Nicholas II of Russia

Context: The British Royal Family was represented at the funeral by Prince Michael of Kent, and more than twenty ambassadors to Russia, including Sir Andrew Wood, Archbishop John Bukovsky, and , were also in attendance.

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: In 1981, Nicholas and his immediate family were recognised as martyred saints by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia. On 14 August 2000, they were recognised by the synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. This time they were not named as martyrs, since their deaths did not result immediately from their Christian faith; instead, they were canonized as passion bearers. According to a statement by the Moscow synod, they were glorified as saints for the following reasons:

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: However, Nicholas' canonization was controversial. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad was split on the issue back in 1981, some members suggesting that the emperor was a weak ruler and had failed to thwart the rise of the Bolsheviks. It was pointed out by one priest that martyrdom in the Russian Orthodox Church has nothing to do with the martyr's personal actions but is instead related to why he or she was killed.

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: Despite the original opposition, the Russian Orthodox Church inside Russia ultimately recognised the family as "passion bearers", or people who met their deaths with Christian humility. Since the late 20th century, believers have attributed healing from illnesses or conversion to the Orthodox Church to their prayers to the children of Nicholas, Maria and Alexei, as well as to the rest of the family.

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: Contemporary evaluations of Nicholas portrayed him as a well-meaning but indecisive leader, whose actions as monarch were heavily influenced by his advisors. Historian Raymond Esthus states:

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: Historian Robert K. Massie provides a similar indictment of his incompetence, although he emphasises Nicholas' personal morality, describing him as a tragic figure:

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, present-day Russian historians give Nicholas a more positive assessment, particularly when evaluating the reforms made by the Russian state during his reign.

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Nicholas II of Russia

Context: He was Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Scots Greys from 1894 until his death. On becoming Colonel-in-Chief he presented the Regiment with a white bearskin, now worn by the bass drummer of the Pipes and Drums of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards. The Imperial Russian anthem is still played at dinner nights in the Officers' Mess, where there remains a portrait of the Tsar in Scots Greys uniform. Since his death, the Regiment has worn a black backing behind its cap badge as a symbol of mourning.

Question: من هو آخر الآباطرة الروس؟


Fajr prayer

Context: The Fajr prayer ( "", "dawn prayer") is one of the five mandatory salah (Islamic prayer), to be performed anytime starting from the moment of dawn, but not after sunrise. As an Islamic day starts at sunset, the Fajr prayer is technically the third prayer of the day. If counted from midnight, it is usually the first prayer of the day. The Isha prayer, the daily prayer directly before the Fajr prayer, usually does not take place after midnight (depending on location).

Question: هل صلاة الفجر سنة أم فرض على العبد ؟


Fajr prayer

Context: The Fajr prayer is mentioned by name in the Quran at sura 24 (An-Nur) ayah. Inspired by the tafsir of the two hadiths that were transmitted on behalf of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the worth of the Fajr daily prayer is explained as being God's most-favoured prayer since others are asleep.

Question: هل صلاة الفجر سنة أم فرض على العبد ؟


Fajr prayer

Context: The five daily prayers collectively are one pillar of the Five Pillars of Islam, in Sunni Islam, and one of the ten Practices of the Religion ("Furū al-Dīn") according to Shia Islam.

Question: هل صلاة الفجر سنة أم فرض على العبد ؟


Fajr prayer

Context: The Fajr prayer consists of two "rakat" (prescribed movements). In a congregation, the leader of the prayer ("imam") recites aloud. However, two "sunnah" rakaʿāt prior to the two Fard rakaʿāt are highly recommended, and named Fajr nafl prayer ().

Question: هل صلاة الفجر سنة أم فرض على العبد ؟


Fajr prayer

Context: The time period within which the Fajr daily prayer must be offered (with loud recitation of the quran) is from the beginning of dawn to sunrise.

Question: هل صلاة الفجر سنة أم فرض على العبد ؟


Fajr prayer

Context: The following quotations regarding Fajr, the Islamic dawn prayer, are from books of Sunni hadith. These books relate accounts taken from the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, his family, and his companions. They were compiled by Islamic scholars after Muhammad's death. These quotations include information about those who related the accounts, as well as the accounts themselves.

Question: هل صلاة الفجر سنة أم فرض على العبد ؟


Gospel of Luke

Context: Codex Bezae shows comprehensively the differences between the versions which show no core theological significance.

Question: ما هو أطول الأناجيل الأربعة ؟


Gospel of Luke

Context: Following the author's preface addressed to his patron and the two birth narratives (John the Baptist and Jesus), the gospel opens in Galilee and moves gradually to its climax in Jerusalem:

Question: ما هو أطول الأناجيل الأربعة ؟


Gospel of Luke

Context: The structure of Acts parallels the structure of the gospel, demonstrating the universality of the divine plan and the shift of authority from Jerusalem to Rome:

Question: ما هو أطول الأناجيل الأربعة ؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT (formerly Russia Today or Rossiya Segodnya ()) is a Russian state-controlled international television network funded by the Russian government. It operates pay television or free-to-air channels directed to audiences outside of Russia, as well as providing Internet content in Russian, English, Spanish, French, German and Arabic.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT has regularly been described as a major propaganda outlet for the Russian government and its foreign policy. Academics, fact-checkers, and news reporters (including some current and former RT reporters) have identified RT as a purveyor of disinformation and conspiracy theories. UK media regulator Ofcom has repeatedly found RT to have breached its rules on impartiality, including multiple instances in which RT broadcast "materially misleading" content.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In 2012, RT's editor-in-chief Margarita Simonyan compared the channel to the Russian Ministry of Defence. Referring to the Russo-Georgian War, she stated that it was "waging an information war, and with the entire Western world". In September 2017, RT America was ordered to register as a foreign agent with the United States Department of Justice under the Foreign Agents Registration Act.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT launched several new channels in ensuing years: the Arabic language channel Rusiya Al-Yaum in 2007, the Spanish language channel RT Actualidad in 2009, RT America – which focuses on the United States – in 2010, and the RT Documentary channel in 2011.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In August 2007, Russia Today became the first television channel to report live from the North Pole (with the report lasting five minutes and 41 seconds). An RT crew participated in the Arktika 2007 Russian polar expedition, led by Artur Chilingarov on the "Akademik Fyodorov" icebreaker. On 31 December 2007, RT's broadcasts of New Year's Eve celebrations in Moscow and Saint Petersburg were broadcast in the hours prior to the New Year's Eve event at New York City's Times Square.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Russia Today drew particular attention worldwide for its coverage of the 2008 South Ossetia war. RT named Georgia as the aggressor against the separatist governments of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, which were protected by Russian troops. RT saw this as the incident that showcased its newsgathering abilities to the world. Margarita Simonyan stated: "we were the only ones among the English-language media who were giving the other side of the story – the South Ossetian side of the story".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In 2009, Russia Today was rebranded to "RT", which George Washington University academics Jack Nassetta and Kimberly Gross described as an "[attempt] to shed state affiliation". Simonyan said the company had not changed names but the company's corporate logo was changed to attract more viewers: "who is interested in watching news from Russia all day long?"

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Julia Ioffe also describes 2009, when the Barack Obama administration came to office "promising a different approach toward Russia", as a time when RT became "more international and less anti-American", and "built a state-of-the-art studio and newsroom" in the U.S. capital

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: On 23 October 2012, RT, along with Al Jazeera and C-SPAN, broadcast the Free and Equal Elections Foundation third-party debate among four third-party candidates for President of the United States. On 5 November, RT broadcast the two candidates that were voted winners of that debate, Libertarian Party candidate Governor Gary Johnson and Green Party candidate Jill Stein, from RT's Washington, D.C. studio.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In May 2013, RT announced that former CNN host Larry King would host a new talk show on RT. King said in an advertisement on RT: "I would rather ask questions to people in positions of power, instead of speaking on their behalf." As part of the deal, King would also bring his Hulu series "Larry King Now" to RT. On 13 June 2013, RT aired a preview telecast of King's new Thursday evening program "Politicking", with the episode discussing Edward Snowden's leaking of the PRISM surveillance program.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In early October 2014, RT announced the launch of a dedicated news channel, RT UK, aimed at British audiences. The new channel began operating on 30 October 2014.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In October 2016, the NatWest bank stated that they will no longer provide banking services to RT in the UK without providing any reasons. This decision was criticised by Margarita Simonyan, the editor-in-chief of RT, and the Russia Government. Simonyan sarcastically tweeted that: "Long live freedom of speech!" However, NatWest reversed its decision in January 2017, said it had reached a resolution with RT. Simonyan said the decision showed that "common sense has prevailed".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In February 2021, Matt Field from the "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" reported that RT had created an account on Gab, a social network known for its far-right userbase, right before the start of former U.S. President Donald Trump's second impeachment trial. Field commented that RT had posted several articles on its Gab account, including one criticizing The Lincoln Project, an organization run by anti-Trump Republicans.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Not all branches of RT have suffered declines since the war started. Interactions with the Arabic-language Facebook page "RT Online" grew 161.2% from Feb. 28 to mid-March, "RT Play in Español" went up a 22.5%.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In December 2012, RT moved its production studios and headquarters to a new facility in Moscow. The move coincided with RT's upgrade of all of its English-language news programming to high-definition.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In 2013, a presidential decree issued by Vladimir Putin dissolved RIA Novosti, replacing it with a new information agency called Rossiya Segodnya (directly translated as "Russia Today"). On 31 December 2013, Margarita Simonyan, editor-in-chief of the RT news channel, was also appointed editor-in-chief of the new news agency while maintaining her duties for the television network.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: From 18 August 2020 to 18 August 2021, ANO TV Novosti was owned by the federal state unitary enterprise RAMI RIA Novosti () and the Association for the Development of International Journalism (ADIJ; ), which was founded by Margarita Simonyan and few other RT associates. On 18 August 2021, RAMI RIA Novosti was liquidated and the ownership of ANO TV Novosti was transferred to ADIJ.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: According to RT as of March 2022, the network's feed is carried by 22 satellites and over 230 operators, providing a distribution reach to about 700 million households in more than 100 countries. RT also stated that RT America was available to 85 million households throughout the United States, as of 2012.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In addition to its main English language channel RT International, RT UK and RT America, RT also runs Arabic-language channel Rusiya Al-Yaum, Spanish language channel Actualidad RT, as well as the RTDoc documentary channel. RT maintains 21 bureaus in 16 countries, including those in Washington, D.C., New York City; London, England; Paris, France; Delhi, India; Cairo, Egypt and Baghdad, Iraq.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: The sharp decline in the ruble at the end of 2014 forced RT to postpone German- and French-language channels.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In addition to news agency Ruptly, RT also operates the following websites: "RT на русском" (in Russian), "RT en français" (French), RT DE (German).

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In 2015, RT's YouTube news channels were: RT (the main channel), RT America, RT Arabic, RT en Español, RT Deutsch, RT French, RT UK, RT на русском and the newly launched RT Chinese.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: The German service (RT DE) was removed from YouTube in September 2021 for breaking the websites rules on COVID misinformation. As noted by Russian journalists, Russian RT edition "aggressively" promoted COVID-19 vaccination in Russia, resorting to calling anti-vaccination activists "imbeciles", while at the same time foreign RT channels are promoting the same anti-vaccination misinformation that it criticizes in Russia.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: A study by Professor Robert Orttung at George Washington University stated that RT uses human interest stories without ideological content to attract viewers to its channels. Between January and May 2015, the Russian-language channel had the most viewers, with approximately double the number of the main channel, despite only having around one-third the number of subscribers.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: According to data compiled by Oxford's Rasmus Kleis Nielsen prior to the invasion of Ukraine, RT's "online reach in the U.K., France, and Germany" was "not great on the web, but surprisingly strong on social media, at least in spots". For example, in Germany, RT was "the No. 1 news source in terms of engagements on Facebook" December 2021-January 2022, (according to this CrowdTangle data).

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Reliable figures for RT's worldwide audience were not available as of 2015. In the United States, RT typically pays cable and satellite services to carry its channel in subscriber packages. In 2011, RT was the second most-watched foreign news channel in the United States (after BBC World News), and the number one foreign network in five major U.S. urban areas in 2012. It also rated well among younger Americans under 35 and in inner city areas.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Latin America is the second most significant area of influence for internet RT (rt.com). In 2013, RT ascended to the ranks of the 100 most watched websites in seven Latin American countries.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: A Pew Research survey of the most popular news videos on YouTube in 2011–12 found RT to be the top source with 8.5 percent of posts, 68 percent of which consisted of first-person video accounts of dramatic worldwide events, likely acquired by the network rather than created by it. In 2013, RT became the first television news channel to reach 1 billion views on YouTube. In 2014, its main (English) channel was reported have 1.4 million subscribers.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: As of shortly after the invasion of Ukraine and blocking of RT by tech companies, RT's "main Facebook channel has more than 7 million followers" (some of which are located in Europe where the channel is blocked). RT's YouTube account had "roughly 4.65 million followers in English and 5.94 million in Spanish".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: According to Tim Dowling, writing in "The Guardian", "Fringe opinion takes center stage" on RT. "Reporting is routinely bolstered by testimony from experts you have never heard of, representing institutions you have never heard of."

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In 2017, RT ran a mock live tweeting program under the hashtag "#1917LIVE" to mark the 100th anniversary of the Russian Revolution.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: The #1917Live project had multimedia social plug-ins, such as Periscope live streaming, as well as virtual reality panoramic videos.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT's current on-air staff includes 25 people from RT News, and 8 from RT UK. Notable members of RT's current and former staff include:

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT has presented itself as a global network "like the BBC or France 24", differing from them in offering “alternative views” ignored by the "Western-dominated news media". Many Western countries, in contrast, regard RT not just as a propaganda organ, but as "the slickly produced heart of a broad, often covert disinformation campaign designed to sow doubt about democratic institutions and destabilize the West".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: According to Steven Erlanger, RT provides "hard news and top-notch graphics" and a "mix with interviews from all sorts of people: well known and obscure, left and right. ... if there is any unifying character to RT, it is a deep skepticism of Western and American narratives of the world and a fundamental defensiveness about Russia and Mr. Putin."

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT's editor-in-chief, Margarita Simonyan, has described RT as giving Russia "soft power", and being the same kind of "tool" for Russia that the "BBC or CNN" are "for the UK and USA". In 2012, she stated that RT waged "an information war ... with the entire Western world" during the Russo-Georgian War.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Observers have criticized the state-supported/controlled nature of RT as an instrument of propaganda.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Others have commended its promotion and discussion of issues ignored or just not given enough time by the mainstream news media. In "E-International Relations", researcher Precious N Chatterje-Doody stated that RT viewers tend to recognize RT's state-controlled status, and that they choose to watch RT for its "non-mainstream" story selection and its use of technology. She asserted that if RT broadcast only "blatant propaganda", it would not retain its audience.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT America has described journalists as "Russiagate conspiracy theorists" for covering Special Counsel Robert Mueller's report on Russian interference in the 2016 election.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Russian journalist, former press secretary of the head of the UN Mission in South Africa, Yuri Sigov, wrote that when covering Canada, Russia Today presents information selectively. This is almost always negative information aimed at fulfilling political orders.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: A 2013 article in "Der Spiegel" said that RT "uses a chaotic mixture of conspiracy theories and crude propaganda", pointing to a program that "mutated" the Boston Marathon bombing into a U.S. government conspiracy.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: The launch of RT UK was the subject of much comment in the British press in late 2014. In "The Observer", Nick Cohen accused the channel of consciously spreading conspiracy theories and of being a "prostitution of journalism". London "Times" columnist, Oliver Kamm called on British broadcasting regulator Ofcom to act against this "den of deceivers".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Journalists at "The Daily Beast" and "The Washington Post" have observed that RT employs Tony Gosling, an exponent of long-discredited theories concerning the alleged control of the world by Illuminati and the Czarist antisemitic forgery "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT has broadcast stories about microchips being implanted into office workers in the EU to make them more "submissive"; about the "majority" of Europeans supporting Russian annexation of Crimea; the EU preparing "a form of genocide" against Russians; in Germany it falsely reported about a kidnapping of a Russian girl; that "NATO planned to store nuclear weapons in Eastern Europe"; that Hillary Clinton fell ill; it has also on many occasions misrepresented or invented statements from European leaders.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In response to accusations of spreading fake news, RT started its own fact-checking project, FakeCheck. The Poynter Institute conducted a content analysis of FakeCheck and concluded it "mixes some legitimate debunks with other scantily sourced or dubiously framed 'fact checks.'"

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: RT, particularly the former RT presenter Abby Martin, has been accused of being anti-Israel and pro-Palestinian by "The Algemeiner" and Israel National News. Israeli foreign minister Avigdor Lieberman made a complaint to Putin at their official meeting in 2012.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In November 2021, a study by the Center for Countering Digital Hate described RT as being among "ten fringe publishers" that together were responsible for nearly 70 percent of Facebook user interactions with content that denied climate change. Facebook disputed the study's methodology.<ref name="Porterfield_11/2/2021"></ref><ref name="Toxic_Ten_11/2/2021"></ref>

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Compared to RT's coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic for its viewers in Russia, RT's coverage of the pandemic for its international viewers was saturated with COVID-19 misinformation and conspiracy theories. RT urged domestic Russian audiences to vaccinate and wear masks to prevent COVID-19, while advocating against virus-prevention measures on its English, German, French, Spanish, and Arabic-language platforms.<ref name="RFE/RT-27-10-21"></ref>

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – On 16 March 2022, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission banned RT and RT France from broadcasting in Canada.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – After failing to obtain a broadcast license compliant with the , RT DE was banned in Germany by the (ZAK) on 2 February 2022. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded with "retaliatory measures" to remove German broadcaster Deutsche Welle from Russia.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – Chief Minister Fabian Picardo requested a nationwide ban of RT on 25 February 2022 in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, describing RT as "a dangerous source of disinformation that Gibraltar cannot accept on its networks". Television providers in Gibraltar agreed to suspend broadcasts of RT.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – Linas Antanas Linkevičius, Lithuania's Minister of Foreign Affairs, posted on Twitter on 9 March 2014 amid the Crimean crisis, "Russia Today propaganda machine is no less destructive than military marching in Crimea". It was banned by the Radio and Television Commission of Lithuania on 8 July 2020. The decision of both Latvian and Lithuanian authorities was criticised by Reporters Without Borders as "misuse of the EU sanctions policy".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – The National Broadcasting Council banned RT in Poland on 24 February 2022 in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – RT has been banned in Ukraine by the Ministry of Internal Affairs since August 2014, following the invasion and annexation of Ukrainian territory.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: – On 18 March 2022, ANO TV Novosti's broadcasting license was revoked, effectively banning RT from being broadcast. This was taken in the wake of RT UK being funded by the Russian government, which, when combined with their promotion of Russian state narratives about the invasion of the Ukraine and sanctions, was deemed a violation of neutrality standards. This came after an investigation was launched on 2 March 2022 in these matters, also involving the invasion.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In October 2017, Twitter banned both RT and Sputnik from advertising on their social networking service amid accusations of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, sparking an angry response from the Russian foreign ministry. Twitter in August 2020 began to identify RT, along with other Russian and Chinese media outlets, as "state-affiliated media" in a prominent place at the top of their accounts on the social media platform.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In November 2017, Alphabet chairman Eric Schmidt announced that Google will be "deranking" stories from RT and Sputnik in response to allegations about election meddling by President Putin's government, provoking an accusation of censorship from both outlets.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In March 2018, John McDonnell, the Shadow Chancellor of the British Labour Party, advised fellow Labour MPs to boycott RT and said he would no longer appear on the channel. He said: "We tried to be fair with them and as long as they abide by journalistic standards that are objective that's fine but it looks as if they have gone beyond that line". A party representative said: "We are keeping the issue under review".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In July 2019, the UK Foreign Office banned both RT and Sputnik from attending the Global Conference for Media Freedom in London for "their active role in spreading disinformation". The Russian Embassy called the decision "direct politically motivated discrimination", while RT responded in a statement: "It takes a particular brand of hypocrisy to advocate for freedom of press while banning inconvenient voices and slandering alternative media."

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Shaun Walker, the Moscow correspondent for "The Independent", said that RT had "instructed reporters not to report from Georgian villages within South Ossetia that had been ethnically cleansed". Julia Ioffe wrote that an RT journalist whose reporting deviated from "the Kremlin line that Georgians were slaughtering unarmed Ossetians" was reprimanded. Human Rights Watch said that RT's claim of 2,000 South Ossetian casualties was exaggerated.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: When asked about a clip of her interviewing a guest on RT by Brian Stelter, host of CNN's "Reliable Sources", Wahl responded,

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: "The New York Times" op-ed columnist Nicholas Kristof commented on CNN's "Piers Morgan Live" about Wahl's and Martin's initial actions, saying that he "admire[s] their outspokenness but, you know, at the end of the day, RT is a Russian propaganda arm, and I don't think it's going to matter very much to the geopolitical consequences here".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Former RT Moscow anchor Staci Bivens, and other former RT journalists speaking under anonymity according to BuzzFeed, said they regretted working for the network, citing their dislike of the network's use of propaganda. Bivens, for example, was explicitly asked to go to Germany and procure a story proving that "Germany is a failed state". When she refused, other reporters were sent instead.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Steve Bloomfield, the foreign editor of "Monocle" wrote that RT's "coverage of Ukraine could not have been kinder to Moscow if Vladimir Putin had chosen the running order himself. While Putin kept up the pretence that there were no Russian troops in Crimea, so too did RT. The storming of government buildings across eastern Ukraine has been portrayed as the understandable actions of peace-loving protesters who fear "chaos" in Kiev".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: After the July 2014 crash of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, RT rushed to blame others for the plane's shoot-down in Ukraine amid accusations by Ukrainian fighters of Russian involvement in the crash. Speaking of RT's coverage, Sarah Oates, professor of journalism at the University of Maryland said: "But if you’re going to engage in propaganda, you have to do it well. They have completely embarrassed themselves."

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: The following November, RT was again found in breach of Ofcom's impartiality rules, this time in relation to its coverage of the Ukraine crisis, specifically events leading up to the annexation by Russia of Crimea. For repeated breaches of its "due impartially" rules, Ofcom put RT management "on notice that any future breaches of the due impartiality rules may result in further regulatory action, including consideration of a statutory sanction".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In January 2015, Ofcom found RT (and the BBC) not in breach of rules on generally accepted standards following a complaint about the use of graphic imagery of bodies at the MH17 crash site.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In September 2015, Ofcom found RT in breach of the impartiality rules in its coverage of the events in Ukraine and Syria. It also upheld the complaint by the BBC that allegations made in an episode of "The Truthseeker" that a BBC "Panorama" film, "Saving Syria's Children", had faked a parts of a report on a chemical weapon attack in Syria were "materially misleading".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: A spokesperson for the media regulator said: "Ofcom found that RT broadcast content that was either materially misleading or not duly impartial. These are significant failings and we are therefore requiring RT to broadcast two clear statements on our decision which correct these failures."

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In October 2015, David J. Kramer, senior director for human rights and democracy at the McCain Institute for International Leadership, suggested that Western countries freeze RT's assets "not because of the odious things it spews" but as part of the Yukos shareholder case.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: A report released by the US think-tank the RAND Corporation in 2016 called RT part of "a wider Russian propaganda operation" named the "Firehose of Falsehood". The paper called "Russian faux-news propaganda channels, such as RT" insidious and that "they look like news programs, and the persons appearing on them are represented as journalists and experts, making audience members much more likely to ascribe credibility to the misinformation these sources are disseminating".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: On 12 January 2017, RT was accidentally broadcast for around 10 minutes on a web stream of U.S. public affairs service C-SPAN. RT stated that while it was testing its systems in preparation for the inauguration of Donald Trump, its signal was "mistakenly routed onto the primary encoder feeding C-SPAN1's signal to the internet, rather than to an unused backup".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In September 2017, the U.S. Department of Justice informed RT America that it must register as a foreign agent of the Russian government. Margarita Simonyan, RT's editor-in-chief, condemned the action as an assault on freedom of speech. A spokesperson for the Russian foreign ministry threatened retaliatory measures against American journalists.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: On 13 November 2017, RT America officially registered as a "foreign agent" in the United States with the Department of Justice under the Foreign Agents Registration Act. Under the act, RT will be required to disclose financial information. This move was criticized by the committee to Protect Journalists: "We're uncomfortable with governments deciding what constitutes journalism or propaganda"

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In December 2018, the British media regulator Ofcom ruled that seven programmes broadcast by RT between 17 March and 26 April of that year, in the wake of the Salisbury nerve agent attacks, had breached the UK's impartiality rules; the BBC reported that RT was "extremely disappointed by Ofcom's conclusions". RT was fined £200,000 but kept its licence to broadcast in the UK. RT described Ofcom's actions against it as "inappropriate and disproportionate per Ofcom’s own track record".

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: Russia threatened to ban YouTube in September for deleting the RT channels, RT DE and Der Fehlende Part, The platform had banned the RT channels for breaking its policies on spreading COVID-19 misinformation and for using the second channel to circumvent an initial week-long suspension.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: In January, the State Department's Global Engagement Center (GEC) published a report titled "Kremlin-Funded Media: RT and Sputnik's Role in Russia's Disinformation and Propaganda Ecosystem." Its case studies included one on "false narratives" published by RT concerning the Russian military buildup on the Ukrainian border.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: On 25 February, hacking group Anonymous claimed a distributed denial of service attack on the network's website, in support of Ukraine in its fight against Russia. The following day, Alphabet Inc., the owners of Google, temporarily barred RT from receiving any financial return from their ads on their YouTube platform.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


RT (TV network)

Context: 1.Writing in "The New York Times", Stephen Heyman estimated that more than $100 million had been spent on the station as of May 2008.

Question: متى تأسست شبكة آر تي الروسية؟


Rebecca West

Context: West is also said to have had relationships with Charlie Chaplin, newspaper magnate Lord Beaverbrook, and journalist John Gunther.

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: She travelled extensively well into old age. In 1966 and 1969, she undertook two long journeys to Mexico, becoming fascinated by the indigenous culture of the country and its mestizo population. She stayed with actor Romney Brent in Mexico City and with Katherine (Kit) Wright, a long-time friend, in Cuernavaca.

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: She is honoured with a blue plaque at Hope Park Square, Edinburgh, her childhood home which also provided the setting for her novel "The Judge".

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: It would seem that her father's ironic, sceptical temper so penetrated her sensibility that she could not regard any body of ideas as other than a starting point for argument. Although she was a militant feminist and active suffragette, and published a perceptive and admiring profile of Emmeline Pankhurst, West also criticised the tactics of Pankhurst's daughter, Christabel, and the sometimes doctrinaire aspects of the Pankhursts' Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: West paid a heavy price for her cool reaction to the Russian Revolution; her positions increasingly isolated her. When Emma Goldman visited Britain in 1924 after seeing Bolshevik violence firsthand, West was exasperated that British intellectuals ignored Goldman's testimony and her warning against Bolshevik tyranny.

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: For all her censures of Communism, however, West was hardly an uncritical supporter of Western democracies. Thus in 1919–1920, she excoriated the US government for deporting Goldman and for the infamous Palmer Raids. She was also appalled at the failure of Western democracies to come to the aid of Republican Spain, and she gave money to the Republican cause.

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: Long time book reviewer and senior editor at "TIME", Whittaker Chambers, considered West "a novelist of note ... a distinguished literary critic ... above all ... one of the greatest of living journalists."

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: Virginia Woolf questioned Rebecca West being labelled as an "arrant feminist" because she offended men by saying they are snobs in chapter two of "A Room of One's Own": was Miss West an arrant feminist for making a possibly true if uncomplimentary statement about the other sex?"

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: Bill Moyers's interview "A Visit With Dame Rebecca West," recorded in her London home when she was 89, was aired by PBS in July 1981. In a review of the interview, John O'Connor wrote that "Dame Rebecca emerges as a formidable presence. When she finds something or somebody "disagreeable," the adjective suddenly becomes withering."

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: West's first novel, "The Return of the Soldier", was turned into a major motion picture in 1982, directed by Alan Bridges, starring Alan Bates, Glenda Jackson, and Julie Christie. More recently, an adaptation of "The Return of the Soldier" for the stage by Kelly Younger titled "Once a Marine" took West's theme of shell-shock-induced amnesia and applied it to a soldier returning from the war in Iraq with PTSD.

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: There have been two plays about Rebecca West produced since 2004. "That Woman: Rebecca West Remembers", by Carl Rollyson, Helen Macleod, and Anne Bobby, is a one-woman monologue in which an actress playing Rebecca West recounts her life through some of her most famous articles, letters, and books. "Tosca's Kiss", a 2006 play by Kenneth Jupp, retells West's experience covering the Nuremberg trials for "The New Yorker".

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: Robert D. Kaplan's influential book "Balkan Ghosts" (1994) is an homage to West's "Black Lamb and Grey Falcon" (1941), which he calls "this century's greatest travel book"

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Rebecca West

Context: In February 2006, BBC broadcast a radio version of West's novel "The Fountain Overflows", dramatized by Robin Brook, in six 55-minute installments.

Question: أين دفنة بريبيكا ويست ؟


Paroxysmal attack

Context: The word paroxysm means "sudden attack, outburst", and comes from the Greek παροξυσμός ("paroxusmos"), "irritation, exasperation".

Question: ما هو الانتياب؟


Uranus

Context: Herschel recorded in his journal: "In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [a] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet." On 17 March he noted: "I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, for it has changed its place." When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society, he continued to assert that he had found a comet, but also implicitly compared it to a planet:

Question: ما هو اكثر كواكب المجموعة الشمسية برودة ؟


Uranus

Context: Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on 23 April 1781: "I don't know what to call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it."

Question: ما هو اكثر كواكب المجموعة الشمسية برودة ؟


Uranus

Context: Herschel's proposed name was not popular outside Britain, and alternatives were soon proposed. Astronomer Jérôme Lalande proposed that it be named "Herschel" in honour of its discoverer. Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the name "Neptune", which was supported by other astronomers who liked the idea to commemorate the victories of the British Royal Naval fleet in the course of the American Revolutionary War by calling the new planet even "Neptune George III" or "Neptune Great Britain".

Question: ما هو اكثر كواكب المجموعة الشمسية برودة ؟


Uranus

Context: The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of , ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of , ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at . The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds and seasonal changes.

Question: ما هو اكثر كواكب المجموعة الشمسية برودة ؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The Egyptian Armed Forces () are the military forces of the Arab Republic of Egypt. They consist of the Egyptian Army, Egyptian Navy, Egyptian Air Force and Egyptian Air Defense Forces.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: Senior members of the military can convene the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, such as during the course of the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, when President Mubarak resigned and transferred power to this body on February 11, 2011.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The armament of the Egyptian armed forces varies between eastern and western sources through weapons deliveries by several countries, led by the United States, Russia, France, China, Italy, Ukraine and Britain. Many of the equipment is manufactured locally at Egyptian factories. The Egyptian armed forces celebrate their anniversary on October 6 each year to commemorate the Crossing of the Suez during the October War of 1973.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The modern Egyptian armed forces have been involved in numerous crises and wars since independence, from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egyptian Revolution of 1952, Suez Crisis, North Yemen Civil War, Six-Day War, Nigerian Civil War, War of Attrition, Yom Kippur War, Egyptian bread riots, 1986 Egyptian conscripts riot, Egyptian-Libyan War, Gulf War, War on Terror, Egyptian Crisis, Second Libyan Civil War, War on ISIL and the Sinai insurgency.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The Egyptian Armed Forces suffered a catastrophic defeat in their intervention in the North Yemen Civil War in what was dubbed as "Egypt's Vietnam" which contributed to their withering defeat in the Six-day war against Israel. At the peak of deployments, there were 70,000 Egyptian soldiers in Yemen. At the end of the war, Yemen remained a republic but at the cost of more than 10,000 Egyptian soldiers. As The New Republic explained in 1963:

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: "In this terrain, the slow-moving Nile peasant has proved a poor match for the barefoot, elusive tribesmen armed only with rifle and jambiya -- the vast, curved, razor-sharp dagger which every male Yemeni wears in his belt."

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: Before the June 1967 War, the army divided its personnel into four regional commands (Suez, Sinai, Nile Delta, and Nile Valley up to the Sudan). The remainder of Egypt's territory, over 75%, was the sole responsibility of the Frontier Corps.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: After the war began on 5 June 1967, Israel attacked Egypt, destroyed its air force on the ground, and occupied the Sinai Peninsula. The forward deployed Egyptian forces were shattered in three places by the attacking Israelis. Field Marshal Amer, overwhelmed by events, and ignoring previous plans, ordered a retreat by the Egyptian Army to the Suez Canal. This developed into a rout as the Israelis harried the retreating troops from the ground and from the air.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: When Sadat and the Israelis made peace in the Camp David Accords of September 1978, part of the "quid pro quo" for the Egyptians accepting peace was that the U.S. would provide substantial military assistance to Egypt. Today the U.S. provides annual military assistance often quoted at some nominal $1.3 billion to the Egyptian armed forces ($ billion in ). This level is second only to Israel.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: On 31 January 2011, during the Egyptian revolution of 2011, Israeli media reported that the 9th, 2nd, and 7th Divisions of the Army had been ordered into Cairo to help restore order.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: In 2018 there were no evident internal cracks within the Armed Forces. The Egyptian Armed Forces’ unrivalled dominance, both in politics and within the security apparatus, appear to be the result of three combined factors: substantial economic interests, a long-time legitimacy buttressed by the army’s active involvement in welfare and development initiatives, and the reliance on universal conscription as the main avenue for the successful accommodation of class and social cleavages.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: On March 25, 2020, it was reported that two army generals, Shafea Dawoud and Khaled Shaltout, had died from the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt, and at least 550 officers and soldiers had been infected with the virus.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: In March 2021, Human Rights Watch accused the EAF of violating international human rights law and committing war crimes by demolishing more than 12,300 residential and commercial buildings and 6,000 hectares of farmland since 2013 in North Sinai.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: Conscripts for the Egyptian Army and other service branches without a university degree serve three years as enlisted soldiers. Conscripts with a General Secondary School Degree serve two years as enlisted personnel. Conscripts with a university degree serve one year as enlisted personnel or three years as a reserve officer. Officers for the army are trained at the Egyptian Military Academy. The IISS estimated in 2020 that the Army numbered 90-120,000, with 190-220,000 conscripts, a total of 310,000.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The Egyptian Air Force (EAF) is the aviation branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces. Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. The Mirage 2000 is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF. The Egyptian Air Force has 216 F-16s (plus 20 on order). It has about 579 combat aircraft and 149 armed helicopters as it continues to fly extensively upgraded MiG-21s, F-7 Skybolts, F-4 Phantoms, Dassault Mirage Vs, and the C-130 Hercules among other planes.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The Egyptian Navy existed thousands of years ago, specifically during the Early Dynastic period in 2800 BC.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The Navy also controls the Egyptian Coast Guard. The Coast Guard is responsible for the onshore protection of public installations near the coast and the patrol of coastal waters to prevent smuggling. The IISS "Military Balance 2017" listed the Coast Guard with 2,000 personnel, 14 fast patrol boats (PBF) and 65 patrol boats (including 15 Swiftships, 21 "Timsah", three Type-89 and nine "Peterson"-class.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The Armed Forces Medical Service Department provides many military health services. The Armed Forces College of Medicine in Heliopolis, Cairo, provides medical training. As of February 2020, the AFCM commandant was Maj. Gen. Dr. Amr Hegab.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: Egypt also maintains 397,000 paramilitary troops. The Central Security Forces comes under the control of the Ministry of Interior. As of 2017, the Egyptian Border Guard Corps falls under the control of the Ministry of Interior as well. Circa 2020, according to the "IISS Military Balance 2020," they comprised an estimated 12,000, in 18 border regiments, with light weapons only (IISS 2020, p. 375). However, that listing of numbers has remained the same at least since the 2017 edition (p375).

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: The inventory of the Egyptian armed forces includes equipment from the United States, France, Brazil, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China. This wide range of sources can cause serviceability difficulties. Equipment from the Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern U.S., French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the M1A1 Abrams tank.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: Egypt is one of the few countries in the Middle East, and the only Arab state, with a reconnaissance satellite and has launched another one, EgyptSat 1 in 2007.

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Egyptian Armed Forces

Context: There is an undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces, and they include:

Question: ما هي أعلى رتبة في الجيش المصري؟


Mosaic

Context: A mosaic is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/mortar, and covering a surface. Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly popular in the Ancient Roman world.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Mosaic today includes not just murals and pavements, but also artwork, hobby crafts, and industrial and construction forms.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Figurative mosaic, but mostly without human figures, was widely used on religious buildings and palaces in early Islamic art, including Islam's first great religious building, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. Such mosaics went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, except for geometrical patterns in techniques such as zellij, which remain popular in many areas.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Modern mosaics are made by artists and craftspeople around the world. Many materials other than traditional stone, ceramic tesserae, enameled and stained glass may be employed, including shells, beads, charms, chains, gears, coins, and pieces of costume jewelry.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Traditional mosaics are made of cut small cubes of roughly square pieces of stone or hand made glass enamel of different colours, known as tesserae. Some of the earliest mosaics were made of natural pebbles, originally used to reinforce floors.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Mosaic skinning (covering objects with mosaic glass) is done with thin enameled glass and opaque stained glass. Modern mosaic art is made from any material in any size ranging from carved stone, bottle caps, and found objects.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Bronze Age pebble mosaics have been found at Tiryns; mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and the 4th-century BC mosaic of The Beauty of Durrës discovered in Durrës, Albania in 1916, is an early figural example; the Greek figural style was mostly formed in the 3rd century BC. Mythological subjects, or scenes of hunting or other pursuits of the wealthy, were popular as the centrepieces of a larger geometric design, with strongly emphasized borders.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Pliny the Elder mentions the artist Sosus of Pergamon by name, describing his mosaics of the food left on a floor after a feast and of a group of doves drinking from a bowl.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Greek figural mosaics could have been copied or adapted paintings, a far more prestigious artform, and the style was enthusiastically adopted by the Romans so that large floor mosaics enriched the floors of Hellenistic villas and Roman dwellings from Britain to Dura-Europos.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire; no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across North Africa, in places such as Carthage, and can still be seen in the extensive collection in Bardo Museum in Tunis, Tunisia.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: A specific genre of Roman mosaic was called "asaroton" (Greek for "unswept floor"). It depicted in "trompe-l'œil" style the feast leftovers on the floors of wealthy houses.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: A mosaic pavement depicting humans, animals and plants from the original 4th-century cathedral of Aquileia has survived in the later medieval church. This mosaic adopts pagan motifs such as the Nilotic scene, but behind the traditional naturalistic content is Christian symbolism such as the ichthys. The 6th-century early Christian basilicas of Sant' Eufemia and Santa Maria delle Grazie in Grado also have mosaic floors.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Ostrogoths kept alive the tradition in the 6th century, as the mosaics of the Arian Baptistry, Baptistry of Neon, Archbishop's Chapel, and the earlier phase mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo testify.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The last example of Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna was commissioned by bishop Reparatus between 673 and 79 in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. The mosaic panel in the apse showing the bishop with Emperor Constantine IV is obviously an imitation of the Justinian panel in San Vitale.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: 6th-century pieces are rare in Rome but the mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le mura belong to this era. The "Chapel of Ss. Primo e Feliciano" in Santo Stefano Rotondo has very interesting and rare mosaics from the 7th century. This chapel was built by Pope Theodore I as a family burial place.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The fragment of an 8th-century mosaic, the Epiphany is one of the very rare remaining pieces of the medieval decoration of Old St. Peter's Basilica, demolished in the late 16th century. The precious fragment is kept in the sacristy of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. It proves the high artistic quality of the destroyed St. Peter's mosaics.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Mosaics were more central to Byzantine culture than to that of Western Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in the Byzantine Empire from the 6th to the 15th centuries. The majority of Byzantine mosaics were destroyed without trace during wars and conquests, but the surviving remains still form a fine collection.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The great buildings of Emperor Justinian like the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the Nea Church in Jerusalem and the rebuilt Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem were certainly embellished with mosaics but none of these survived.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In the 6th century, Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the center of mosaic making. Istria also boasts some important examples from this era. The Euphrasian Basilica in Parentium was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated with mosaics depicting the Theotokos flanked by angels and saints.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Fragments remain from the mosaics of the Church of Santa Maria Formosa in Pola. These pieces were made during the 6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style is different from the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople in 867. The dedication inscription says: "The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up." In the 870s the so-called "large sekreton" of the Great Palace of Constantinople was decorated with the images of the four great iconodule patriarchs.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of the Macedonian Renaissance (867–1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation. Constantinopolitan mosaics of this age followed the decoration scheme first used in Emperor Basil I's Nea Ekklesia. Not only this prototype was later totally destroyed but each surviving composition is battered so it is necessary to move from church to church to reconstruct the system.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: An interesting set of Macedonian-era mosaics make up the decoration of the Hosios Loukas Monastery. In the narthex there is the Crucifixion, the Pantokrator and the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church the Theotokos (apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St Loukas (all executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The Daphni Monastery houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from the early Comnenan period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic manner typical for the Macedonian epoch and represented by the awesome Christ Pantocrator image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more intimate and delicate style, of which "The Angel before St Joachim" — with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism – is considered a superb example.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The dome of the Hagia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki is decorated with an "Ascension" mosaic (c. 885). The composition resembles the great baptistries in Ravenna, with apostles standing between palms and Christ in the middle. The scheme is somewhat unusual as the standard post-Iconoclastic formula for domes contained only the image of the Pantokrator.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art for the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful new "Deesis" was made on the south gallery. This huge mosaic panel with figures two and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its grand scale and superlative craftsmanship. The Hagia Sophia "Deesis" is probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The Pammakaristos Monastery was restored by Michael Glabas, an imperial official, in the late 13th century. Only the mosaic decoration of the small burial chapel (parekklesion) of Glabas survived. This domed chapel was built by his widow, Martha around 1304–08. In the miniature dome the traditional Pantokrator can be seen with twelve prophets beneath. Unusually the apse is decorated with a "Deesis", probably due to the funerary function of the chapel.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern arch of the cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the main dome. By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but new mosaics were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the Baptist and Emperor John V Palaiologos (discovered only in 1989).

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In addition to the large-scale monuments several miniature mosaic icons of outstanding quality was produced for the Palaiologos court and nobles. The loveliest examples from the 14th century are "Annunciation" in the Victoria and Albert Museum and a mosaic diptych in the Cathedral Treasury of Florence representing the "Twelve Feasts of the Church".

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In the troubled years of the 15th century the fatally weakened empire could not afford luxurious mosaics. Churches were decorated with wall-paintings in this era and after the Turkish conquest.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The Cappella Palatina clearly shows evidence for blending the eastern and western styles. The dome (1142–42) and the eastern end of the church (1143–1154) were decorated with typical Byzantine mosaics i.e. Pantokrator, angels, scenes from the life of Christ. Even the inscriptions are written in Greek. The narrative scenes of the nave (Old Testament, life of Sts Peter and Paul) are resembling to the mosaics of the Old St. Peter's and St. Paul's Basilica in Rome (Latin inscriptions, 1154–66).

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In Cefalù (1148) only the high, French Gothic presbytery was covered with mosaics: the Pantokrator on the semidome of the apse and cherubim on the vault. On the walls are Latin and Greek saints, with Greek inscriptions.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The Cathedral of Palermo, rebuilt by Archbishop Walter in the same time (1172–85), was also decorated with mosaics but none of these survived except the 12th-century image of "Madonna del Tocco" above the western portal.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The cathedral of Messina, consecrated in 1197, was also decorated with a great mosaic cycle, originally on par with Cefalù and Monreale, but heavily damaged and restored many times later. In the left apse of the same cathedral 14th-century mosaics survived, representing the Madonna and Child between Saints Agata and Lucy, the Archangels Gabriel and Michael and Queens Eleonora and Elisabetta.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The palaces of the Norman kings were decorated with mosaics depicting animals and landscapes. The secular mosaics are seemingly more Eastern in character than the great religious cycles and show a strong Persian influence. The most notable examples are the "Sala di Ruggero" in the Palazzo dei Normanni, Palermo and the "Sala della Fontana" in the Zisa summer palace, both from the 12th century.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Trieste was also an important center of mosaic art. The mosaics in the apse of the Cathedral of San Giusto were laid by master craftsmen from Veneto in the 12th–13th centuries.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The monastery of Grottaferrata founded by Greek Basilian monks and consecrated by the Pope in 1024 was decorated with Italo-Byzantine mosaics, some of which survived in the narthex and the interior. The mosaics on the triumphal chancel arch portray the Twelve Apostles sitting beside an empty throne, evoking Christ's ascent to Heaven. It is a Byzantine work of the 12th century. There is a beautiful 11th-century Deesis above the main portal.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In Florence a magnificiant mosaic of the Last Judgement decorates the dome of the Baptistery. The earliest mosaics, works of art of many unknown Venetian craftsmen (including probably Cimabue), date from 1225. The covering of the ceiling was probably not completed until the 14th century.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The impressive mosaic of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist in the apse of the cathedral of Pisa was designed by Cimabue in 1302. It evokes the Monreale mosaics in style. It survived the great fire of 1595 which destroyed most of the medieval interior decoration.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Beyond the Alps the first important example of mosaic art was the decoration of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, commissioned by Charlemagne. It was completely destroyed in a fire in 1650. A rare example of surviving Carolingian mosaics is the apse semi-dome decoration of the oratory of Germigny-des-Prés built in 805–806 by Theodulf, bishop of Orléans, a leading figure of the Carolingian renaissance. This unique work of art, rediscovered only in the 19th century, had no followers.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Although mosaics went out of fashion and were substituted by frescoes, some of the great Renaissance artists also worked with the old technique. Raphael's Creation of the World in the dome of the Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo is a notable example that was executed by a Venetian craftsman, Luigi di Pace.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: During the papacy of Clement VIII (1592–1605), the "Congregazione della Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro" was established, providing an independent organisation charged with completing the decorations in the newly built St. Peter's Basilica. Instead of frescoes the cavernous Basilica was mainly decorated with mosaics. Among the explanations are:

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The eastern provinces of the Eastern Roman and later the Byzantine Empires inherited a strong artistic tradition from Late Antiquity. Similar to Italy and Constantinople, churches and important secular buildings in the region of Syria and Egypt were decorated with elaborate mosaic panels between the 5th and 8th centuries. The great majority of these works of art were later destroyed, but archeological excavations unearthed many surviving examples.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: One of the earliest examples of Byzantine mosaic art in the region can be found on Mount Nebo, an important place of pilgrimage in the Byzantine era where Moses died. Among the many 6th-century mosaics in the church complex (discovered after 1933) the most interesting one is located in the baptistery. The intact floor mosaic covers an area of 9 × 3 m and was laid down in 530. It depicts hunting and pastoral scenes with rich Middle Eastern flora and fauna.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The Church of Sts. Lot and Procopius was founded in 567 in Nebo village under Mount Nebo (now Khirbet Mukhayyat). Its floor mosaic depicts everyday activities like grape harvest. Another two spectacular mosaics were discovered in the ruined Church of Preacher John nearby. One of the mosaics was placed above the other one which was completely covered and unknown until the modern restoration. The figures on the older mosaic have thus escaped the iconoclasts.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The town of Madaba remained an important center of mosaic making during the 5th–8th centuries. In the Church of the Apostles the middle of the main panel Thalassa, goddess of the sea, can be seen surrounded by fishes and other sea creatures. Native Middle Eastern birds, mammals, plants and fruits were also added.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: An exceptionally well preserved, carpet-like mosaic floor was uncovered in 1949 in Bethany, the early Byzantine church of the Lazarium which was built between 333 and 390. Because of its purely geometrical pattern, the church floor is to be grouped with other mosaics of the time in Palestine and neighboring areas, especially the Constantinian mosaics in the central nave at Bethlehem. A second church was built above the older one during the 6th century with another more simple geometric mosaic floor.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The Arab conquest of the Middle East in the 7th century did not break off the art of mosaic making. Arabs learned and accepted the craft as their own and carried on the classical tradition. During the Umayyad era Christianity retained its importance, churches were built and repaired and some of the most important mosaics of the Christian East were made during the 8th century when the region was under Islamic rule.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The last great mosaics in Madaba were made in 767 in the Church of the Virgin Mary (discovered in 1887). It is a masterpiece of the geometric style with a Greek inscription in the central medallion.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: With the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750 the Middle East went through deep cultural changes. No great mosaics were made after the end of the 8th century and the majority of churches gradually fell into disrepair and were eventually destroyed. The tradition of mosaic making died out among the Christians and also in the Islamic community.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Prince Sviatopolk II built St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv in 1108. The mosaics of the church are undoubtedly works of Byzantine artists. Although the church was destroyed by Soviet authorities, majority of the panels were preserved. Small parts of ornamental mosaic decoration from the 12th century survived in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod but this church was largely decorated with frescoes.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Using mosaics and frescoes in the same building was a unique practice in Ukraine. Harmony was achieved by using the same dominant colors in mosaic and fresco. Both Saint Sophia Cathedral and Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv use this technique. Mosaics stopped being used for church decoration as early as the 12th century in the eastern Slavic countries. Later Russian churches were decorated with frescoes, similarly then orthodox churches in the Balkan.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Under Roman and Byzantine influence the Jews also decorated their synagogues with classical floor mosaics. Many interesting examples were discovered in Galilee and the Judean Desert.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Another zodiac mosaic decorated the floor of the Beit Alfa synagogue which was built during the reign of Justin I (518–27). It is regarded one of the most important mosaics discovered in Israel. Each of its three panels depicts a scene – the Holy Ark, the zodiac, and the story of the sacrifice of Isaac. In the center of the zodiac is Helios, the sun god, in his chariot. The four women in the corners of the mosaic represent the four seasons.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: A third superbly preserved zodiac mosaic was discovered in the Severus synagogue in the ancient resort town of Hammat Tiberias. In the center of the 4th-century mosaic the Sun god, Helios sits in his chariot holding the celestial sphere and a whip. Nine of the 12 signs of the zodiac survived intact. Another panel shows the Ark of Covenant and Jewish cultic objects used in the Temple at Jerusalem.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In 1936, a synagogue was excavated in Jericho which was named Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue after an inscription on its mosaic floor ("Peace on Israel"). It appears to have been in use from the 5th to 8th centuries and contained a big mosaic on the floor with drawings of the Ark of the Covenant, the Menorah, a Shofar and a Lulav. Nearby in Naaran, there is another synagogue (discovered in 1918) from the 6th century that also has a mosaic floor.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The House of Leontius in Bet She'an (excavated in 1964–72) is a rare example of a synagogue which was part of an inn. It was built in the Byzantine period. The colorful mosaic floor of the synagogue room had an outer stripe decorated with flowers and birds, around medallions with animals, created by vine trellises emerging from an amphora. The central medallion enclosed a menorah (candelabrum) beneath the word shalom (peace).

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In 2003, a synagogue of the 5th or 6th century was uncovered in the coastal Ionian town of Saranda, Albania. It had exceptional mosaics depicting items associated with Jewish holidays, including a menorah, ram's horn, and lemon tree. Mosaics in the basilica of the synagogue show the facade of what resembles a Torah, animals, trees, and other biblical symbols. The structure measures 20 by 24 m. and was probably last used in the 6th century as a church.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: In South Arabia two mosaic works were excavated in a Qatabanian from the late 3rd century, those two plates formed geometric and grapevines formation reflecting the traditions of that culture. In the Ghassanid era religious mosaic art flourished in their territory, so far five churches with mosaic were recorded from that era, two built by Ghassanid rulers and the other three by the Christian Arab community who wrote their names and dedications.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Tilework had been known there for about two thousand years when cultural exchange between Sassanid Empire and Romans influenced Persian artists to create mosaic patterns. Shapur I decorated his palace with tile compositions depicting dancers, musicians, courtesans, etc. This was the only significant example of figurative Persian mosaic, which became prohibited after Arab conquest and arrival of Islam.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The first great religious building of Islam, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which was built between 688 and 692, was decorated with glass mosaics both inside and outside, by craftsmen of the Byzantine tradition. Only parts of the original interior decoration survive. The rich floral motifs follow Byzantine traditions, and are "Islamic only in the sense that the vocabulary is syncretic and does not include representation of men or animals."

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque gave inspiration to later Damascene mosaic works. The Dome of the Treasury, which stands in the mosque courtyard, is covered with fine mosaics, probably dating from 13th- or 14th-century restoration work. The style of them are strikingly similar to the Barada Panel. The mausoleum of Sultan Baibars, Madrassa Zahiriyah, which was built after 1277, is also decorated with a band of golden floral and architectural mosaics, running around inside the main prayer hall.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Mosaics generally went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century. Similar effects were achieved by the use of painted tilework, either geometric with small tiles, sometimes called mosaic, like the zillij of North Africa, or larger tiles painted with parts of a large decorative scheme (Qashani) in Persia, Turkey and further east.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Some modern mosaics are the work of "modernisme" style architects Antoni Gaudí and Josep Maria Jujol, for example the mosaics in the Park Güell in Barcelona. Today, among the leading figures of the mosaic world are Emma Biggs (UK), Marcelo de Melo (Brazil), Sonia King (US) and Saimir Strati (Albania).

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Mosaics have developed into a popular craft and art, and are not limited to professionals. Today's artisans and crafters work with stone, ceramics, shells, art glass, mirror, beads, and even odd items like doll parts, pearls, or photographs. While ancient mosaics tended to be architectural, modern mosaics are found covering everything from park benches and flowerpots to guitars and bicycles. Items can be as small as an earring or as large as a house.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Trencadís or pique assiette (a French term – "stolen from plate") is a mosaic made from pieces of broken pottery, china, glass, buttons, figurines, or jewelry which are cemented onto a base to create a new surface. Almost any form can be used as a base, and any combination of pieces can be applied, restricted only by the individual creator's imagination.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Despite its prevalence and popularity throughout Portugal and its former colonies, and its relation to older art and architectural styles like Azulejo, Portuguese and Spanish painted tilework, it is a relatively young mosaic artform, its first definitive appearance in a modernly recognizable form being in the mid-1800s. Among the most commonly used stones in this style are basalt and limestone.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: Mosaic is an art form which uses small pieces of materials placed together to create a unified whole. The materials commonly used are marble or other stone, glass, pottery, mirror or foil-backed glass, or shells.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The word "mosaic" is from the Italian "mosaico" deriving from the Latin "mosaicus" and ultimately from the Greek "mouseios" meaning "belonging to the Muses", hence artistic. Each piece of material is a Tessera (plural: "tesserae"). The space in between where the grout goes is an interstice. Andamento is the word used to describe the movement and flow of Tesserae. The 'opus', the Latin for 'work', is the way in which the pieces are cut and placed.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The direct method of mosaic construction involves directly placing (gluing) the individual tesserae onto the supporting surface. This method is well suited to surfaces that have a three-dimensional quality, such as vases. This was used for the historic European wall and ceiling mosaics, following underdrawings of the main outlines on the wall below, which are often revealed again when the mosaic falls away.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The direct method suits small projects that are transportable. Another advantage of the direct method is that the resulting mosaic is progressively visible, allowing for any adjustments to tile color or placement.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The disadvantage of the direct method is that the artist must work directly at the chosen surface, which is often not practical for long periods of time, especially for large-scale projects. Also, it is difficult to control the evenness of the finished surface. This is of particular importance when creating a functional surface such as a floor or a table top.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: A modern version of the direct method, sometimes called "double direct," is to work directly onto fiberglass mesh. The mosaic can then be constructed with the design visible on the surface and transported to its final location. Large work can be done in this way, with the mosaic being cut up for shipping and then reassembled for installation. It enables the artist to work in comfort in a studio rather than at the site of installation.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The best way to arrange variously shaped tiles on a surface leads to the mathematical field of tessellation.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: The artist M. C. Escher was influenced by Moorish mosaics to begin his investigations into tessellation.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Mosaic

Context: A photomosaic is a picture made up of various other pictures (pioneered by Joseph Francis), in which each "pixel" is another picture, when examined closely. This form has been adopted in many modern media and digital image searches.

Question: ما هي أقدم فسيفساء في العالم؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: When the Arabs adopted the procedure they used this word "nasīʾ" to denote the whole system. It was operated similarly to the way the Jews operated it - the beginning of the year (Muharram) was tied to the spring season.

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: Given the day of the week, the date and the year any Muslim date in the intercalated calendar may be converted to Julian by utilising the known relationship between the intercalated calendar and the seasons. Under intercalation 12 Rabi'I (Muhammad's birth date) might fall in May or June. The exact date is Monday, 2 June 570. Under intercalation 23 Ramadan (the date of first revelation) might fall in November or December. The exact date is the night of Sunday to Monday, 13 to 14 December 610.

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: According to biographies of Muhammad, while on retreat in a mountain cave near Mecca (the cave of Hira), Gabriel appears before him and commands him to "Read!". He responded, "But I cannot read!". Then the angel Gabriel embraced him tightly and then revealed to him the first lines of chapter 96 of the Qur'an, "Read: In the name of Allah Who created, (1) Created man from a clot. (2) Read: And Allah is the Most Generous, (3) Who taught by the pen, (4) Taught man that which he knew not.(5)" (Bukhari 4953).

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: According to Muslim tradition, during one such occasion while he was in contemplation, the angel Gabriel appeared before him in the year AD 610 and said, "Read", upon which he replied, "I am unable to read". Thereupon the angel caught hold of him and embraced him heavily. This happened two more times after which the angel commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: The initial revelation was followed by a pause and a second encounter with Gabriel when Muhammad heard a voice from the sky and saw the same angel "sitting between the sky and the earth" and the revelations resumed with the first verses of chapter 74.

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: At-Tabari and Ibn Hisham reported that Muhammad left the cave of Hira after being surprised by the revelation, but later on, returned to the cave and continued his solitude, though subsequently he returned to Mecca. Tabari and Ibn Ishaq write that Muhammad told Zubayr:

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Muhammad's first revelation

Context: Biographers disagree about the period of time between Muhammad's first and second experiences of revelation. Ibn Ishaq writes that three years elapsed from the time that Muhammad received the first revelation until he started to preach publicly. Bukhari takes chapter 74 as the second revelation however chapter 68 has strong claims to be the second revelation.

Question: في أي سنة نزلة الرسالة السماوية علي النبي محمد؟


Wound healing

Context: Wound healing refers to a living organism's replacement of destroyed or damaged tissue by newly produced tissue.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: The wound healing process is not only complex but fragile, and it is susceptible to interruption or failure leading to the formation of non-healing chronic wounds. Factors that contribute to non-healing chronic wounds are diabetes, venous or arterial disease, infection, and metabolic deficiencies of old age.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Wound care encourages and speeds wound healing via cleaning and protection from reinjury or infection. Depending on each patient's needs, it can range from the simplest first aid to entire nursing specialties such as wound, ostomy, and continence nursing and burn center care.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Timing is important to wound healing. Critically, the timing of wound re-epithelialization can decide the outcome of the healing. If the epithelization of tissue over a denuded area is slow, a scar will form over many weeks, or months; If the epithelization of a wounded area is fast, the healing will result in regeneration.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: The early phase, which begins immediately following skin injury, involves cascading molecular and cellular events leading to hemostasis and formation of an early, makeshift extracellular matrix that provides structural staging for cellular attachment and subsequent cellular proliferation.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: The cellular phase involves several types of cells working together to mount an inflammatory response, synthesize granulation tissue, and restore the epithelial layer. Subdivisions of the cellular phase are:

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Just before the inflammatory phase is initiated, the clotting cascade occurs in order to achieve hemostasis, or stop blood loss by way of a fibrin clot. Thereafter, various soluble factors (including chemokines and cytokines) are released to attract cells that phagocytise debris, bacteria, and damaged tissue, in addition to releasing signaling molecules that initiate the proliferative phase of wound healing.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: When tissue is first wounded, blood comes in contact with collagen, triggering blood platelets to begin secreting inflammatory factors. Platelets also express sticky glycoproteins on their cell membranes that allow them to aggregate, forming a mass.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Fibrin and fibronectin cross-link together and form a plug that traps proteins and particles and prevents further blood loss. This fibrin-fibronectin plug is also the main structural support for the wound until collagen is deposited. Migratory cells use this plug as a matrix to crawl across, and platelets adhere to it and secrete factors. The clot is eventually lysed and replaced with granulation tissue and then later with collagen.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Other leukocytes to enter the area include helper T cells, which secrete cytokines to cause more T cells to divide and to increase inflammation and enhance vasodilation and vessel permeability. T cells also increase the activity of macrophages.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: One of the macrophage's roles is to phagocytize other expended phagocytes, bacteria and damaged tissue, and they also debride damaged tissue by releasing proteases.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: In wound healing that result in incomplete repair, scar contraction occurs, bringing varying gradations of structural imperfections, deformities and problems with flexibility. Macrophages may restrain the contraction phase. Scientists have reported that removing the macrophages from a salamander resulted in failure of a typical regeneration response (limb regeneration), instead bringing on a repair (scarring) response.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: About two or three days after the wound occurs, fibroblasts begin to enter the wound site, marking the onset of the proliferative phase even before the inflammatory phase has ended. As in the other phases of wound healing, steps in the proliferative phase do not occur in a series but rather partially overlap in time.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Also called neovascularization, the process of angiogenesis occurs concurrently with fibroblast proliferation when endothelial cells migrate to the area of the wound. Because the activity of fibroblasts and epithelial cells requires oxygen and nutrients, angiogenesis is imperative for other stages in wound healing, like epidermal and fibroblast migration. The tissue in which angiogenesis has occurred typically looks red (is erythematous) due to the presence of capillaries.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Stem cells of endothelial cells, originating from parts of uninjured blood vessels, develop pseudopodia and push through the ECM into the wound site to establish new blood vessels.

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Wound healing

Context: To migrate, endothelial cells need collagenases and plasminogen activator to degrade the clot and part of the ECM. Zinc-dependent metalloproteinases digest basement membrane and ECM to allow cell migration, proliferation and angiogenesis.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: When macrophages and other growth factor-producing cells are no longer in a hypoxic, lactic acid-filled environment, they stop producing angiogenic factors. Thus, when tissue is adequately perfused, migration and proliferation of endothelial cells is reduced. Eventually blood vessels that are no longer needed die by apoptosis.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Simultaneously with angiogenesis, fibroblasts begin accumulating in the wound site. Fibroblasts begin entering the wound site two to five days after wounding as the inflammatory phase is ending, and their numbers peak at one to two weeks post-wounding. By the end of the first week, fibroblasts are the main cells in the wound. Fibroplasia ends two to four weeks after wounding.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Growth factors (PDGF, TGF-β) and fibronectin encourage proliferation, migration to the wound bed, and production of ECM molecules by fibroblasts. Fibroblasts also secrete growth factors that attract epithelial cells to the wound site. Hypoxia also contributes to fibroblast proliferation and excretion of growth factors, though too little oxygen will inhibit their growth and deposition of ECM components, and can lead to excessive, fibrotic scarring.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Collagen deposition is important because it increases the strength of the wound; before it is laid down, the only thing holding the wound closed is the fibrin-fibronectin clot, which does not provide much resistance to traumatic injury. Also, cells involved in inflammation, angiogenesis, and connective tissue construction attach to, grow and differentiate on the collagen matrix laid down by fibroblasts.

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Wound healing

Context: Type III collagen and fibronectin generally begin to be produced in appreciable amounts at somewhere between approximately 10 hours and 3 days, depending mainly on wound size. Their deposition peaks at one to three weeks. They are the predominating tensile substances until the later phase of maturation, in which they are replaced by the stronger type I collagen.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Keratinocytes migrate without first proliferating. Migration can begin as early as a few hours after wounding. However, epithelial cells require viable tissue to migrate across, so if the wound is deep it must first be filled with granulation tissue. Thus the time of onset of migration is variable and may occur about one day after wounding. Cells on the wound margins proliferate on the second and third day post-wounding in order to provide more cells for migration.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Before they begin migrating, keratinocytes change shape, becoming longer and flatter and extending cellular processes like lamellipodia and wide processes that look like ruffles. Actin filaments and pseudopodia form. During migration, integrins on the pseudopod attach to the ECM, and the actin filaments in the projection pull the cell along. The interaction with molecules in the ECM through integrins further promotes the formation of actin filaments, lamellipodia, and filopodia.

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Wound healing

Context: Epithelial cells climb over one another in order to migrate. This growing sheet of epithelial cells is often called the epithelial tongue. The first cells to attach to the basement membrane form the stratum basale. These basal cells continue to migrate across the wound bed, and epithelial cells above them slide along as well. The more quickly this migration occurs, the less of a scar there will be.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Fibrin, collagen, and fibronectin in the ECM may further signal cells to divide and migrate. Like fibroblasts, migrating keratinocytes use the fibronectin cross-linked with fibrin that was deposited in inflammation as an attachment site to crawl across.

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Wound healing

Context: As keratinocytes continue migrating, new epithelial cells must be formed at the wound edges to replace them and to provide more cells for the advancing sheet. Proliferation behind migrating keratinocytes normally begins a few days after wounding and occurs at a rate that is 17 times higher in this stage of epithelialization than in normal tissues. Until the entire wound area is resurfaced, the only epithelial cells to proliferate are at the wound edges.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Growth factors, stimulated by integrins and MMPs, cause cells to proliferate at the wound edges. Keratinocytes themselves also produce and secrete factors, including growth factors and basement membrane proteins, which aid both in epithelialization and in other phases of healing. Growth factors are also important for the innate immune defense of skin wounds by stimulation of the production of antimicrobial peptides and neutrophil chemotactic cytokines in keratinocytes.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Contraction is a key phase of wound healing with repair. If contraction continues for too long, it can lead to disfigurement and loss of function. Thus there is a great interest in understanding the biology of wound contraction, which can be modelled in vitro using the collagen gel contraction assay or the dermal equivalent model.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: At first, contraction occurs without myofibroblast involvement. Later, fibroblasts, stimulated by growth factors, differentiate into myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts, which are similar to smooth muscle cells, are responsible for contraction. Myofibroblasts contain the same kind of actin as that found in smooth muscle cells.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: As the phase progresses, the tensile strength of the wound increases. Collagen will reach approximately 20% of its tensile strength after 3 weeks, increasing to 80% by 12th week. The maximum scar strength is 80% of that of unwounded skin. Since activity at the wound site is reduced, the scar loses its red appearance as blood vessels that are no longer needed are removed by apoptosis.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: The phases of wound healing normally progress in a predictable, timely manner; if they do not, healing may progress inappropriately to either a chronic wound such as a venous ulcer or pathological scarring such as a keloid scar.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟


Wound healing

Context: Many factors controlling the efficacy, speed, and manner of wound healing fall under two types: local and systemic factors.

Question: ما هى الجسيمات المسؤولة عن إلتئام الجروح ؟