates with pressure from the throat pouch and tongue, and swallow the remaining krill. Blue whales have been recorded making 180° rolls during lunge-feeding, possibly allowing them to search the prey field and find the densest patches.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Blue whales appear to avoid directly competing with other baleen whales. Different whale species select different feeding spaces and times as well as different prey species. In the Southern Ocean, baleen whales appear to feed on Antarctic krill of different sizes, which may lessen competition between them.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Blue whales produce some of the loudest and lowest frequency vocalizations in the animal kingdom. and their inner ears appear well adapted for detecting low-frequency sounds. The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz. Blue whale songs vary between populations.

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Blue whale

Context: Blue whales are formally classified as "endangered" under both the US Endangered Species Act and the IUCN Red List. They are also listed on Appendix I under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Although for some populations there is not enough information on current abundance trends (e.g., Pygmy blue whales), others are critically endangered (e.g., Antarctic blue whales).

Question: Кем было сделано первое научное описание синего кита?


Soviet destroyer Storozhevoy

Context: Storozhevoy () was the lead ship of her class (officially known as Project 7U) of 18 destroyers built for the Soviet Navy during the late 1930s. Although she began construction as a Project 7 , "Storozhevoy" was completed in 1940 to the modified Project 7U design.

Question: Когда возник проект Эскадренные миноносцы проекта 35?


Soviet destroyer Storozhevoy

Context: Originally built as a "Gnevny"-class ship, "Strashny" and her sister ships were completed to the modified Project 7U design after Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, ordered that the latter be built with their boilers arranged "en echelon", instead of linked as in the "Gnevny"s, so that a ship could still move with one or two boilers disabled.

Question: Когда возник проект Эскадренные миноносцы проекта 35?


Soviet destroyer Storozhevoy

Context: Postwar, between 25 February 1946 and 4 January 1956, she was part of the 4th Fleet after the Baltic Fleet was divided. On 17 February of the latter year "Storozhevoy" was removed from the combat fleet and reclassified as a training destroyer. Her crew was disbanded on 28 January 1958 and on 11 March she was removed from the fleet to be transferred for scrapping, which was carried out by Glavvtorchermet between 1958 and 1959 at Liepāja.

Question: Когда возник проект Эскадренные миноносцы проекта 35?


Marshalsea

Context: The Marshalsea (1373–1842) was a notorious prison in Southwark, just south of the River Thames. Although it housed a variety of prisoners, including men accused of crimes at sea and political figures charged with sedition, it became known, in particular, for its incarceration of the poorest of London's debtors. Over half the population of England's prisoners in the 18th century were in jail because of debt.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The prison became known around the world in the 19th century through the writing of the English novelist Charles Dickens, whose father was sent there in 1824, when Dickens was 12, for a debt to a baker. Forced as a result to leave school to work in a factory, Dickens based several of his characters on his experience, most notably Amy Dorrit, whose father is in the Marshalsea for debts so complex no one can fathom how to get him out.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: Much of the prison was demolished in the 1870s, although parts of it were used as shops and rooms into the 20th century. A local library now stands on the site. All that is left of the Marshalsea is the long brick wall that marked its southern boundary, the existence of what Dickens called "the crowding ghosts of many miserable years" recalled only by a plaque from the local council. "[I]t is gone now," he wrote, "and the world is none the worse without it."

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: "Marshalsea" or "marshalcy" referred to the office of a marshal, derived from the Anglo-French "mareschalcie". "Marshal" originally meant farrier, from the Old Germanic "marh" (horse) and "scalc" (servant), later a title bestowed on those presiding over the courts of Medieval Europe.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: Eighteenth-century prisons were effectively lodging houses. Poorly maintained and often filthy, they might consist of a couple of rooms in a cellar. Before the Gaols Act 1823, then the Prisons Act 1835 and the Prison Act 1877, they were administered by the royal household, the aristocracy and the bishops, and run for profit by private individuals who bought the right to manage and make money from them.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: Prisoners would often take their families with them, which meant that entire communities sprang up inside the debtors' jails. The community created its own economy, with jailers charging for room, food, drink and furniture, or selling concessions to others, and attorneys charging fees in fruitless efforts to get the debtors out. Prisoners' families, including children, often had to find employment simply to cover the cost of the imprisonment.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The Marshalsea occupied two buildings on the same street in Southwark. The first dated back to the 14th century at what would now be 161 Borough High Street, between King Street and Mermaid Court. By the late 16th century the building was "crumbling". In 1799 the government reported that it would be rebuilt south on what is now 211 Borough High Street.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: There was a bar run by the governor's wife, and a chandler's shop run in 1728 by a Mr and Mrs Cary, both prisoners, which sold candles, soap and a little food. There was a coffee shop run in 1729 by a long-term prisoner, Sarah Bradshaw, and a steak house called Titty Doll's run by another prisoner, Richard McDonnell, and his wife. There was also a tailor and a barber, and prisoners from the master's side could hire prisoners from the common side to act as their servants.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The prison reformer John Howard visited the Marshalsea on 16 March 1774. He reported that there was no infirmary, and that the practice of "garnish" was in place, whereby new prisoners were bullied into giving money to the older prisoners upon arrival. Five rooms on the master's side were being let to a man who was not a prisoner; he had set up a chandler's shop in one of them, lived in two others with his family, and sublet two to prisoners.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: By all accounts, living conditions in the common side were horrific. In 1639 prisoners complained that 23 women were being held in one room without space to lie down, leading to a revolt, with prisoners pulling down fences and attacking the guards with stones. Prisoners were regularly beaten with a "bull's pizzle" (a whip made from a bull's penis), or tortured with thumbscrews and a skullcap, a vice for the head that weighed .

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: Castell had a friend, James Oglethorpe, a Tory MP who years later founded the American colony of Georgia. Oglethorpe began to ask questions about the treatment of debtor prisoners, and a group of debtors, perhaps at Oglethorpe's instigation, lodged a complaint about their treatment with the Lord Mayor of London and his aldermen, who interviewed the Fleet's warden on 21 December 1728.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The committee was shocked by the prisoners' living conditions. In the Fleet they found Sir William Rich, a baronet, in irons. Unable to pay the prison fee, he had been burned with a red-hot poker, hit with a stick and kept in a dungeon for ten days for having wounded the warden with a shoemaker's knife. In the Marshalsea they found that prisoners on the common side were being routinely starved to death:

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: All the Support such poor Wretches have to subsist on, is an accidental Allowance of Pease, given once a week by a Gentleman, who conceals his Name, and about Thirty Pounds of Beef, provided by the voluntary Contribution of the Judge and Officers of the Marshalsea, on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday; which is divided into very small Portions, of about an Ounce and a half, distributed with One-Fourth-part of an Half-penny Loaf ...

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: As a result of the Gaols Committee's inquiries, several key figures within the jails were tried for murder in August 1729, including Thomas Bambridge of the Fleet and William Acton of the Marshalsea. Given the strongly worded report of the Gaols Committee, the trials were major public events. Ginger writes that, when the Prince of Wales's bookseller presented his bill at the end of that year, two of the 41 volumes on it were accounts of William Acton's trial.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The court was told of three other cases. Captain John Bromfield, Robert Newton and James Thompson all died after similar treatment from Acton: a beating, followed by time in the hole or strong room, before being moved to the sick ward, where they were left to lie on the floor in leg irons.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: James Neild visited the Marshalsea again during the first year of the new building's existence, publishing a description of it in 1812. This was supplemented by reports from the Committees and Commissioners on the State and Management of Prisons in London and Elsewhere, published between 1815 and 1818. More material is available in a pamphlet, "An Expose of the Practice of the Palace, or Marshalsea Court", written in 1833 by an anonymous eyewitness.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The barracks was less than 10 yards wide and 33 yards long (9 m × 30 m) and was divided into eight houses, each with three floors, containing 56 rooms in all. Each floor had seven rooms facing the front and seven in the back. There were no internal hallways. The rooms were accessed directly from the outside via eight narrow wooden staircases, a fire hazard given that the stairs provided the sole exit and the houses were separated only by thin lathe and plaster partitions.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: Women debtors were housed in rooms over the tap room. The rooms in the barracks (the men's rooms) were square and high, with a window, wooden floors and a fireplace. Each housed two or three prisoners, and as the rooms were too small for two beds, prisoners had to share. Apart from the bed, prisoners were expected to provide their own furniture. The anonymous witness complained in 1833:

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: As dreadful as the Marshalsea was, it kept the creditors away. Debtors could even arrange to have themselves arrested by a business partner to enter the jail when it suited them. Historian Margot Finn writes that discharge was therefore used as a punishment; one debtor was thrown out in May 1801 for "making a Noise and disturbance in the prison".

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: After paying garnish, prisoners were given a "chum ticket", which told them which room was theirs and which prisoners they would be chumming with. They would often spend the first night in the infirmary until a room could be made ready, and sometimes three or four nights walking around the yard before a chum could be found, although they were already being charged for the room they did not have.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: They were supposed to have a separate yard to exercise in, so that criminals were not mixing with debtors, but in fact the prisoners mixed often and happily, according to Dickens. The parliamentary committee deplored this practice, arguing that Admiralty prisoners were characterized by an "entire absence of all control", and were bound to have a bad effect on the debtors. The two groups would retreat to their own sections during inspections, Dickens wrote:

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The presence of wives, lovers and daughters was taken for granted. Visitors could come and go freely, and even live with the prisoners, without being asked who they were. Female prisoners were allowed to mix with the men. Some of the rooms were let to prostitutes. The prison gates were closed from ten at night until eight the next morning, with a bell warning visitors half an hour before closing time, and an officer walking around the prison calling, "Strangers, women and children all out!"

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The Marshalsea was closed by an Act of Parliament (Public Act 5 & 6 Vict. c. 22) in 1842, and on 19 November that year the inmates were relocated to the Bethlem hospital if they were mentally ill, or to the King's Bench Prison, at that point renamed the Queen's Prison. On 31 December 1849 the Court of the Marshalsea of the Household of the Kings of England was abolished, and its power transferred to Her Majesty's Court of Common Pleas at Westminster.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: Dickens visited what was left of the Marshalsea in May 1857, just before he finished "Little Dorrit". He wrote in the preface:

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The building on the site of the prison houses Southwark Council's John Harvard Library and Local Studies Library, at 211 Borough High Street, just north of the junction with Tabard Street. All that remains of the Marshalsea is the brick wall that marked the southern boundary of the prison, separating it from St George's churchyard, now a small garden. It can be reached by underground on the Northern line to Borough tube station, or by train to London Bridge station.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The surviving wall runs along an alleyway that was part of the prison, now called Angel Place. The name Angel Place has led to confusion because there were two alleyways on the north side of the Marshalsea (Angel Court and Angel Alley), the first of which Dickens refers to when giving directions to the prison remains in 1857. See , which shows Angel Court/Angel Alley near the Borough Goal , marked by the number 2.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Marshalsea

Context: The wall is marked on the garden side, on what would have been the external wall of the prison, by a plaque from the local council. There is also a paving stone with information about Dickens's father. The Cuming Museum has one of the prison's pumps and the Dickens House Museum one of its windows.

Question: Кто построил Маршалси?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: Geydar Dzhahidovich Dzhemal (, , sometimes transliterated as Heydar Jamal; 6 November 1947 – 5 December 2016) was a Russian Islamic public figure, activist, philosopher, poet, political and social activist. He was the founder and chairman of the Islamic Committee of Russia

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: He was also the Co-chairman and member of the Presidium of the Russian Social Movement "Russian Islamic Heritage", permanent member of the Popular Arab and Islamic Congress, one of the founders and a member of the Coordinating Council of the Left Front, member of The Other Russia. He took part in the Dissenters' March.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: In 1965, after graduation from school, Dzhemal entered the Institute of Oriental Languages at Moscow State University, but a year later was expelled for "bourgeois nationalism". He later took a job as an editor at the "Medicine" Publishing House, where he met a Moscow State University graduate, Ilya Moskvin. He worked at the "Medicine" as an editor and edited many books on psychiatry.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: In the 1960s and 1970s, Dzhemal joined a number of loosely-affiliated bohemian underground organisations ("tusovka") associated with . Some members of these groups had access to secret collections of the All-Russia State Library for Foreign Literature and brought works by a number of mystics and philosophers (including well-known esoterists Julius Evola and Alain de Benoist) to these discussions. Through Mameleev, these works became popular among an intellectual strain of Russian neo-Nazism.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: In the Islamic Renaissance Party in Astrakhan, he became a deputy chairman of the party. In the same year, he established an information center "Tawḥīd" and launched the Islamic Russian-language newspaper "Al-Waḥdat" ("Unity"). During the disintegration of the USSR, the Tajik branch of the IRP would be his next step where he assumed the position of Russian delegate at the Russian Center, a representative body within the party's central committee.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: Since 1995, the Islamic Council became affiliated with the Union of Muslims of Russia led by Nadirshakh Khachilaev. From 1996 he became advisor to Alexander Lebed and cooperated with him and the Union of Patriotic and National Organisations of Russia to support a block on General Lebedev's presidential campaign.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: In 1998, he toured South Africa, giving lectures. At the invitation of Nelson Mandela's associate Sheikh Ahmad Yassin, Djemal went to South Africa to deliver a course of lectures on social anthropology and political philosophy at the University of Cape Town. For this course, he received an honorary doctorate at the University of Cape Town.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: In 1999, at the Eastern Orthodox-Islamic conference in St. Petersburg he put forward the thesis of the possibility of an anti-imperialist strategic alliance between Muslims and Orthodox Christianity's spirituality.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: For 25 years, Djemal gave lectures, wrote and published articles on a wide range of topics and public commentaries on political and social events, and cooperated in various intellectual gatherings in Russia and abroad.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: In 2010 Dzhemal commented on the Armenian-Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. He was also among the 34 first signatories of an online anti-Vladimir Putin manifesto, "Putin Must Go", published on 10 March 2010.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: On 30 July 2018, his son, journalist , was killed along with film director and cameraman while filming a documentary about the activities of a Russian paramilitary organization Wagner Group in the Central African Republic.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: The Internet portal "Voice of Islam" reports that Geydar Jamal has long professed a Shiite current, but in recent years has changed his mind about him.

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: Recently, many people have asked me about my belonging to one direction or another within Islam. Some people say, "We agree with you in many ways, but here you are Shia. Oh, if you weren't Shia!.."

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Geydar Dzhemal

Context: To once and for all remove any questions that arise in the brothers, I officially declare the following:

Question: Когда Гейда́р Джахи́дович Джема́ль стал председателем Исламского комитета России?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Pluripotent stem cells hold promise in the field of regenerative medicine. Because they can propagate indefinitely, as well as give rise to every other cell type in the body (such as neurons, heart, pancreatic, and liver cells), they represent a single source of cells that could be used to replace those lost to damage or disease.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: The most well-known type of pluripotent stem cell is the embryonic stem cell. However, since the generation of embryonic stem cells involves destruction (or at least manipulation) of the pre-implantation stage embryo, there has been much controversy surrounding their use. Patient-matched embryonic stem cell lines can now be derived using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In his Nobel seminar, Yamanaka cited the earlier seminal work of Harold Weintraub on the role of MyoD in reprogramming cell fate to a muscle lineage as an important precursor to the discovery of iPSCs.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Upon delivery of all twenty-four factors, ESC-like colonies emerged that reactivated the Fbx15 reporter and could propagate indefinitely. To identify the genes necessary for reprogramming, the researchers removed one factor at a time from the pool of twenty-four. By this process, they identified four factors, Oct4, Sox2, cMyc, and Klf4, which were each necessary and together sufficient to generate ESC-like colonies under selection for reactivation of Fbx15.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In June 2007, three separate research groups, including that of Yamanaka's, a Harvard/University of California, Los Angeles collaboration, and a group at MIT, published studies that substantially improved on the reprogramming approach, giving rise to iPSCs that were indistinguishable from ESCs. Unlike the first generation of iPSCs, these second generation iPSCs produced viable chimeric mice and contributed to the mouse germline, thereby achieving the 'gold standard' for pluripotent stem cells.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: These second-generation iPSCs were derived from mouse fibroblasts by retroviral-mediated expression of the same four transcription factors (Oct4, Sox2, cMyc, Klf4). However, instead of using Fbx15 to select for pluripotent cells, the researchers used Nanog, a gene that is functionally important in ESCs. By using this different strategy, the researchers created iPSCs that were functionally identical to ESCs.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Obtaining fibroblasts to produce iPSCs involves a skin biopsy, and there has been a push towards identifying cell types that are more easily accessible. In 2008, iPSCs were derived from human keratinocytes, which could be obtained from a single hair pluck. In 2010, iPSCs were derived from peripheral blood cells, and in 2012, iPSCs were made from renal epithelial cells in the urine.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Other considerations for starting cell type include mutational load (for example, skin cells may harbor more mutations due to UV exposure), time it takes to expand the population of starting cells, and the ability to differentiate into a given cell type.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: The generation of induced pluripotent cells is crucially dependent on the transcription factors used for the induction.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Oct-3/4 and certain products of the Sox gene family (Sox1, Sox2, Sox3, and Sox15) have been identified as crucial transcriptional regulators involved in the induction process whose absence makes induction impossible. Additional genes, however, including certain members of the Klf family (Klf1, Klf2, Klf4, and Klf5), the Myc family (c-myc, L-myc, and N-myc), Nanog, and LIN28, have been identified to increase the induction efficiency.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Although the methods pioneered by Yamanaka and others have demonstrated that adult cells can be reprogrammed to iPS cells, there are still challenges associated with this technology:

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: The table on the right summarizes the key strategies and techniques used to develop iPS cells in the first five years after Yamanaka et al.'s 2006 breakthrough. Rows of similar colors represent studies that used similar strategies for reprogramming.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In April 2009, it was demonstrated that generation of iPS cells is possible without any genetic alteration of the adult cell: a repeated treatment of the cells with certain proteins channeled into the cells via poly-arginine anchors was sufficient to induce pluripotency. The acronym given for those iPSCs is piPSCs (protein-induced pluripotent stem cells).

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Another key strategy for avoiding problems such as tumor genesis and low throughput has been to use alternate forms of vectors: adenovirus, plasmids, and naked DNA and/or protein compounds.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In January 2014, two articles were published claiming that a type of pluripotent stem cell can be generated by subjecting the cells to certain types of stress (bacterial toxin, a low pH of 5.7, or physical squeezing); the resulting cells were called STAP cells, for stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In light of difficulties that other labs had replicating the results of the surprising study, in March 2014, one of the co-authors has called for the articles to be retracted. On 4 June 2014, the lead author, Obokata agreed to retract both the papers after she was found to have committed ‘research misconduct’ as concluded in an investigation by RIKEN on 1 April 2014.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Induced pluripotent stem cells are similar to natural pluripotent stem cells, such as embryonic stem (ES) cells, in many aspects, such as the expression of certain stem cell genes and proteins, chromatin methylation patterns, doubling time, embryoid body formation, teratoma formation, viable chimera formation, and potency and differentiability, but the full extent of their relation to natural pluripotent stem cells is still being assessed.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Gene expression and genome-wide H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 were found to be extremely similar between ES and iPS cells. The generated iPSCs were remarkably similar to naturally isolated pluripotent stem cells (such as mouse and human embryonic stem cells, mESCs and hESCs, respectively) in the following respects, thus confirming the identity, authenticity, and pluripotency of iPSCs to naturally isolated pluripotent stem cells:

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Recent achievements and future tasks for safe iPSC-based cell therapy are collected in the review of Okano et al.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Another approach is the use of iPS cells derived from patients to identify therapeutic drugs able to rescue a phenotype. For instance, iPS cell lines derived from patients affected by ectodermal dysplasia syndrome (EEC), in which the p63 gene is mutated, display abnormal epithelial commitment that could be partially rescued by a small compound.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In 2021, a switchable Yamanaka factors-reprogramming-based approach for regeneration of damaged heart without tumor-formation was demonstrated in mice and was successful if the intervention was carried out immediately before or after a heart attack.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Embryonic cord-blood cells were induced into pluripotent stem cells using plasmid DNA. Using cell surface endothelial/pericytic markers CD31 and CD146, researchers identified 'vascular progenitor', the high-quality, multipotent vascular stem cells. After the iPS cells were injected directly into the vitreous of the damaged retina of mice, the stem cells engrafted into the retina, grew and repaired the vascular vessels.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Labelled iPSCs-derived NSCs injected into laboratory animals with brain lesions were shown to migrate to the lesions and some motor function improvement was observed.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: Beating cardiac muscle cells, iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes, can be mass-produced using chemically defined differentiation protocols. These protocols typically modulate the same developmental signaling pathways required for heart development . These iPSC-cardiomyocytes can recapitulate genetic arrhythmias and cardiac drug responses, since they exhibit the same genetic background as the patient from which they were derived.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In June 2014, Takara Bio received technology transfer from iHeart Japan, a venture company from Kyoto University's iPS Cell Research Institute, to make it possible to exclusively use technologies and patents that induce differentiation of iPS cells into cardiomyocytes in Asia. The company announced the idea of selling cardiomyocytes to pharmaceutical companies and universities to help develop new drugs for heart disease.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: On March 9, 2018, the Specified Regenerative Medicine Committee of Osaka University officially approved the world's first clinical research plan to transplant a “myocardial sheet” made from iPS cells into the heart of patients with severe heart failure. Osaka University announced that it had filed an application with the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare on the same day.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: On May 16, 2018, the clinical research plan was approved by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare's expert group with a condition.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In October 2019, a group at Okayama University developed a model of ischemic heart disease using cardiomyocytes differentiated from iPS cells.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: In March 2017, a team led by Masayo Takahashi completed the first successful transplant of iPS-derived retinal cells from a donor into the eye of a person with advanced macular degeneration. However it was reported that they are now having complications. The benefits of using autologous iPSCs are that there is theoretically no risk of rejection and that it eliminates the need to use embryonic stem cells. However, these iPSCs were derived from another person.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: New clinical trials involving IPSCs are now ongoing not only in Japan, but also in the US and Europe. Research in 2021 on the trial registry Clinicaltrials.gov identified 129 trial listings mentioning IPSCs, but most were non-interventional.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Induced pluripotent stem cell

Context: A multipotent mesenchymal stem cell, when induced into pluripotence, holds great promise to slow or reverse aging phenotypes. Such anti-aging properties were demonstrated in early clinical trials in 2017. In 2020, Stanford University researchers concluded after studying elderly mice that old human cells when subjected to the Yamanaka factors, might rejuvenate and become nearly indistinguishable from their younger counterparts.

Question: Кем были открыты индуцированные стволовые клетки?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: The Black Sea Fleet (, "Chernomorsky flot") is the fleet of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Mediterranean Sea. The Black Sea Fleet, and other Russian ground and air forces in occupied Crimea, are subordinate to the Southern Military District of the Russian Armed Forces.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: The fleet traces its history to its founding by Prince Potemkin on May 13, 1783. The Russian SFSR inherited the fleet in 1918; with the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, it became part of the Soviet Navy. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Black Sea Fleet was partitioned with Ukraine and the Russian Federation receiving title to most of the fleet and its vessels in 1997.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Turkish fleet at the Battle of Kerch Strait in 1790, preventing the Turks from landing a force in Crimea.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: During the French Revolutionary Wars, the Black Sea Fleet was initially deployed under the command of Admiral Ushakov, in conjunction with the Turks, against French forces during the Siege of Corfu. The victory led to the establishment of the Septinsular Republic with the island of Corfu then serving as a base for Russian naval units in the Mediterranean operating against the French.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Turkey, encouraged by the French, went to war with Russia in the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. The Russian fleet (deploying from the Baltic, but joining some vessels of the Black Sea Fleet already in the Mediterranean prior to the outbreak of war) under the command of Admiral Dmitry Senyavin played an instrumental role in this conflict securing victories at both the Battle of the Dardanelles (1807) and the Battle of Athos.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: The restriction imposed on the Black Sea Fleet by Turkish control of the Straits was influential in motivating Russia from time-to-time to attempt to secure control of the passage, which became a recurrent theme in Russian policy. From 1841 onward the Russian fleet was formally confined to the Black Sea by the London Straits Convention.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: As a result of the Crimean War, one provision of the 1856 Treaty of Paris was that the Black Sea was to be a demilitarized zone similar to the Island of Åland in the Baltic Sea. This hampered the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and in the aftermath of that conflict, Russia moved to reconstitute its naval strength and fortifications in the Black Sea.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Most of the ships of the Black Sea Fleet became part of the "Russian Squadron" of Wrangel's armed forces. Following the defeat of anti-Bolshevik forces and the evacuation of Crimea by White forces, the fleet itself sailed to Tunisia. Out of those ships, some passed to the French Navy while others were sold as scrap.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: With the defeat of the anti-Bolshevik Armed Forces of South Russia, the Soviet government took control of all naval elements. The few ships that remained in the Black Sea were scrapped in the 1920s and a large scale new construction programme began in the 1930s. Over 500 new ships were built during that period and a massive expansion of coastal infrastructure took place. The Black Sea Fleet was commanded by Vice Admiral F.S. Oktyabrskiy on the outbreak of war with Germany in June 1941.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Soviet hospital ship was sunk on 7 November 1941 by German aircraft while evacuating civilians and wounded soldiers from Crimea. It has been estimated that approximately 5,000 to 7,000 people were killed during the sinking, making it one of the deadliest maritime disasters in history. There were only 8 survivors.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: In 1952, Turkey decided to join NATO, placing the Bosporus Straits in the Western sphere of influence. Nevertheless, the terms of the Montreux Convention limited NATO's options with respect to directly reinforcing Turkey's position in the Black Sea. The Soviets, in turn, had some of their naval options in the Mediterranean restricted by the Montreux Convention limitations.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: In the later post-war period, along with the Northern Fleet, the Black Sea Fleet provided ships for the 5th Operational Squadron in the Mediterranean, which confronted the United States Navy during the Arab-Israeli wars, notably during the Yom Kippur War in 1973.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: With the fall of the Soviet Union and the demise of the Warsaw Pact, Russia's strategic position in the Black Sea was severely weakened. The military importance of the fleet was degraded due to significant funding cuts, the loss of territory, the loss of former Warsaw Pact allies and the loss of its major missions. The loss of Crimea reinforced these developments and saw the Black Sea Fleet now located in a foreign country with which its assets were divided.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: In 1992, the major part of the personnel, armaments and coastal facilities of the Fleet fell under formal jurisdiction of the newly independent Ukraine as they were situated on Ukrainian territory. Later, the Ukrainian government ordered the establishment of its own Ukrainian Navy based on the Black Sea Fleet; several ships and ground formations declared themselves Ukrainian.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: In 2010 the Russian leasehold was renegotiated with an extension until 2042 and an option for an additional five years until 2047 plus consideration of further renewals. This deal proved controversial in Ukraine.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: In this regard, relations between Russia and Ukraine over the status of the Fleet continued to be strained. In an August 2009 letter to then Russian President Medvedev, former Ukrainian President Yushchenko complained about alleged "infringements of bilateral agreements and Ukrainian legislation"

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: In June 2009, the head of the Ukrainian Security Service said that after December 13, 2009, all officers from the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) represented at the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet would be required to leave Ukraine. From then the Security Service of Ukraine would ensure the security of the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet and Russian sailors on Ukrainian territory.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: However, according to the Russian Foreign Ministry the employees of the FSB, working at the Black Sea Fleet facilities, were to remain on Ukrainian territory "in line with bilateral agreements". In 2010, based on an agreement between Ukrainian and Russian governments military counterintelligence officers from the Federal Security Service returned to the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet base.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Despite these differences, joint exercises between the Ukrainian Navy and the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet were resumed after a seven-year interval with a command-staff exercise in June 2010. In May 2011, Russian-Ukrainian at-sea naval "Peace Fairway" (Farvater Mira) exercises resumed.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: The newly independent nation of Georgia, which also hosted several bases of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet when it was the Georgian SSR, also claimed a share of the Fleet, including 32 naval vessels formerly stationed at Georgia's Black Sea port of Poti. Not a CIS member at that time, Georgia was not, however, included in the initial negotiations in January 1992. Additionally, some low-importance bases situated in the Russian-backed breakaway autonomy of Abkhazia soon escaped any Georgian control.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Russia employed part of the fleet during the 2008 Georgian conflict. Russian units operating off Georgia's breakaway Abkhazia region resulted in a reported skirmish and sinking of a ship of the Georgian Navy. Since the 2008 South Ossetia war the Russian Black Sea Fleet has not taken part in any joint naval exercises involving Georgian warships. However, such a statement has little meaning since the Georgian Navy has ceased to exist (early 2009 it was merged with the Georgian coast guard).

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: After the 2014 Crimean crisis, the Ukrainian Armed Forces and the Ukrainian Navy were evicted from their bases and subsequently withdrew from Crimea. Russia then moved to integrate several vessels from the Ukrainian Navy into the Black Sea Fleet. According to sources from Black Sea Fleet Headquarters, inspections of all ships were to be done by the end of 2014. Fifty-four out of sixty-seven ships of the Ukrainian Navy have been transferred to the Black Sea Fleet, with St. Andrew flags raised on them.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: On 8 April 2014 an agreement was reached between Russia and Ukraine to return Ukrainian Navy materials to Ukraine proper. The greater portion of the Ukrainian naval ships and vessels were then returned to Ukraine but Russia suspended this process after in the conflict in the Donbas. According to the fleet commander Aleksandr Vitko, this happened because the vessels were old "and, if used [by Ukraine], could hurt its own people".

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: From that point, Russia proceeded to consolidate its military position in Crimea, which it now regards as an integral part of the Russian Federation, though this position is not one supported by most of the international community.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?


Black Sea Fleet

Context: Ongoing technological upgrades of this already robust SAM network are planned for the 2020s. Others, such as Michael Kofman of CNA, argue that while there is no A2/AD doctrine or term in Russian military strategy, Russian forces nevertheless are organized at an operational and strategic level to deploy a wide range of overlapping defensive and offensive capabilities that extend beyond just one theatre of operations like the Black Sea.

Question: Где базируется Черноморский флот России на апрель 2019 в Крыму?