Steady-state economy

Context: The Corn Laws were not repealed before 1846. In the meantime, the British economy kept growing, a fact that effectively undermined the credibility and thrust of Ricardian economics in Britain; but Ricardo had by now established himself as the first stationary state theorist in the history of economic thought.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: John Stuart Mill was the leading economist, philosopher and social reformer in mid-19th century Britain. His economics treatise on the "Principles of Political Economy", published in 1848, attained status as the standard textbook in economics throughout the English-speaking world until the turn of the century.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: A champion of classical liberalism, Mill believed that an ideal society should allow all individuals to pursue their own good without any interference from others or from government. Also a utilitarian philosopher, Mill regarded the 'Greatest Happiness Principle' as the ultimate ideal for a harmonious society:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Mill's concept of the stationary state was strongly coloured by these ideals. Mill conjectured that the stationary state of society was not too far away in the future:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Hence, Mill was able to express all of his liberal ideals for mankind through his concept of the stationary state. It has been argued that Mill essentially made a quality-of-life argument for the stationary state.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: When the influence of John Stuart Mill and his "Principles" declined, the classical-liberalist period of economic theorising came to an end. By the turn of the 19th century, Marxism and neoclassical economics had emerged to dominate economics. This development led to the exclusion of any concern with natural resource scarcity in economic modelling and analysis:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: The similarity between John Stuart Mill's concept of the stationary state (see above) and Keynes's predictions in this essay has been noted. It has been argued that although Keynes was right about future growth rates, he underestimated the inequalities prevailing today, both within and across countries. He was also wrong in predicting that greater wealth would induce more leisure spent; in fact, the reverse trend seems to be true.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: The economic expansion following World War II took place while mainstream economics largely neglected the importance of natural resources and environmental constraints in the development. Addressing this discrepancy, ecological concerns emerged in academia around 1970. Later on, these concerns developed into the formation of ecological economics as an academic subdiscipline in economics.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In the years around 1970, the widening discrepancy between an ever-growing world economy on the one hand, and a mainstream economics discipline not taking into account the importance of natural resources and environmental constraints on the other hand, was finally addressed — indeed, "challenged" — in academia by a few unorthodox economists and researchers.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: During the short period of time from 1966 to 1972, four works were published addressing the importance of natural resources and the environment to human society:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Taken together, these four works were seminal in bringing about the formation of ecological economics later on.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: According to two independent comparative studies of American Daly's steady-state economics versus the later, competing school of degrowth from continental Europe, no differences of analytical substance exist between the two schools; only, Daly's bureaucratic — or even technocratic — top-down management of the economy fares badly with the more radical grassroots appeal of degrowth, as championed by French political scientist Serge Latouche (see below).

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Daly cautions that more than two hundred years of worldwide industrialisation is now confronting mankind with a range of problems pertaining to the future existence and survival of our species:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Following the work of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Daly argues that the laws of thermodynamics restrict all human technologies and apply to all economic systems:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Consequently, Daly recommends that a system of permanent government restrictions on the economy is established as soon as possible, a steady-state economy. Whereas the classical economists believed that the final stationary state would settle by itself as the rate of profit fell and capital accumulation came to an end (see above), Daly wants to create the steady-state politically by establishing three institutions of the state as a superstructure on top of the present market economy:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: The purpose of these three institutions is to stop and prevent further growth by combining what Daly calls "a nice reconciliation of efficiency and equity" and providing "the ecologically necessary macrocontrol of growth with the least sacrifice in terms of microlevel freedom and variability."

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Responding specifically to the criticism levelled at him by Georgescu-Roegen, Daly concedes that a steady-state economy will serve only to postpone, and not to prevent, the inevitable mineral resource exhaustion: "A steady-state economy cannot last forever, but neither can a growing economy, nor a declining economy". A frank and committed Protestant, Daly further argues that...

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Later, several other economists in the field have agreed that not even a steady-state economy can last forever on earth.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In 2021, a study checked if the current situation confirms the predictions of the book "Limits to Growth". The conclusion was that in 10 years the global GDP will begin to decline. If it will not happen by deliberate transition it will happen by ecological disaster.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In effect, mankind is confronted by an ecological crisis, in which humans are living outside of planetary boundaries which will have significant effects on human health and wellbeing. The significant impact of human activities on earth's ecosystems has motivated some geologists to propose the present epoch be named the "anthropocene". The following issues have raised much concern worldwide:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: One of the most common solutions to the climate crisis is transitioning to renewable energy, but it also has some environmental impacts. They are presented by the proponents of theories like degrowth steady-state economy and circular economy as one of the proofs that for achieving sustainability technological methods are not enough and there is a need to limit consumption

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services was published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. The report was finalised in Paris. The main conclusions:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In September 2019, 1 day before the Global Climate Strike on 20 September 2019 in the Guardian was published an article that summarizes many research and say that limiting consumption is necessary for saving the biosphere.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Except the reasons linked to resource depletion and the carrying capacity of the ecological system, there are other reasons to limit consumption - overconsumption hurts the well-being of those who consume too much.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In the same time when the ecological footprint of humanity exceeded the sustainable level, while GDP more than tripled from 1950, one of the well-being measures genuine progress indicator has fallen from 1978. This is one of the reasons for pursuing the steady state economy.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In some cases reducing consumption can increase the life level. In Costa Rica the GDP is 4 times smaller than in many countries in Western Europe and North America, but people live longer and better. An American study shows that when the income is higher than $75,000, an increase in profits does not increase well-being. For better measuring the well-being, the New Economics Foundation's has launched the Happy Planet Index.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Reducing the use of screens can help fight many diseases, among others depression, the leading cause of disability globally. It also can lower greenhouse gas emission. As of 2018, 3.7% of global emissions were from digital technologies more than from aviation, the number is expected to achieve 8% by 2025, equal to the emissions from cars.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In September 2019, 1 day before the Global Climate Strike on 20 September 2019, an article was published in "The Guardian" that summarizes much research and says that limiting consumption is necessary for the health of big consumers: it can increase empathy improve the contacts with other people, and more.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: The concept of steady state economy is connected to other concepts that can be generally defined as Ecological economics and Anti-consumerism, because it serve as the final target of those concepts: Those ideologies are not calling for poverty but wants to reach a level of consumption that is the best for people and the environment.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In February 2020, the same organization proposed a slogan of "Degrowth Toward a Steady State Economy" because it can unify degrowthers and steady staters. In the statement is mentioned, that: "In 2018 the nascent DegrowUS adopted the mission statement, "Our mission is a democratic and just transition to a smaller, steady state economy in harmony with nature, family, and community.".

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In 1977 Leopold Kohr published a book named "The Overdeveloped Nations: The Diseconomies Of Scale", talking primarily about overconsumption. This book is the basis for the theory of overdevelopment, saying that the global north, the rich countries are too developed, which increases the Ecological footprint of humanity and create many problems both in overdeveloped and underdeveloped countries.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Several conceptual and ideological disagreements presently exist concerning the steady-state economy in particular and the dilemma of growth in general. The following issues are considered below: The role of technology; resource decoupling and the rebound effect; a declining-state economy; the possibility of having capitalism without growth; and the possibility of pushing some of the terrestrial limits into outer space.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: In 2019 a research, presenting an overview of the attempts to achieve constant economic growth without environmental destruction and their results, was published. It shows that by the year 2019 the attempts were not successful. It does not give a clear answer about future attempts.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Technology is usually defined as the application of scientific method in the production of goods or in other social achievements. Historically, technology has mostly been developed and implemented in order to improve labour productivity and increase living standards. In economics, disagreement presently exists regarding

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: From the ecological point of view, it has been suggested that the disagreement boils down to a matter of teaching some elementary physics to the uninitiated neoclassical economists and other technological optimists. From the neoclassical point of view, leading growth theorist and Nobel Prize laureate Robert Solow has defended his much criticised position by replying in 1997 that 'elementary physics' has not by itself prevented growth in the industrialized countries so far.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: For all its merits, Daly himself points to the existence of physical, technological and practical limitations to how much efficiency and recycling can be achieved by this proposed system. The idea of absolute decoupling ridding the economy as a whole of any dependence on natural resources is ridiculed polemically by Daly as 'angelizing GDP': It would work only if we ascended to become angels ourselves.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: A declining-state economy is an economy made up of a declining stock of physical wealth (capital) or a declining population size, or both. A declining-state economy is not to be confused with a recession: Whereas a declining-state economy is established as the result of deliberate political action, a recession is the unexpected and unwelcome failure of a growing or a steady economy.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Proponents of a declining-state economy generally believe that a steady-state economy is not far-reaching enough for the future of mankind. Some proponents may even reject modern civilization as such, either partly or completely, whereby the concept of a declining-state economy begins bordering on the ideology of anarcho-primitivism, on radical ecological doomsaying or on some variants of survivalism.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: American political advisor Jeremy Rifkin, French champion of the degrowth movement Serge Latouche and Austrian degrowth theorist Christian Kerschner — who all take their cue from Georgescu-Roegen's work — have argued in favour of declining-state strategies. Consider each in turn:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Daly concedes that it is 'difficult, probably impossible' to define such optimum levels; even more, in his final analysis Daly agrees with his teacher and mentor Georgescu-Roegen that no defined optimum will be able to last forever (see above).

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Several radical critics of capitalism have questioned the possibility of ever imposing a steady-state or a declining-state (degrowth) system as a superstructure on top of capitalism. Taken together, these critics point to the following growth dynamics inherent in capitalism:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: — In short: There is no end to the systemic and ecologically harmful growth dynamics in modern capitalism, radical critics assert.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Daly concludes by inviting all (most) people — both liberal supporters of and radical critics of capitalism — to join him in his effort to develop a steady-state economy.

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Ever since the beginning of the modern Space Age in the 1950s, some space advocates have pushed for space habitation, frequently in the form of colonization, some arguing as a reason for alleviating human overpopulation, overconsumption and mitigate the human impact on the environment on Earth (if not for other reasons).

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


Steady-state economy

Context: Today, steady state economy is not implemented officially by any state, but there are some measures that limit growth and means a steady level of consumption of some products per capita:

Question: Kuka keksi käsityksen vakaan tilan talous?


List of Final Fantasy media

Context: Square's initial forays into film and television were critical and commercial failures. ' was poorly received and the box office failure of ' lead to the merger between Square and Enix. The series did not have success in film until "", which ultimately won several awards for "best anime feature" and sold over 2.4 million copies within a year.

Question: Kuinka monta peliä Final Fantasy-sarjaan kuuluu?


List of Final Fantasy media

Context: Despite its decline in the United States, radio drama has remained popular in Japan. The series features a small number of radio drama releases.

Question: Kuinka monta peliä Final Fantasy-sarjaan kuuluu?


List of Final Fantasy media

Context: Many "Final Fantasy" games have been adapted as novels and manga series. With the advent of the Internet, web novels and digital publishing have also become common. These stories act as companion pieces, offering an interpretation of the game's events or expanding the plot of the games by depicting additional scenarios.

Question: Kuinka monta peliä Final Fantasy-sarjaan kuuluu?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt's prime ministerial tenure, which came during the reign of King George III, was dominated by major political events in Europe, including the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Pitt, although often referred to as a Tory, or "new Tory", called himself an "independent Whig" and was generally opposed to the development of a strict partisan political system.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: William Pitt, the second son of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, was born on 28 May 1759 at Hayes Place in the village of Hayes, Kent. He was from a political family on both sides, as his mother, Hester Grenville, was sister to former prime minister George Grenville. According to biographer John Ehrman, Pitt exhibited the brilliance and dynamism of his father's line, and the determined, methodical nature of the Grenvilles.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: In 1776, Pitt, plagued by poor health, took advantage of a little-used privilege available only to the sons of noblemen, and chose to graduate without having to pass examinations.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt's father was said to have demanded him to continually translate aloud classical literature into English and declaim upon previously unknown topics in effort to develop his oratory skills. Pitt's father, who had by then been raised to the peerage as Earl of Chatham, died in 1778. As a younger son, Pitt the Younger received only a small inheritance. He acquired his legal education at Lincoln's Inn and was called to the bar in the summer of 1780.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt, who had been stripped of his post as Chancellor of the Exchequer, joined the Opposition. He raised the issue of parliamentary reform in order to strain the uneasy Fox-North coalition, which included both supporters and detractors of reform. He did not advocate an expansion of the electoral franchise, but he did seek to address bribery and rotten boroughs. Though his proposal failed, many reformers in Parliament came to regard him as their leader, instead of Charles James Fox.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: A constitutional crisis arose when the King dismissed the Fox-North coalition government and named Pitt to replace it. Though faced with a hostile majority in Parliament, Pitt was able to solidify his position within a few months. Some historians argue that his success was inevitable given the decisive importance of monarchical power; others argue that the King gambled on Pitt and that both would have failed but for a run of good fortune.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt, at the age of 24, became Great Britain's youngest Prime Minister ever. The contemporary satire "The Rolliad" ridiculed him for his youth:

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Many saw Pitt as a stop-gap appointment until some more senior statesman took on the role. However, although it was widely predicted that the new "mince-pie administration" would not outlast the Christmas season, it survived for seventeen years.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt gained great popularity with the public at large as "Honest Billy" who was seen as a refreshing change from the dishonesty, corruption and lack of principles widely associated with both Fox and North. Despite a series of defeats in the House of Commons, Pitt defiantly remained in office, watching the Coalition's majority shrink as some Members of Parliament left the Opposition to abstain.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: In domestic politics, Pitt concerned himself with the cause of parliamentary reform. In 1785, he introduced a bill to remove the representation of thirty-six rotten boroughs, and to extend, in a small way, the electoral franchise to more individuals. Pitt's support for the bill, however, was not strong enough to prevent its defeat in the House of Commons. The bill of 1785 was the last parliamentary reform proposal introduced by Pitt to British legislators.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt always paid careful attention to financial issues. A fifth of Britain's imports were smuggled in without paying taxes. He made it easier for honest merchants to import goods by lowering tariffs on easily smuggled items such as tea, wine, spirits, and tobacco. This policy raised customs revenues by nearly £2 million a year.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: In 1797, Pitt was forced to protect the kingdom's gold reserves by preventing individuals from exchanging banknotes for gold. Great Britain would continue to use paper money for over two decades. Pitt was also forced to introduce Great Britain's first-ever income tax. The new tax helped offset losses in indirect tax revenue, which had been caused by a decline in trade.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt sought European alliances to restrict French influence, forming the Triple Alliance with Prussia and Holland in 1788. During the Nootka Sound Controversy in 1790, Pitt took advantage of the alliance to force Spain to give up its claim to exclusive control over the western coast of North and South America. The Alliance, however, failed to produce any other important benefits for Great Britain.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: The war with France was extremely expensive, straining Great Britain's finances. Unlike in the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars, at this point Britain had only a very small standing army, and thus contributed to the war effort mainly through sea power and by supplying funds to other coalition members facing France.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Despite Pitt's efforts, the French continued to defeat the First Coalition, which collapsed in 1798. A Second Coalition, consisting of Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, was formed, but it, too, failed to overcome the French. The fall of the Second Coalition with the defeat of the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800) and at the Battle of Hohenlinden (3 December 1800) left Great Britain facing France alone.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt supported the new administration, but with little enthusiasm; he frequently absented himself from Parliament, preferring to remain in his Lord Warden's residence of Walmer Castle—before 1802 usually spending an annual late-summer holiday there, and later often present from the spring until the autumn.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: From the castle, he helped organise a local Volunteer Corps in anticipation of a French invasion, acted as colonel of a battalion raised by Trinity House—he was also a Master of Trinity House—and encouraged the construction of Martello towers and the Royal Military Canal in Romney Marsh. He rented land abutting the Castle to farm on which to lay out trees and walks. His niece Lady Hester Stanhope designed and managed the gardens and acted as his hostess.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt returned to the premiership on 10 May 1804. He had originally planned to form a broad coalition government, but faced the opposition of George III to the inclusion of Fox. Moreover, many of Pitt's former supporters, including the allies of Addington, joined the Opposition. Thus, Pitt's second ministry was considerably weaker than his first.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: I return you many thanks for the honour you have done me; but Europe is not to be saved by any single man. England has saved herself by her exertions, and will, as I trust, save Europe by her example.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Nevertheless, the Coalition collapsed, having suffered significant defeats at the Battle of Ulm (October 1805) and the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805). After hearing the news of Austerlitz Pitt referred to a map of Europe, "Roll up that map; it will not be wanted these ten years."

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt was an expert in finance and served as chancellor of the exchequer. Critical to his success in confronting Napoleon was using Britain's superior economic resources. He was able to mobilize the nation's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: With a population of 16 million, Britain was barely half the size of France, which had a population of 30 million. In terms of soldiers, however, the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000 in 1813.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: By 1814, the budget that Pitt in his last years had largely shaped had expanded to £66 million, including £10 million for the Navy, £40 million for the Army, £10 million for the Allies, and £38 million as interest on the national debt. The national debt soared to £679 million, more than double the GDP. It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: The whole cost of the war came to £831 million. The French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon's forces had to rely in part on requisitions from conquered lands.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: The setbacks took a toll on Pitt's health. He had long suffered from poor health, beginning in childhood, and was plagued with gout and "biliousness", which was worsened by a fondness for port that began when he was advised to consume it to deal with his chronic ill-health. On 23 January 1806, Pitt died at Bowling Green House on Putney Heath, probably from peptic ulceration of his stomach or duodenum; he was unmarried and left no children.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt's debts amounted to £40,000 when he died, but Parliament agreed to pay them on his behalf. A motion was made to honour him with a public funeral and a monument; it passed despite some opposition. Pitt's body was buried in Westminster Abbey on 22 February, having lain in state for two days in the Palace of Westminster.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt was succeeded as Prime Minister by his first cousin William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, who headed the Ministry of All the Talents, a coalition which included Charles James Fox.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: Pitt became known as a "three-bottle man" in reference to his heavy consumption of port wine. Each of these bottles would be around in volume.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: At one point rumours emerged of an intended marriage to Eleanor Eden, to whom Pitt had grown close. Pitt broke off the potential marriage in 1797, writing to her father, Lord Auckland, "I am compelled to say that I find the obstacles to it decisive and insurmountable".

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: William Pitt the Younger was a prime minister who consolidated the powers of his office. Though he was sometimes opposed by members of his Cabinet, he helped define the role of the Prime Minister as the supervisor and co-ordinator of the various government departments. After his death the conservatives embraced him as a great patriotic hero.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


William Pitt the Younger

Context: One of Pitt's accomplishments was a rehabilitation of the nation's finances after the American War of Independence. Pitt helped manage the mounting national debt, and made changes to the tax system in order to improve its great capture of revenue.

Question: Oliko William Pitt menestynyt Britannian pääministeri?


Auto Union

Context: The current corporate entity which bears the Auto Union name – "Auto Union GmbH" – was founded in 1985 and is a wholly owned subsidiary of Audi AG; its purpose is to act as owner of Auto Union's historical trademarks and intellectual property, as well as managing Audi's heritage operations. The company's distinctive logo, of four interlocking rings to represent the original four members of the Auto Union, survives as the logo of Audi.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: In August 1928, Rasmussen, the owner of DKW, acquired a majority ownership of Audiwerke AG. In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the US automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for eight- and six-cylinder engines. These engines were used in "Audi Zwickau", "Audi Imperator" and "Audi Dresden" models. At the same time, six-cylinder and four-cylinder (licensed from Peugeot) models were manufactured.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: Auto Union chairman, Klaus, Baron von Oertzen, wanted a showpiece project to announce the new brand. At the 1933 Berlin Motor Show, German Chancellor Adolf Hitler announced two new programs:

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: At fellow director's Adolf Rosenberger insistence, von Oertzen met with Dr. Ferdinand Porsche, who had done work for him before, and developed his own P-Wagen project racing car based on the new formula.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: Having garnered state funds, Auto Union bought Porsches "Hochleistungsfahrzeugbau GmbH (HFB)" (High Performance Car Ltd.) and hence the P-Wagen Project for , relocating the company to Auto Unions Horch plant at Zwickau.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: The list of drivers for the initial 1934 season was headed by Stuck; he won the German, Swiss, and Czechoslovakian events, along with wins in a number of hill climbs, becoming European Mountain Champion.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: In 1935, the engine had been enlarged to displacement, producing . Achille Varzi joined the team and won the Tunis Grand Prix and the Coppa Acerbo. Stuck won the Italian Grand Prix, plus his usual collection of hill-climb wins, again taking the European Mountain Championship. The new sensation, Rosemeyer, won the Czech Grand Prix.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: Stuck also managed to break speed records, reaching on an Italian "autostrada" in a closed-cockpit streamliner. Lessons learned from this streamlining were later applied to the T80 land speed record car.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: In 1937, the car was basically unchanged and did surprisingly well against the new Mercedes-Benz W125, winning five races to the seven of Mercedes-Benz. Rosemeyer took the Eifel and Donington Grands Prix, the Coppa Acerbo, and the Vanderbilt Cup. Rudolf Hasse won the Belgian Grand Prix.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: In addition to the new formula, 1938 brought other challenges, principally the death of Rosemeyer early in the year, in an attempt on the land speed record on a German "autobahn". Tazio Nuvolari joined the team, and won the Italian and Donington Grands Prix, in what was otherwise a thin year for the team, other than yet another European Mountain Championship for Stuck.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: In 1939, as war clouds gathered over Europe, Nuvolari won the Yugoslavia Grand Prix in Belgrade, while Hermann P. Müller won the 1939 French Grand Prix.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: The buildup and onset of World War II encouraged the development and production of special vehicles for military purposes in the 1930s. Auto Union became an important supplier of vehicles to Germany's armed forces. Following the outbreak of war, civilian production was interrupted in May 1940. After this, the company produced exclusively for military purposes.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: For the production of Junkers aircraft engine under license, Auto Union founded in 1935 the subsidiary "Mitteldeutsche Motorenwerke" (Central German Motor Works) at Taucha, northeast of Leipzig.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: During World War II, Auto Union/Horch supplied the chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 222 armored car. Powered by an Horch V8 engine, it reached a top speed of on the road. The all-wheel drive "Kfz. 11", or Horch/Wanderer Type 901, was used as a medium transport vehicle to shuttle German military officials. Horch works also produced the AWD heavy transport vehicle Type 801 (both named Einheits-PKW der Wehrmacht).

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: From the beginning of 1944, Auto Union plants (Horch and Audi plant at Zwickau, Mitteldeutsche Motorenwerke and Siegmar/Wanderer plant at Siegmar-Schönau) were heavily bombed and severely damaged. The U.S. Army occupied Zwickau on 17 April 1945 near the end of WWII. After withdrawal of the U.S. Army on 30 June from Zwickau, all Saxon plants of Auto Union were occupied by the Red Army.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: The company exploited slave labor at Leitmeritz concentration camp. According to a 2014 report commissioned by the company, Auto Union bore "moral responsibility" for the 4,500 deaths that occurred at Leitmeritz.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: Postwar, the Saxon plants of Auto Union were located in the Soviet-occupied zone of communist East Germany.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: The former Audi factory in Zwickau, now under East German control, restarted assembly of the pre-war models in 1949. Those models were renamed IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the new West German DKW versions. In time, a lawsuit compelled the East Germans to cease using the DKW brand. The factory went on to manufacture the Trabant until the early 1990s, when it was acquired by Volkswagen, effectively re-establishing its connection with Auto Union and Audi.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: With the Red Army quickly advancing on Zwickau immediately after the war, and faced with the prospect of trying to salvage what was left of the company, Auto Union's executives had no option but to flee and re-establish the company on the Western side of a now partitioned Germany. Thus a new Auto Union company was launched in Ingolstadt, Bavaria with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: In 1950, after a former Rheinmetall-Borsig factory in Düsseldorf-Derendorf was established as a second assembly facility, the company's first postwar car went into production: the DKW Meisterklasse F 89 P, available as a sedan/saloon, a station wagon and the four-seater convertible built by Karmann. The F 89 were based on the DKW F8 (motor) and the DKW F9 (coachwork) pre-war constructions.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: From 1956 to 1968, about 46,750 DKW Munga light four-wheel drive military vehicles could be produced, mostly for the German and other militaries.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: After being merged with Neckarsulm car maker NSU, the official name became Audi NSU Auto Union AG, which was simply shortened to Audi AG in 1985, ending both the Auto Union and NSU brands. The company's headquarters returned to Ingolstadt; at the same time Audi formed the new companies Auto Union GmbH, and NSU GmbH as wholly owned subsidiaries whose function was to own and protect the historical trademarks and intellectual property of both Auto Union and NSU.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: The trademark symbol of Auto Union (and present-day Audi), the four overlapping rings, symbolized the four marques forming Auto Union: Audi, DKW, Horch, and Wanderer.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Auto Union

Context: Although Auto Union used the four ring logo, it was only used on Auto Union racing cars in that period, while the member companies used their own names and emblems.

Question: Missä sijaitsi Auto Unionin ensimmäinen pääkonttori?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve Corporation is an American video game developer, publisher, and digital distribution company headquartered in Bellevue, Washington. It is the developer of the software distribution platform Steam and the franchises "Half-Life", "Counter-Strike", "Portal", "Day of Defeat", "Team Fortress", "Left 4 Dead" and "Dota".

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve released fewer games in 2010s, and experimented with hardware and virtual reality (VR). They entered the hardware market in 2015 with the Steam Machine, a line of gaming computers, which sold poorly, and released the HTC Vive and Valve Index VR headsets. They returned to the "Half-Life" series in 2020 with "," their flagship VR game. In 2022, Valve released the Steam Deck, a portable gaming system.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve uses a flat structure, whereby employees decide what to work on themselves. They develop games through playtesting and iteration, describing game design as a kind of experimental psychology. By 2012, Valve employed around 250 people and was reportedly worth over US$3 billion. Most of Valve's revenue comes from Steam, which controlled 50 to 70% of the market for downloaded PC games in 2011 and generated an estimated $3.4 billion in 2017.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In 2003, Valve moved to Bellevue, Washington, and reincorporated as Valve Corporation. In 2010, the office moved to a larger location in Bellevue. In 2016, Valve signed a nine-floor lease in the Lincoln Square complex in downtown Bellevue, doubling the size of their offices.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: After having taken years to develop "Half-Life 2", Valve moved to episodic development, planning to release shorter games more frequently. ', the first in a planned trilogy of episodic "Half-Life 2" sequels, was released in 2006. ' followed in 2007, alongside the multiplayer game "Team Fortress 2" and the puzzle game "Portal", developed from the student project Narbacular Drop.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In January 2008, Valve announced the acquisition of Turtle Rock Studios, which was renamed Valve South. Turtle Rock developed "Left 4 Dead" and "Left 4 Dead 2" while associated with Valve. Turtle Rock Studios later spun out of Valve again in March 2010.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: "Forbes" estimated that Valve had grossed $70 million in 2005. Screen Digest analyst Ed Barton estimated Valve's 2010 revenue to be in the "high hundreds of millions of dollars". As of 2011, Valve had an estimated worth of $2 to 4 billion and employed 250 people; according to Newell, this made it more profitable per employee than Google or Apple. Most of Valve's revenue comes from Steam, which controlled 50 to 70% of the market for downloaded PC games in 2011.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In December 2012, Valve acquired Star Filled Studios, a two-person studio, to open a San Francisco office. Valve ended the operation in August 2013 when they decided it had little benefit. At the 2013 D.I.C.E. Summit, Newell announced that he and film director J. J. Abrams were collaborating to produce a "Half-Life" or "Portal" film, as well as a possible game.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve released fewer games in the 2010s. Instead, it explored hardware. Newell intended to make Valve more like Nintendo, which develops games in tandem with hardware, allowing them to create innovative games such as "Super Mario 64". Valve initially focused on augmented reality, but in 2013 Newell laid off many staff to focus on virtual reality (VR). In 2015, Valve released the Steam Machine, a line of gaming computers, which sold poorly.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve announced the Source 2 engine in March 2015 and ported "Dota 2" to it that September. That year, Valve collaborated with the electronics company HTC to develop the HTC Vive, a VR headset released in 2016. Valve experimented with VR games, and in 2016 released "The Lab", a collection of VR minigames.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve recognized that many players wanted a more ambitious VR AAA game, and began exploring the development of a major VR game. They developed several prototypes, with three further VR projects under development by 2017. Finding that the portal systems of their puzzle series "Portal" were disorienting in VR, they settled on "Half-Life". Walker said that "Half-Life 3" had been a "terrifyingly daunting prospect", and the team saw VR as a way to return to the series.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Full development of a VR "Half-Life" game started around late 2016, with the largest team in Valve's history. Valve bought Impulsonic, a developer of 3D audio software, in January 2017 and integrated it into its Bellevue offices. In April 2018, Valve acquired the independent developer Campo Santo, known for the 2016 adventure game "Firewatch". Campo Santo planned to develop its own games under Valve, though they initially helped develop "Half-Life: Alyx".

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In November 2018, Valve released "Artifact", a digital collectible card game based on "Dota 2", with design by Richard Garfield, the creator of "". "Artifact" had unusual pay-for mechanics to acquire new cards, and did not draw a large playerbase, losing 95% of players months after release. In April 2021, Valve abandoned efforts to reboot the project, saying they had not found enough interested players to justify development.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In June 2019, Valve released its second-generation VR hardware, the Valve Index. In the same month, Valve released "Dota Underlords" into early access, an auto battler based on a "Dota 2" community-created mode "Dota Auto Chess".

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In March 2020, Valve released ', a VR game. It received acclaim and was described as VR's first killer app. Newell said in January 2021 that the success of "Alyx" created desire within the company to develop more games, and that several were under development. Valve collaborated with Netflix for ', an animated television series based on "Dota", to premiere in March 2021. In February 2022, Valve released the Steam Deck, a portable game system that runs on SteamOS.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Initially, Valve used a hierarchical structure more typical of other development firms, driven by the nature of physical game releases through publishers that required tasks to be completed by deadlines. However, as Valve became its own publisher via Steam, it found the hierarchal structure was hindering progress.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: After completing "Half-Life 2", Valve transitioned to a flat organization; outside of executive management, Valve does not have bosses, and uses an open allocation system. This approach allows employees to work on whatever interests them, but requires them to take ownership of their product and mistakes they may make, according to Newell. Newell recognized that this structure works well for some but that "there are plenty of great developers for whom this is a terrible place to work".

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Although Valve has no bosses, some employees hold more influence due to seniority or relationships. De facto project leads became "centralized conduits" for organization and sharing information, and decisions are made collectively. Valve uses an "Overwatch" process to gather feedback from senior members, which teams may use or ignore.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve is the main developer and publisher of the critically acclaimed single-player "Half-Life" and "Portal" games and the multiplayer games "Counter-Strike", "Team Fortress 2", "Dota 2", "Day of Defeat", and "Artifact". Valve also published the multiplayer game "Left 4 Dead" and developed and published "Left 4 Dead 2".

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Unreleased and canceled Valve games include numerous "Half-Life" projects and the fantasy role-playing game "Prospero". Valve worked with Arkane Studios on "The Crossing", which was canceled in May 2009.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Valve announced Steam, its digital distribution service, at the 2002 Game Developers Conference. It was launched in September 2003 and was first used to deliver patches and other updates to Valve's online games.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: On August 1, 2012, Valve announced revisions to the Steam Subscriber Agreement (SSA) to prohibit class action lawsuits by users against the service provider. By July 2014, there were over 3,400 games available on Steam, with over 150 million registered accounts by January 2018.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Alongside these changes to the SSA, the company also declared publicly the incorporation of Valve S.a.r.l., a subsidiary based in Luxembourg. Valve set up a physical office in Luxembourg Kirchberg. According to Valve's project manager Mike Dunkle, the location was chosen for eCommerce capabilities and infrastructure, talent acquisition, tax advantages and central geographic location – most major partners are accessible, 50% within driving distance.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Newell has been critical of the direction that Microsoft has taken with making Windows a closed architecture similar to Apple's products, and has stated that he believes that the changes made in Windows 8 are "a catastrophe for everyone in the [personal computer] space". Newell identified the open-source Linux platform as an ideal platform for Steam and said the only thing holding back its adoption is the lack of games.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Announced in July 2021, the Steam Deck is a hybrid game console similar to the Nintendo Switch. It is primarily a handheld device that supports playing of Steam games, but through a separate dock unit, the console can output to an external monitor and use external power, networking, and USB accessories connected to the dock. The hardware is based on customized AMD Zen 2 and RDNA 2 chipsets. The unit shipped in February 2022.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In November 2017, Microsoft added beta support for the SteamVR service for Windows Mixed Reality headsets. In June 2019, Valve released their own VR headset, known as the Index, positioned as a higher-end device with wider field of view and higher refresh rate. They were accompanied by updated motion controllers, which are strapped against the user's palms and have sensors for detecting input pressure and individual fingers.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: PowerPlay was a technological initiative headed by Valve and Cisco Systems to decrease the latency for online computer games. Gabe Newell, the managing director of Valve, announced the project in January 2000 and after 12 months the project was quietly abandoned.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In April 2009, Valve sued Activision Blizzard, which acquired Sierra Entertainment after a merger with its parent company, Vivendi Universal Games. Activision had allegedly refused to honor the "Valve v. Vivendi" arbitration agreement. Activision had only paid Valve $1,967,796 of the $2,391,932 award, refusing to pay the remaining $424,136, claiming it had overpaid that sum in the past years.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: The Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) announced it was taking action against Valve in 2014. On March 29, 2016, Valve was found guilty of breaching Australian consumer law because:

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: Consumer rights group UFC Que Choisir, based in France, filed a lawsuit against Valve in December 2015, claiming users should be able to resell their software. The High Court of Paris ruled in favor of UFC Que Choisir in September 2019, stating that Valve must allow the resale of Steam games. Valve stated it will appeal the decision.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Valve Corporation

Context: In 2016, a former employee filed a suit against Valve alleging poor working conditions and harassment. The jury ruled in favor of Valve in 2017.

Question: Minä vuonna Valve Corporation on perustettu?


Gujarati language

Context: Gujarati (also sometimes spelled "Gujerati", "Gujarathi", "Guzratee", "Guujaratee", "Gujrathi", and "Gujerathi") is a modern Indo-Aryan (IA) language evolved from Sanskrit. The traditional practice is to differentiate the IA languages on the basis of three historical stages:

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Another view postulates successive family tree splits, in which Gujarati is assumed to have separated from other IA languages in four stages:

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: A major phonological change was the deletion of final "ə", such that the modern language has consonant-final words. Grammatically, a new plural marker of -"o" developed. In literature, the third quarter of the 19th century saw a series of milestones for Gujarati, which previously had verse as its dominant mode of literary composition. In 1920s, the efforts to standardise Gujarati were carried out.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Mahatma Gandhi used Gujarati served as a medium of literary expression. He helped to inspire a renewal in its literature, and in 1936 he introduced the current spelling convention at the Gujarati Literary Society's 12th meeting.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Some Mauritians and many Réunion islanders are of Gujarati descent and some of them still speak Gujarati.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: A considerable Gujarati-speaking population exists in North America, especially in the New York City Metropolitan Area and in the Greater Toronto Area, which have over 100,000 speakers and over 75,000 speakers, respectively, but also throughout the major metropolitan areas of the United States and Canada. According to the 2016 census, Gujarati is the fourth most-spoken South Asian language in Toronto after Hindustani, Punjabi and Tamil.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Some Gujarati parents in the diaspora are not comfortable with the possibility that their children will not be fluent in the language. In a study, 80% of Malayali parents felt that "Children would be better off with English", compared to 36% of Kannada parents and only 19% of Gujarati parents.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Besides being spoken by the Gujarati people, many non-Gujarati residents of Gujarat also speak it, among them the Kutchis (as a literary language), the Parsis (adopted as a mother tongue), and Hindu Sindhi refugees from Pakistan.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Gujarati is one of the twenty-two official languages and fourteen regional languages of India, and one of the minority languages of neighboring Pakistan. It is officially recognised in the state of Gujarat and the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Gujarati is recognised and taught as a minority language in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Delhi.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: According to British historian and philologist William Tisdall, who was an early scholar of Gujarati grammar, three major varieties of Gujarati exist: a standard 'Hindu' dialect, a 'Parsi' dialect and a 'Muslim' dialect.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: However, Gujarati has undergone contemporary reclassification with respect to the widespread regional differences in vocabulary and phrasing; notwithstanding the number of poorly attested dialects and regional variations in naming.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Kutchi is often referred to as a dialect of Gujarati, but most linguists consider it closer to Sindhi. In addition, a mixture between Sindhi, Gujarati, and Kutchi called Memoni is related to Gujarati, albeit distantly.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Furthermore, words used by the native languages of areas where the Gujarati people have become a diaspora community, such as East Africa (Swahili), have become loanwords in local dialects of Gujarati.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Similar to other Nāgarī writing systems, the Gujarati script is an abugida. It is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. It is a variant of the Devanāgarī script, differentiated by the loss of the characteristic horizontal line running above the letters and by a small number of modifications in the remaining characters.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Gujarati and closely related languages, including Kutchi and Parkari Koli, can be written in the Arabic or Persian scripts. This is traditionally done by many in Gujarat's Kutch district.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo-Aryan: "tadbhav", "tatsam", and loanwords.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. પ્રસારણ "prasāraṇ" means "spreading", but now it is used for "broadcasting". In addition to this are neologisms, often being calques. An example is "telephone", which is Greek for "far talk", translated as દુરભાષ "durbhāṣ". Most people, though, just use ફોન "phon" and thus neo-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: So, while having unique "tadbhav" sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher "tatsam" pool. Also, "tatsam"s and their derived "tadbhav"s can also co-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Lastly, Persian, being part of the Indo-Iranian language family as Sanskrit and Gujarati are, met up in some instances with its cognates:

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: In matters of sound, English alveolar consonants map as retroflexes rather than dentals. Two new characters were created in Gujarati to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Gujarati-ization in sound vary. Some words do not go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. "See Indian English".

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: As English loanwards are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as "tatsam" words adhere to Sanskrit. That is not to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralised with Gujarati "o" over English "s". Also, with Gujarati having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: જગ પ્રસિદ્ધ દાંડી કૂચ પછી ગાંધીજીએ અહીં આંબાના વૃક્ષ નીચે ખજૂરી નાં છટિયાંની એક ઝૂંપડીમાં તા.૧૪-૪-૧૯૩૦ થી તા.૪-૫-૧૯૩૦ સુધી નિવાસ કર્યો હતો. દાંડીમાં છઠ્ઠી એપ્રિલે શરૂ કરેલી નિમક કાનૂન (મીઠાના સત્યાગ્રહ) ભંગની લડતને તેમણે અહીંથી વેગ આપી દેશ વ્યાપી બનાવી હતી. અહીંથી જ તેમણે ધરાસણાના મીઠાના અગરો તરફ કૂચ કરવાનો પોતાનો સંકલ્પ બ્રિટિશ વાઈસરૉયને પત્ર લખીને જણાવ્યો હતો.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: जग प्रसिद्ध दांडी कूच पछी गांधीजीए अहीं आंबाना वृक्ष नीचे खजूरीनां छटियांनी एक झूंपडीमां ता.१४-४-१९३०थी ता.४-५-१९३० सुधी निवास कर्यो हतो. दांडीमां छठ्ठी एप्रिले शरू करेली निमक कानून भंगनी लडतने तेमणे अहींथी वेग आपी देश व्यापी बनावी हती. अहींथीज तेमणे धरासणाना मीठाना अगरो तरफ कूच करवानो पोतानो संकल्प ब्रिटिश वाईसरॉयने पत्र लखीने जणाव्यो हतो.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: world famous dandi march after gandhiji here mango's tree under palm date's bark's one hut-in date.14-4-1930-from date.4-5-1930 until residence done was. dandi-in sixth April-at started done salt law break's fight (-to) he here-from speed gave country wide made was. "here"-from he dharasana's salt's mounds towards march doing's self's resolve British viceroy-to letter written-having notified was.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: date.4-from May 1930's night's twelve struck after this place-at-from British government his arrest done was.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: After the world-famous Dandi March Gandhiji resided here in a date palm bark hut underneath a/the mango tree, from 14-4-1930 to 4-5-1930. From here he gave speed to and spread country-wide the anti-Salt Law struggle, started in Dandi on 6 April. From "here", writing in a letter, he notified the British Viceroy of his resolve of marching towards the salt mounds of Dharasana.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: The British government arrested him at this location, after twelve o'clock on the night of 4 May 1930.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


Gujarati language

Context: Here under the mango tree in the hut made of palm leaves (khajoori) Gandhiji stayed from 14-4-1930 to 4-5-1930 after the world famous Dandi march. From here he gave impetus to the civil disobedience movement for breaking the salt act started on 6 April at Dandi and turned it into a nationwide movement. It was also from this place that he wrote a letter to the British viceroy expressing his firm resolve to march to the salt works at Dharasana.

Question: Montako puhujaa Gudžaratin kielellä on?


James Prescott Joule

Context: James Prescott Joule (; 24 December 1818 11 October 1889) was an English physicist, mathematician and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work (see energy). This led to the law of conservation of energy, which in turn led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named after him.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: He worked with Lord Kelvin to develop an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, which came to be called the Kelvin scale. Joule also made observations of magnetostriction, and he found the relationship between the current through a resistor and the heat dissipated, which is also called Joule's first law. His experiments about energy transformations were first published in 1843.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: James Joule was born in 1818, the son of Benjamin Joule (1784–1858), a wealthy brewer, and his wife, Alice Prescott, on New Bailey Street in Salford. Joule was tutored as a young man by the famous scientist John Dalton and was strongly influenced by chemist William Henry and Manchester engineers Peter Ewart and Eaton Hodgkinson. He was fascinated by electricity, and he and his brother experimented by giving electric shocks to each other and to the family's servants.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: As an adult, Joule managed the brewery. Science was merely a serious hobby. Sometime around 1840, he started to investigate the feasibility of replacing the brewery's steam engines with the newly invented electric motor. His first scientific papers on the subject were contributed to William Sturgeon's "Annals of Electricity". Joule was a member of the London Electrical Society, established by Sturgeon and others.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Further experiments and measurements with his electric motor led Joule to estimate the "mechanical equivalent of heat" as 4.1868 joules per calorie of work to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one Kelvin. He announced his results at a meeting of the chemical section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Cork in August 1843 and was met by silence.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Joule was undaunted and started to seek a purely mechanical demonstration of the conversion of work into heat. By forcing water through a perforated cylinder, he could measure the slight viscous heating of the fluid. He obtained a mechanical equivalent of . The fact that the values obtained both by electrical and purely mechanical means were in agreement to at least one order of magnitude was, to Joule, compelling evidence of the reality of the convertibility of work into heat.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Joule here adopts the language of "vis viva" (energy), possibly because Hodgkinson had read a review of Ewart's "On the measure of moving force" to the Literary and Philosophical Society in April 1844.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: In June 1845, Joule read his paper "On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat" to the British Association meeting in Cambridge. In this work, he reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling weight, in which gravity does the mechanical work, to spin a paddle wheel in an insulated barrel of water which increased the temperature. He now estimated a mechanical equivalent of . He wrote a letter to the Philosophical Magazine, published in September 1845 describing his experiment.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Joule was proposing a kinetic theory of heat (he believed it to be a form of rotational, rather than translational, kinetic energy), and this required a conceptual leap: if heat was a form of molecular motion, why didn't the motion of the molecules gradually die out? Joule's ideas required one to believe that the collisions of molecules were perfectly elastic. Importantly, the very existence of atoms and molecules was not widely accepted for another 50 years.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Although it may be hard today to understand the allure of the caloric theory, at the time it seemed to have some clear advantages. Carnot's successful theory of heat engines had also been based on the caloric assumption, and only later was it proved by Lord Kelvin that Carnot's mathematics were equally valid without assuming a caloric fluid.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: However, in Germany, Hermann Helmholtz became aware both of Joule's work and the similar 1842 work of Julius Robert von Mayer. Though both men had been neglected since their respective publications, Helmholtz's definitive 1847 declaration of the conservation of energy credited them both.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Also in 1847, another of Joule's presentations at the British Association in Oxford was attended by George Gabriel Stokes, Michael Faraday, and the precocious and maverick William Thomson, later to become Lord Kelvin, who had just been appointed professor of natural philosophy at the University of Glasgow. Stokes was "inclined to be a Joulite" and Faraday was "much struck with it" though he harboured doubts. Thomson was intrigued but sceptical.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Unanticipated, Thomson and Joule met later that year in Chamonix. Joule married Amelia Grimes on 18 August and the couple went on honeymoon. Marital enthusiasm notwithstanding, Joule and Thomson arranged to attempt an experiment a few days later to measure the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the Cascade de Sallanches waterfall, though this subsequently proved impractical.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: As soon as Joule read the paper he wrote to Thomson with his comments and questions. Thus began a fruitful, though largely epistolary, collaboration between the two men, Joule conducting experiments, Thomson analysing the results and suggesting further experiments. The collaboration lasted from 1852 to 1856, its discoveries including the Joule–Thomson effect, and the published results did much to bring about general acceptance of Joule's work and the kinetic theory.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Kinetics is the science of motion. Joule was a pupil of Dalton and it is no surprise that he had learned a firm belief in the atomic theory, even though there were many scientists of his time who were still skeptical. He had also been one of the few people receptive to the neglected work of John Herapath on the kinetic theory of gases. He was further profoundly influenced by Peter Ewart's 1813 paper "On the measure of moving force".

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Joule perceived the relationship between his discoveries and the kinetic theory of heat. His laboratory notebooks reveal that he believed heat to be a form of rotational, rather than translational motion.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: Joule has been attributed with explaining the sunset green flash phenomenon in a letter to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1869; actually, he merely noted (with a sketch) the last glimpse as bluish green, without attempting to explain the cause of the phenomenon.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: There is a memorial to Joule in the north choir aisle of Westminster Abbey, though he is not buried there, contrary to what some biographies state. A statue of Joule by Alfred Gilbert stands in Manchester Town Hall, opposite that of Dalton.

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


James Prescott Joule

Context: In 1847, Joule married Amelia Grimes. Joule became a widower when she died in 1854, 7 years after their wedding. They had three children together: a son, Benjamin Arthur Joule (1850–1922), a daughter, Alice Amelia (1852–1899) and a second son, Joe (born 1854, who died three weeks later).

Question: Missä James Prescott Joule kuoli?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: In its most basic form, phenomenology attempts to create conditions for the objective study of topics usually regarded as subjective: consciousness and the content of conscious experiences such as judgements, perceptions, and emotions. Although phenomenology seeks to be scientific, it does not attempt to study consciousness from the perspective of clinical psychology or neurology. Instead, it seeks through systematic reflection to determine the essential properties and structures of experience.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Phenomenology has at least three main meanings in philosophical history: one in the writings of G. W. F. Hegel, another in the writings of Edmund Husserl in 1920, and thirdly, succeeding Husserl's work, in the writings of his former research assistant Martin Heidegger in 1927.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Although the term "phenomenology" was used occasionally in the history of philosophy before Husserl, modern use ties it more explicitly to his particular method. Following is a list of important thinkers, in rough chronological order, who used the term "phenomenology" in a variety of ways, with brief comments on their contributions:

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Later usage is mostly based on or (critically) related to Husserl's introduction and use of the term. This branch of philosophy differs from others in that it tends to be more "descriptive" than "prescriptive".

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: The "Encyclopedia of Phenomenology" (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997) features separate articles on the following seven types of phenomenology:

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: The contrast between "constitutive phenomenology" (; also static phenomenology (') or descriptive phenomenology (')) and "genetic phenomenology" ('; also phenomenology of genesis (')) is due to Husserl.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: The term "intentionality" originated with the Scholastics in the medieval period and was resurrected by Brentano who in turn influenced Husserl's conception of phenomenology, who refined the term and made it the cornerstone of his theory of consciousness. The meaning of the term is complex and depends entirely on how it is conceived by a given philosopher. The term should not be confused with "intention" or the psychoanalytic conception of unconscious "motive" or "gain".

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: In the experience of intersubjectivity, one also experiences oneself as being a subject among other subjects, and one experiences oneself as existing objectively "for" these Others; one experiences oneself as the noema of Others' noeses, or as a subject in another's empathic experience. As such, one experiences oneself as objectively existing subjectivity. Intersubjectivity is also a part in the constitution of one's lifeworld, especially as "homeworld."

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: The lifeworld (German: "Lebenswelt") is the "world" each one of us "lives" in. One could call it the "background" or "horizon" of all experience, and it is that on which each object stands out as itself (as different) and with the meaning it can only hold for us. The lifeworld is both personal and intersubjective (it is then called a "homeworld"), and, as such, it does not enclose each one of us in a solus ipse.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: In 1913, some years after the publication of the "Logical Investigations", Husserl published "", a work which introduced some key elaborations that led him to the distinction between the act of consciousness ("noesis") and the phenomena at which it is directed (the "noemata").

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: What we observe is not the object as it is in itself, but how and inasmuch it is given in the intentional acts. Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world and the inessential (subjective) aspects of how the object is concretely given to us. This procedure Husserl called epoché.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Husserl concentrated more on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. As he wanted to exclude any hypothesis on the existence of external objects, he introduced the method of phenomenological reduction to eliminate them. What was left over was the pure transcendental ego, as opposed to the concrete empirical ego.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Transcendental phenomenology is the study of the essential structures that are left in pure consciousness: this amounts in practice to the study of the noemata and the relations among them.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: The philosopher Theodor Adorno criticised Husserl's concept of phenomenological epistemology in his metacritique "Against Epistemology", which is anti-foundationalist in its stance

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: After Husserl's publication of the "Ideas" in 1913, many phenomenologists took a critical stance towards his new theories. Especially the members of the Munich group distanced themselves from his new transcendental phenomenology and preferred the earlier realist phenomenology of the first edition of the "Logical Investigations".

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Realist phenomenologists include Edith Stein, Adolf Reinach, Alexander Pfänder, , Max Scheler, Roman Ingarden, Nicolai Hartmann, and Dietrich von Hildebrand.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: While Husserl thought of philosophy as a scientific discipline that had to be founded on a phenomenology understood as epistemology, Martin Heidegger held a radically different view. Heidegger himself states their differences this way:

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: According to Heidegger, philosophy was not at all a scientific discipline, but more fundamental than science itself. According to him science is only one way of knowing the world with no special access to truth. Furthermore, the scientific mindset itself is built on a much more "primordial" foundation of practical, everyday knowledge. Husserl was skeptical of this approach, which he regarded as quasi-mystical, and it contributed to the divergence in their thinking.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: While for Husserl, in the epoché, being appeared only as a correlate of consciousness, for Heidegger being is the starting point. While for Husserl we would have to abstract from all concrete determinations of our empirical ego, to be able to turn to the field of pure consciousness, Heidegger claims that "the possibilities and destinies of philosophy are bound up with man's existence, and thus with temporality and with historicality."

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Existential phenomenologists include: Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), Karl Jaspers (1883–1969), Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995), Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), Paul Ricoeur (1913–2005) and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961).

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: The phenomenological analysis of objects is notably different from traditional science. However, several frameworks do phenomenology with an empirical orientation or aim to unite it with the natural sciences or with cognitive science.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Notwithstanding, the scope of phenomenology is gravely restricted by bracketing. Phenomenology's aim is to study experience itself avoiding any evolutionary or causal explanations thereof. Husserl himself spoke strongly against the naturalization of phenomenology to fight the reduction of consciousness to psychology.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: James Moor has argued that computers show up policy vacuums that require new thinking and the establishment of new policies. Others have argued that the resources provided by classical ethical theory such as utilitarianism, consequentialism and deontological ethics is more than enough to deal with all the ethical issues emerging from our design and use of information technology.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: For Heidegger the essence of technology is the way of being of modern humans—a way of conducting themselves towards the world—that sees the world as something to be ordered and shaped in line with projects, intentions and desires—a 'will to power' that manifests itself as a 'will to technology'.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: Heidegger claims that there were other times in human history, a pre-modern time, where humans did not orient themselves towards the world in a technological way—simply as resources for our purposes.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Phenomenology (philosophy)

Context: What Dreyfus highlighted in his critique of AI was the fact that technology (AI algorithms) does not make sense by itself. It is the assumed, and forgotten, horizon of everyday practice that makes technological devices and solutions show up as meaningful. If we are to understand technology we need to 'return' to the horizon of meaning that made it show up as the artifacts we need, want and desire. We need to consider how these technologies reveal (or disclose) us.

Question: Mistä fenomenologia on saanut alkunsa?


Brunei

Context: The earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei is by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. On his documentation back to 1550;

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The local Brunei accounts of the Castilian War differ greatly from the generally accepted view of events. What was called the Castilian War was seen as a heroic episode, with the Spaniards being driven out by Bendahara Sakam, purportedly a brother of the ruling sultan, and a thousand native warriors. Most historians consider this to be a folk-hero account, which probably developed decades or centuries after.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The British have intervened in the affairs of Brunei on several occasions. Britain attacked Brunei in July 1846 due to internal conflicts over who was the rightful Sultan.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: In the 1880s, the decline of the Bruneian Empire continued. The sultan granted land (now Sarawak) to James Brooke, who had helped him quell a rebellion, and allowed him to establish the Raj of Sarawak. Over time, Brooke and his nephews (who succeeded him) leased or annexed more land. Brunei lost much of its territory to him and his dynasty, known as the White Rajahs.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: British residents were introduced in Brunei under the Supplementary Protectorate Agreement in 1906. The residents were to advise the sultan on all matters of administration. Over time, the resident assumed more executive control than the sultan. The residential system ended in 1959.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The Japanese invaded Brunei on 16 December 1941, eight days after their attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States Navy. They landed 10,000 troops of the Kawaguchi Detachment from Cam Ranh Bay at Kuala Belait. After six days' fighting, they occupied the entire country. The only Allied troops in the area were the 2nd Battalion of the 15th Punjab Regiment based at Kuching, Sarawak.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: During the occupation, the Japanese had their language taught in schools, and Government officers were required to learn Japanese. The local currency was replaced by what was to become known as "duit pisang" (banana money). From 1943 hyper-inflation destroyed the currency's value and, at the end of the war, this currency was worthless. Allied attacks on shipping eventually caused trade to cease. Food and medicine fell into short supply, and the population had famine and disease.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The airport runway was constructed by the Japanese during the occupation, and in 1943 Japanese naval units were based in Brunei Bay and Labuan. The naval base was destroyed by Allied bombing, but the airport runway survived. The facility was developed as a public airport. In 1944 the Allies began a bombing campaign against the occupying Japanese, which destroyed much of the town and Kuala Belait, but missed Kampong Ayer.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: In 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defence remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom. A small rebellion erupted against the monarchy in 1962, which was suppressed with help of the UK. Known as the Brunei Revolt, it contributed to the failure to create the North Borneo Federation. The rebellion partially affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the Malaysian Federation.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: On 29 September 1959, the Constitution Agreement was signed in Brunei Town. The agreement was signed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Sir Robert Scott, the Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: A series of National Development Plans was initiated by the 28th Sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddien III.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The first was introduced in 1953. A total sum of B$100 million was approved by the Brunei State Council for the plan. E.R. Bevington, from the Colonial Office in Fiji, was appointed to implement it. A US$14 million Gas Plant was built under the plan. In 1954, survey and exploration work were undertaken by the Brunei Shell Petroleum on both offshore and onshore fields. By 1956, production reached 114,700 bpd.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The plan also aided the development of public education. By 1958, expenditure on education totalled at $4 million. Communications were improved, as new roads were built and reconstruction at Berakas Airport was completed in 1954.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: On 14 November 1971, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah left for London to discuss matters regarding the amendments to the 1959 constitution. A new agreement was signed on 23 November 1971 with the British representative being Anthony Royle.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei is a southeast Asian country consisting of two unconnected parts with a total area of on the island of Borneo. It has of coastline next to the South China Sea, and it shares a border with Malaysia. It has of territorial waters, and a exclusive economic zone.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Most of Brunei is within the Borneo lowland rain forests ecoregion, which covers most of the island. Areas of mountain rain forests are located inland.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: The climate of Brunei is tropical equatorial that is a Tropical rainforest climate more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than the trade winds and with no or rare cyclones. Brunei is exposed to the risks stemming from climate change along with other ASEAN member states.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei's political system is governed by the constitution and the national tradition of the Malay Islamic Monarchy ("Melayu Islam Beraja"; MIB). The three components of MIB cover Malay culture, Islamic religion, and the political framework under the monarchy. It has a legal system based on English common law, although Islamic law ("shariah") supersedes this in some cases. Brunei has a parliament but there are no elections; the last election was held in 1962.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, His Majesty Hassanal Bolkiah is the head of state with full executive authority. Since 1962, this authority has included emergency powers, which are renewed every two years. Brunei has technically been under martial law since the Brunei Revolt of 1962. Hassanal Bolkiah also serves as the state's prime minister, finance minister and defence minister.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Until 1979, Brunei's foreign relations were managed by the UK government. After that, they were handled by the Brunei Diplomatic Service. After independence in 1984, this Service was upgraded to ministerial level and is now known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: As an Islamic country, Brunei became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in January 1984 at the Fourth Islamic Summit held in Morocco.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: After its accession to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989, Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000 and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 2002. Brunei became a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 1 January 1995, and is a major player in BIMP-EAGA, which was formed during the Inaugural Ministers' Meeting in Davao, Philippines, on 24 March 1994.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei shares a close relationship with Singapore and the Philippines. In April 2009, Brunei and the Philippines signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that seeks to strengthen the bilateral co-operation of the two countries in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei is one of many nations to lay claim to some of the disputed Spratly Islands. The status of Limbang as part of Sarawak has been disputed by Brunei since the area was first annexed in 1890. The issue was reportedly settled in 2009, with Brunei agreeing to accept the border in exchange for Malaysia giving up claims to oil fields in Bruneian waters. The Brunei government denies this and says that their claim on Limbang was never dropped.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei maintains three infantry battalions stationed around the country. The Brunei navy has several "Ijtihad"-class patrol boats purchased from a German manufacturer. The United Kingdom also maintains a base in Seria, the centre of the oil industry in Brunei. A Gurkha battalion consisting of 1,500 personnel is stationed there. United Kingdom military personnel are stationed there under a defence agreement signed between the two countries.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: A Bell 212 operated by the air force crashed in Kuala Belait on 20 July 2012 with the loss of 12 of the 14 crew on board. The cause of the accident has yet to be ascertained. The crash is the worst aviation incident in the history of Brunei.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei's Legislative Council proposed an increase of the defence budget for the 2016–17 fiscal year of about five percent to 564 million Brunei dollars ($408 million). This amounts to about ten per cent of the state's total national yearly expenditure and represents around 2.5 per cent of GDP.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei is divided into four districts (), namely Brunei-Muara, Belait, Tutong and Temburong. Brunei-Muara District is the smallest yet the most populous, and home to the country's capital Bandar Seri Begawan. Belait is the birthplace and centre for the country's oil and gas industry. Temburong is an exclave and separated from the rest of the country by the Brunei Bay and Malaysian state of Sarawak. Tutong is home to Tasek Merimbun, the country's largest natural lake.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Each district is divided into several mukims. Altogether there are 39 mukims in Brunei. Each mukim encompasses several villages ( or ).

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Bandar Seri Begawan and towns in the country (except Muara and Bangar) are administered as Municipal Board areas (). Each municipal area may constitute villages or mukims, partially or as a whole. Bandar Seri Begawan and a few of the towns also function as capitals of the districts where they are located.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: A district and its constituent mukims and villages are administered by a District Office (). Meanwhile, municipal areas are governed by Municipal Departments (). Both District Offices and Municipal Departments are government departments under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei has numerous courts in its judicial branch. The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Court of Appeal and High Court. Both of these have a chief justice and two judges.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Bruneian citizenship is derived through parents' nationality rather than "jus soli". Parents with stateless status are required to apply for a special pass for a child born in the country. Failure to register a child may make it difficult to enroll the child in school.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Male and female homosexuality is illegal in Brunei. Sexual relations between men are punishable by death or whipping; sex between women is punishable by caning or imprisonment.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: In May 2019, the Brunei government extended its existing moratorium on the death penalty to the Sharia criminal code as well that made homosexual acts punishable with death by stoning.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: In The Laws of Brunei, the right of non-Muslims to practice their faith is guaranteed by the 1959 Constitution. However, celebrations and prayers must be confined to places of worship and private residences. Upon adopting Sharia Penal Code, the Ministry of Religious Affairs banned Christmas decorations in public places, but did not forbid celebration of Christmas in places of worship and private premises.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: On 25 December 2015, 4,000 out of 18,000 estimated local Catholics attended the mass of Christmas Day and Christmas Eve. In 2015, the then-head of the Catholic Church in Brunei told "The Brunei Times", "To be quite honest there has been no change for us this year; no new restrictions have been laid down, although we fully respect and adhere to the existing regulations that our celebrations and worship be [confined] to the compounds of the church and private residences".

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Brunei has retained most of its forests, compared to its neighbours that share Borneo island. There is a public campaign calling to protect pangolins which are considered a threatened treasure in Brunei.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?


Brunei

Context: Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. Most of these investments are made by the Brunei Investment Agency, an arm of the Ministry of Finance. The government provides for all medical services, and subsidises rice and housing.

Question: Milloin Brunei sai itsenäisyytensä siirtomaan ajan jälkeen?