Alfred de Vigny

Context: Vigny developed what is believed to have been stomach cancer during his early sixties. He endured its torments with exemplary stoicism for several years: 'When we see what we were on Earth and what we leave behind/Only silence is great; everything else is weakness.' () Vigny died in Paris on 17 September 1863, a few months after the death of his wife. He was buried beside her in the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris. Several of his works were published posthumously.

Question: من هو زعيم الحركة الرومنطيقية ؟


Puberty

Context: Two of the most significant differences between puberty in girls and puberty in boys are the age at which it begins, and the major sex steroids involved, the androgens and the estrogens.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The hormone that dominates female development is an estrogen called estradiol. While estradiol promotes growth of the breasts and uterus, it is also the principal hormone driving the pubertal growth spurt and epiphyseal maturation and closure. Estradiol levels rise earlier and reach higher levels in women than in men.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The hormonal maturation of females is considerably more complicated than in boys. The main steroid hormones, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone as well as prolactin play important physiological functions in puberty.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Puberty is preceded by adrenarche, marking an increase of adrenal androgen production between ages 6–10. Adrenarche is sometimes accompanied by the early appearance of axillary and pubic hair. The first androgenic hair resulting from adrenarche can be also transient and disappear before the onset of true puberty.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The onset of puberty is associated with high GnRH pulsing, which precedes the rise in sex hormones, LH and FSH. Exogenous GnRH pulses cause the onset of puberty. Brain tumors which increase GnRH output may also lead to premature puberty.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Several studies about puberty have examined the effects of an early or a late onset of puberty in males and females. In general, girls who enter puberty late experience positive outcomes in adolescence and adulthood, while girls who enter puberty early experience negative outcomes. Boys who have earlier pubertal timing generally have more positive outcomes in adulthood but more negative outcomes in adolescence, while the reverse is true for later pubertal timing.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Furthermore, as physical and emotional differences set them apart from people in their same age group, early-maturing girls develop relationships with older people. For instance, some early-maturing girls have older boyfriends, "attracted to the girls' womanly physique and girlish innocence." While having an older boyfriend might improve popularity among peers, it also increases the risk of alcohol and drug use, increased sexual relations (often unprotected), eating disorders and bullying.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Generally, later onset of puberty in girls produces positive outcomes. They exhibit positive behaviors in adolescence that continue to adulthood.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: In the past, early onset of puberty in boys has been associated with positive outcomes, such as leadership in high school and success in adulthood. However, recent studies have revealed that the risks and problems of early maturation in males might outweigh the benefits.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: On the other hand, late-maturing boys develop lower self-esteem and confidence and generally have lower popularity among peers, due to their less-developed physiques. Also, they experience problems with anxiety and depression and are more likely to be afraid of sex than other boys.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: By the end of puberty, adult men have heavier bones and nearly twice as much skeletal muscle. Some of the bone growth (e.g. shoulder width and jaw) is disproportionately greater, resulting in noticeably different male and female skeletal shapes. The average adult male has about 150% of the lean body mass of an average female, and about 50% of the body fat.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: This muscle develops mainly during the later stages of puberty, and muscle growth can continue even after boys are biologically adult. The peak of the so-called "strength spurt", the rate of muscle growth, is attained about one year after a male experiences his peak growth rate.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Often, the fat pads of the male breast tissue and the male nipples will develop during puberty; sometimes, especially in one breast, this becomes more apparent and is termed gynecomastia. It is usually not a permanent phenomenon.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: During puberty, if not before, the tip and opening of a boy's foreskin becomes wider, progressively allowing for retraction down the shaft of the penis and behind the glans, which ultimately should be possible without pain or difficulty. The membrane that bonds the inner surface of the foreskin with the glans disintegrates and releases the foreskin to separate from the glans. The foreskin then gradually becomes retractable.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Pubic hair often appears on a boy shortly after the genitalia begin to grow. The pubic hairs are usually first visible at the dorsal (abdominal) base of the penis. The first few hairs are described as stage 2. Stage 3 is usually reached within another 6–12 months, when the hairs are too many to count. By stage 4, the pubic hairs densely fill the "pubic triangle." Stage 5 refers to the spread of pubic hair to the thighs and upward towards the navel as part of the developing abdominal hair.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Rising levels of androgens can change the fatty acid composition of perspiration, resulting in a more "adult" body odor. This often precedes thelarche and pubarche by one or more years. Another androgen effect is increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin. This change increases the susceptibility to acne, a skin condition that is characteristic of puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: In girls, estradiol (the primary female sex hormone) causes thickening of lips and oral mucosa as well as further development of the vulva. In the vulva and vagina, estradiol causes thickening (stratification) of the skin and the growth of both the myoepithelial layer and the smooth muscle of the vagina. Typically estradiol will also cause pronounced growth of the labia minora and to a lesser degree of the labia majora.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Estradiol is also responsible for the increased production of pheomelanin, resulting in the characteristic red color of the lips, labia minora and sometimes labia majora. Estradiol together with other ovarian steroids also cause the darker coloration of the areola.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Testosterone will cause an enlargement of the clitoris and possibly has important effects on the growth and maturation of the vestibular bulbs, corpus cavernosum of the clitoris and urethral sponge.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Changes of the vulva initiated by estradiol as well as its direct effects also appear to influence the functioning of the lower urinary tract.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The definition of the onset of puberty may depend on perspective (e.g., hormonal versus physical) and purpose (establishing population normal standards, clinical care of early or late pubescent individuals, etc.). A common definition for the onset of puberty is physical changes to a person's body. These physical changes are the first visible signs of neural, hormonal, and gonadal function changes.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The age at which puberty begins varies between individuals; usually, puberty begins between 10 and 13 years of age. The age at which puberty begins is affected by both genetic factors and by environmental factors such as nutritional state and social circumstances. An example of social circumstances is the Vandenbergh effect; a juvenile female who has significant interaction with adult males will enter puberty earlier than juvenile females who are not socially overexposed to adult males.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Researchers have identified an earlier age of the onset of puberty. However, they have based their conclusions on a comparison of data from 1999 with data from 1969. In the earlier example, the sample population was based on a small sample of white girls (200, from Britain). The later study identified as puberty as occurring in 48% of African-American girls by age nine, and 12% of white girls by that age.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: A 2006 study in Denmark found that puberty, as evidenced by breast development, started at an average age of 9 years and 10 months, a year earlier than when a similar study was done in 1991. Scientists believe the phenomenon could be linked to obesity or exposure to chemicals in the food chain, and is putting girls at greater long-term risk of breast cancer.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Various studies have found direct genetic effects to account for at least 46% of the variation of timing of puberty in well-nourished populations. The genetic association of timing is strongest between mothers and daughters. The specific genes affecting timing are not yet known. Among the candidates is an androgen receptor gene.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Researchers have hypothesized that early puberty onset may be caused by certain hair care products containing estrogen or placenta, and by certain chemicals, namely phthalates, which are used in many cosmetics, toys, and plastic food containers.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: If genetic factors account for half of the variation of pubertal timing, environment factors are clearly important as well. One of the first observed environmental effects is that puberty occurs later in children raised at higher altitudes. The most important of the environmental influences is clearly nutrition, but a number of others have been identified, all which affect timing of female puberty and menarche more clearly than male puberty.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Harder to detect as an influence on puberty are the more diffusely distributed environmental chemicals like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl), which can bind and trigger estrogen receptors.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: More obvious degrees of partial puberty from direct exposure of young children to small but significant amounts of pharmaceutical sex steroids from exposure at home may be detected during medical evaluation for precocious puberty, but mild effects and the other potential exposures outlined above would not.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Nutritional factors are the strongest and most obvious environmental factors affecting timing of puberty. Girls are especially sensitive to nutritional regulation because they must contribute all of the nutritional support to a growing fetus. Surplus calories (beyond growth and activity requirements) are reflected in the amount of body fat, which signals to the brain the availability of resources for initiation of puberty and fertility.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Although available dietary energy (simple calories) is the most important dietary influence on timing of puberty, quality of the diet plays a role as well. Lower protein intakes and higher dietary fiber intakes, as occur with typical vegetarian diets, are associated with later onset and slower progression of female puberty.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Scientific researchers have linked early obesity with an earlier onset of puberty in girls. They have cited obesity as a cause of breast development before nine years and menarche before twelve years. Early puberty in girls can be a harbinger of later health problems.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The average level of daily physical activity has also been shown to affect timing of puberty, especially in females. A high level of exercise, whether for athletic or body image purposes, or for daily subsistence, reduces energy calories available for reproduction and slows puberty. The exercise effect is often amplified by a lower body fat mass and cholesterol.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Chronic diseases can delay puberty in both boys and girls. Those that involve chronic inflammation or interfere with nutrition have the strongest effect. In the western world, inflammatory bowel disease and tuberculosis have been notorious for such an effect in the last century, while in areas of the underdeveloped world, chronic parasite infections are widespread.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Mental illnesses occur in puberty. The brain undergoes significant development by hormones which can contribute to mood disorders such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, dysthymia and schizophrenia. Girls aged between 15 and 19 make up 40% of anorexia nervosa cases.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Some of the least understood environmental influences on timing of puberty are social and psychological. In comparison with the effects of genetics, nutrition, and general health, social influences are small, shifting timing by a few months rather than years. Mechanisms of these social effects are unknown, though a variety of physiological processes, including pheromones, have been suggested based on animal research.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: More extreme degrees of environmental stress, such as wartime refugee status with threat to physical survival, have been found to be associated with delay of maturation, an effect that may be compounded by dietary inadequacy.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Another limitation of the social research is that nearly all of it has concerned girls, partly because female puberty requires greater physiologic resources and partly because it involves a unique event (menarche) that makes survey research into female puberty much simpler than male. More detail is provided in the menarche article.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The sequence of events of pubertal development can occasionally vary. For example, in about 15% of boys and girls, pubarche (the first pubic hairs) can precede, respectively, gonadarche and thelarche by a few months. Rarely, menarche can occur before other signs of puberty in a few girls. These variations deserve medical evaluation because they can occasionally signal a disease.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The endocrine reproductive system consists of the hypothalamus, the pituitary, the gonads, and the adrenal glands, with input and regulation from many other body systems. True puberty is often termed "central puberty" because it begins as a process of the central nervous system. A simple description of hormonal puberty is as follows:

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus is the driver of the reproductive system. It has neurons which generate and release pulses of GnRH into the portal venous system of the pituitary gland. The arcuate nucleus is affected and controlled by neuronal input from other areas of the brain and hormonal input from the gonads, adipose tissue and a variety of other systems.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The pituitary gland responds to the pulsed GnRH signals by releasing LH and FSH into the blood of the general circulation, also in a pulsatile pattern.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The gonads (testes and ovaries) respond to rising levels of LH and FSH by producing the steroid sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: The adrenal glands are a second source for steroid hormones. Adrenal maturation, termed adrenarche, typically precedes gonadarche in mid-childhood.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Gonadotropin and sex steroid levels fall to low levels (nearly undetectable by current clinical assays) for approximately another 8 to 10 years of childhood. Evidence is accumulating that the reproductive system is not totally inactive during the childhood years. Subtle increases in gonadotropin pulses occur, and ovarian follicles surrounding germ cells (future eggs) double in number.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Some investigators have attributed the onset of puberty to a resonance of oscillators in the brain. By this mechanism, the gonadotropin pulses that occur primarily at night just before puberty represent beats.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: An array of "autoamplification processes" increases the production of all of the pubertal hormones of the hypothalamus, pituitary, and gonads.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Early stages of male hypothalamic maturation seem to be very similar to the early stages of female puberty, though occurring about 1–2 years later.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: LH stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes to make testosterone and blood levels begin to rise. For much of puberty, nighttime levels of testosterone are higher than daytime. Regularity of frequency and amplitude of gonadotropin pulses seems to be less necessary for progression of male than female puberty.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: However, a significant portion of testosterone in adolescent boys is converted to estradiol. Estradiol mediates the growth spurt, bone maturation, and epiphyseal closure in boys just as in girls. Estradiol also induces at least modest development of breast tissue (gynecomastia) in a large proportion of boys. Boys who develop mild gynecomastia, a swellings under nipples, during puberty are told the effects are temporary in some male teenagers due to high levels of estradiol.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Another hormonal change in males takes place during the teenage years for most young men. At this point in a male's life the testosterone levels slowly rise, and most of the effects are mediated through the androgen receptors by way of conversion dihydrotestosterone in target organs (especially that of the bowels).

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Rising levels of estradiol produce the characteristic estrogenic body changes of female puberty: growth spurt, acceleration of bone maturation and closure, breast growth, increased fat composition, growth of the uterus, increased thickness of the endometrium and the vaginal mucosa, and widening of the lower pelvis.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: As the estradiol levels gradually rise and the other autoamplification processes occur, a point of maturation is reached when the feedback sensitivity of the hypothalamic "gonadostat" becomes positive. This attainment of positive feedback is the hallmark of female sexual maturity, as it allows the mid cycle LH surge necessary for ovulation.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Puberty

Context: Growth hormone levels rise steadily throughout puberty. IGF1 levels rise and then decline as puberty ends. Growth finishes and adult height is attained as the estradiol levels complete closure of the epiphyses.

Question: ما هو سن البلوغ الوسطي للإناث في إفريقيا؟


Walter Gross (politician)

Context: Walter Gross was born in Kassel. In 1925, while training as a physician, he became a member of the NSDAP. He was appointed leader of the National Socialist German Doctors' Alliance in 1932. Gross was an anti-Semite and called for the extermination of the Jews and believed in the Final Solution that was so central to the Nazi Party. He wrote several books on the subject of the "Jewish Question". In many respects, he implemented the views of Alfred Rosenberg.

Question: من كان رئيس مكتب السياسات العرقية بالحزب النازي؟


Walter Gross (politician)

Context: Gross burned his files in Berlin at the closing of World War II, thereby, in the opinion of Claudia Koonz, erasing significant evidence "that would have incriminated the more than 3,000 members of his national network of racial educators."

Question: من كان رئيس مكتب السياسات العرقية بالحزب النازي؟


Walter Gross (politician)

Context: Gross died in combat operations against the Red Army, which had already penetrated the Berlin city area, on 25 April 1945, in his private residence in Berlin-Schlachtensee. His colleagues would later describe this action as him 'seeking death', essentially committing suicide.

Question: من كان رئيس مكتب السياسات العرقية بالحزب النازي؟


National Liberation Army (Algeria)

Context: The National Liberation Army or ALN (; ) was the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front of Algeria during the Algerian War. After Algeria won its independence from France in 1962, the ALN was converted into the regular Algerian People's National Armed Forces.

Question: بم تمثل الجناح السياسي لجيش التحرير الوطني الجزائري قبل الاستقلال؟


National Liberation Army (Algeria)

Context: On the morning of 5 July 1962 seven companies of ALN soldiers entering the city of Oran were fired on by some , white Europeans who were born in colonial Algeria. An outraged Arab mob swept into the "Pied-Noir" neighbourhoods, which had already been largely vacated, and attacked the estimated 40,000 remaining pieds-noirs there. The violence lasted several hours until it was ended by the deployment of French Gendarmerie.

Question: بم تمثل الجناح السياسي لجيش التحرير الوطني الجزائري قبل الاستقلال؟


Al-Sayeda Zainab Mosque

Context: Al-Sayeda Zainab Mosque () is a historic mosque in Cairo, Egypt, and constitutes one of the most important and biggest mosques in the history of Egypt. The name is an honor to Sayyida Zaynab bint Ali, one of the daughters of 'Ali, fourth Caliph and first Shia Imam, and his first wife Fatimah, the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

Question: متى تم بناء مزار السيدة زينب في مصر ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: the Habsburg Royal Hungary, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 continuously until 1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of 1920–1946, ending under the Soviet occupation in 1946.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of Hungarians before the Battle of Mohács, however in the mid-19th century out of a population of 14 million less than 6 million were Hungarian due to the resettlement policies and continuous immigration from neighboring countries. Major territorial changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after World War I. Nowadays, more than nine-tenths of the population is ethnically Hungarian and speaks Hungarian as their mother tongue.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Latin forms or ( meaning kingdom); (Kingdom of Mary); or simply , were the names used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Hungarian name () was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The unofficial Hungarian name of the kingdom was , which is still the colloquial, and also the official name of Hungary.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The names in the other native languages of the kingdom were: , , , , , , and Italian (for the city of Fiume), .

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: In Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), the unofficial name was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, although this term was also in use prior to that time.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Hungarians, led by Árpád, settled the Carpathian Basin in 895 and established the Principality of Hungary (896–1000). The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor in Battle of Lechfeld.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Around 11th century, Kingdom of Hungary became a Christian state, and Catholicism in the Hungarian Kingdom was a state religion.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called Bratislava, in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of Andrew III. Subsequently, Hungary was ruled by the Angevins until the end of the 14th century, and then by several non-dynastic rulers – notably Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and Matthias Corvinus – until the early 16th century.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: When Andrew III's predecessor, Ladislaus IV, was assassinated in 1290, another nobleman was set up as titular King of Hungary: Charles Martel of Anjou. Charles Martel was the son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, the sister of Ladislaus IV. However, Andrew III took the crown for himself and ruled without inconvenience after Charles Martel's death in 1295.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Charles exalted the cult to Saint Ladislaus I, using him as a symbol of bravery, justice and purity. He also venerated his uncle, Saint Louis of Toulouse. On the other hand, he gave importance to the cults of the princesses Saint Elizabeth and Saint Margaret, which added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the feminine branches.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Charles restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and then made the lords swear loyalty to him. For this, he founded in 1326 the Order of Saint George, which was the first secular chivalric order in the world, and included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Charles married four times. His fourth wife was Elizabeth, the daughter of Władysław I of Poland. When Charles died in 1342, his eldest son by Elizabeth succeeded him as Louis I. In the first years of his reign, Louis was advised closely by his mother, making her one of the most influential personalities in the Kingdom.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: In 1370 Louis's uncle, Casimir III of Poland, died without male issue. Louis succeeded him, thus establishing the first union of Hungary and Poland. This lasted until 1382 when Louis himself died without male issue; his two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga, then ascended the thrones of Hungary and Poland respectively.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), the son of John Hunyadi. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the Crusade of Varna, in which the Hungarians tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans. Initially, they were successful, but later at the Battle of Varna, the Ottomans won a decisive if Pyrrhic victory. Wladyslaw III was decapitated during this battle.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Matthias died without legitimate heir, and was thus succeeded by Vladislaus II Jagiellon (1490–1516), the son of Casimir IV of Poland. In turn, Vladislaus was succeeded by his son Louis II (1516–26).

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: In 1526, at the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Suleiman the Magnificent annihilated the Hungarian army. In trying to escape, Louis II drowned in the Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Due to a serious defeat by the Ottomans (Battle of Mohács) the central authority collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected John Zápolya (10 November 1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, who was Archduke of Austria, and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump diet in December 1526.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows:

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the Ottoman forces, such as the Long War or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 – 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by Miklós Zrínyi burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of Osijek in eastern Slavonia, interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664), Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: After the Ottoman siege of Vienna failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to invade the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from the Ottoman Empire, with the aid of other Europeans.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at Battle of Trencsén, and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While the Hungarians were exhausted by the fights, the Austrians defeated the French army in the War of the Spanish Succession. They could send more troops to Hungary against the rebels. Transylvania became part of Hungary again starting at the end of the 17th century, and was led by governors.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: In 1711, Austrian Emperor Charles VI became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own diet (parliament) and constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council ("Helytartótanács", the office of the palatine) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior economic institution, the Hungarian Chamber, was directly subordinated to the Court Chamber in Vienna.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Hungarian language reform started under the reign of Joseph II. The reform age of Hungary was started by István Széchenyi a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. The official language remained Latin until 1836, when Hungarian was introduced. Between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867 onward, Hungarian became the exclusively used official language.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The European revolutions of 1848 swept into Hungary, as well. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political change, namely independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the revolution, Sándor Petőfi.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: The Hungarian Soviet Republic or Hungarian Republic of Councils ( or "Magyarországi Szocialista Szövetséges Tanácsköztársaság") was a short-lived independent communist state established in Hungary.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: A 1919 attempt to form a federation with the Kingdom of Romania also failed, when the Romanian King ultimately refused to accept the Hungarian Crown.

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Kingdom of Hungary

Context: Following its occupation of Hungary in 1944, the Soviet Union imposed harsh conditions allowing the Russians to seize important material assets and control internal affairs. After the Red Army set up police organs to persecute

Question: من هو منشئ المملكة المجرية ؟


Ford Model A (1903–04)

Context: The company had spent almost its entire $28,000 initial investment funds ($ in dollars ) with only $223.65 left in its bank account when the first Model A was sold. The success of this car model generated a profit for the Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford's first successful business.

Question: متى صنعت شركة فورد أول سيارة؟


Ford Model A (1903–04)

Context: Although Ford advertised the Model A as the "most reliable machine in the world", it suffered from many problems common to vehicles of the era, including overheating and slipping transmission bands. The Model A was sold only in red by the factory, though some were later repainted in other colors.

Question: متى صنعت شركة فورد أول سيارة؟


Ford Model A (1903–04)

Context: 1904 Model A cars were equipped with the larger, 10-horsepower engine of the Model C and were sold as the Model AC. The Model AC can be visually distinguished from the Model A by its larger six-by-three-bar radiator.

Question: متى صنعت شركة فورد أول سيارة؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938, Freud left Austria to escape Nazi persecution. He died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud household after the death of her fiancé. The close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumours, started by Carl Jung, of an affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel guest-book entry for 13 August 1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence of the affair.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. He believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise self-control in moderating it. Despite health warnings from colleague Wilhelm Fliess, he remained a smoker, eventually suffering a buccal cancer. Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation, "the one great habit."

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud read William Shakespeare in English throughout his life, and it has been suggested that his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral outlook, especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism, as he was the first to point out in his "Autobiographical Study". They would also have a substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and "the bounding of desire by law".

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud's development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced heart irregularities, disturbing dreams and periods of depression, a "neurasthenia" which he linked to the death of his father in 1896 and which prompted a "self-analysis" of his own dreams and memories of childhood. His explorations of his feelings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over his mother's affections led him to fundamentally revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: This transition from the theory of infantile sexual trauma as a general explanation of how all neuroses originate to one that presupposes autonomous infantile sexuality provided the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the theory of the Oedipus complex.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: With his prestige thus enhanced, Freud continued with the regular series of lectures on his work which, since the mid-1880s as a docent of Vienna University, he had been delivering to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: From the autumn of 1902, a number of Viennese physicians who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology. This group was called the Wednesday Psychological Society ("Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft") and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud founded this discussion group at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel had studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Richard von Krafft-Ebing. His conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as a result of his reading "The Interpretation of Dreams", to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper "Neues Wiener Tagblatt".

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Max Graf, a Viennese musicologist and father of "Little Hans", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception, described the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society:

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) and founded their own schools.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Later the same year, Freud published a paper entitled "", the German original being first published in the "Jahrbuch", giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an international network of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes, and clinics became well established and a regular schedule of biannual Congresses commenced after the end of World War I to coordinate their activities.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of Helene Deutsch. Ferenczi founded the Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in Switzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933), Norway (1933), and in Palestine (Jerusalem, 1933) by Eitingon, who had fled Berlin after Adolf Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The 1922 Berlin Congress was the last Freud attended. By this time his speech had become seriously impaired by the prosthetic device he needed as a result of a series of operations on his cancerous jaw. He kept abreast of developments through regular correspondence with his principal followers and via the circular letters and meetings of the Secret Committee which he continued to attend.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In 1930, Freud received the Goethe Prize in recognition of his contributions to psychology and German literary culture.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The departure from Vienna began in stages throughout April and May 1938. Freud's grandson, Ernst Halberstadt, and Freud's son Martin's wife and children left for Paris in April. Freud's sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, left for London on 5 May, Martin Freud the following week and Freud's daughter Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on 24 May.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In early 1939, Sauerwald arrived in London in mysterious circumstances, where he met Freud's brother Alexander. He was tried and imprisoned in 1945 by an Austrian court for his activities as a Nazi Party official. Responding to a plea from his wife, Anna Freud wrote to confirm that Sauerwald "used his office as our appointed commissar in such a manner as to protect my father". Her intervention helped secure his release from jail in 1947.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In the Freuds' new home, 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead, North London, Freud's Vienna consulting room was recreated in faithful detail. He continued to see patients there until the terminal stages of his illness. He also worked on his last books, "Moses and Monotheism", published in German in 1938 and in English the following year and the uncompleted "An Outline of Psychoanalysis", which was published posthumously.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis". He published several medical papers on the topic and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William John Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished. After the "Cocaine Episode" Freud ceased to publicly recommend the use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before discontinuing its use in 1896.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud's account of the mind. Freud believed that while poets and thinkers had long known of the existence of the unconscious, he had ensured that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In his account of the development and modification of his theory of unconscious mental processes he sets out in his 1915 paper 'The Unconscious' ("Standard Edition" XIV), Freud identifies the three perspectives he employs: the dynamic, the economic and the topographical.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The dynamic perspective concerns firstly the constitution of the unconscious by repression and secondly the process of "censorship" which maintains unwanted, anxiety-inducing thoughts as such. Here Freud is drawing on observations from his earliest clinical work in the treatment of hysteria.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In the economic perspective the focus is upon the trajectories of the repressed contents "the vicissitudes of sexual impulses" as they undergo complex transformations in the process of both symptom formation and normal unconscious thought such as dreams and slips of the tongue. These were topics Freud explored in detail in "The Interpretation of Dreams" and "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life".

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Whereas both these former perspectives focus on the unconscious as it is about to enter consciousness, the topographical perspective represents a shift in which the systemic properties of the unconscious, its characteristic processes, and modes of operation such as condensation and displacement, are placed in the foreground.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud believed the function of dreams is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awaken the dreamer.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material arguing that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud compared the relationship between the ego and the id to that between a charioteer and his horses: the horses provide the energy and drive, while the charioteer provides direction.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud believed that the human psyche is subject to two conflicting drives: the life drive or libido and the death drive. The life drive was also termed "Eros" and the death drive "Thanatos", although Freud did not use the latter term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul Federn. Freud hypothesized that libido is a form of mental energy with which processes, structures, and object-representations are invested.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Throughout his deliberations on what he described as the “dark continent” of female sexuality and the "riddle" of femininity, Freud was careful to emphasise the “average validity” and provisional nature of his findings. He did, however, in response to his critics, maintain a steadfast objection "to all of you ... to the extent that you do not distinguish more clearly between what is psychic and what is biological..."

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In a footnote of his 1909 work, "Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy", Freud theorized that the universal fear of castration was provoked in the uncircumcised when they perceived circumcision and that this was "the deepest unconscious root of anti-Semitism".

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud's legacy, though a highly contested area of controversy, has been assessed as "one of the strongest influences on twentieth-century thought, its impact comparable only to that of Darwinism and Marxism," with its range of influence permeating "all the fields of culture ... so far as to change our way of life and concept of man."

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: I.B. Cohen regards Freud's "Interpretation of Dreams" as a revolutionary work of science, the last such work to be published in book form.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In contrast Allan Hobson believes that Freud, by rhetorically discrediting 19th century investigators of dreams such as Alfred Maury and the Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis at a time when study of the physiology of the brain was only beginning, interrupted the development of scientific dream theory for half a century. The dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of Freudian dream theory being validated.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The poem "In Memory of Sigmund Freud" was published by British poet W. H. Auden in his 1940 collection "Another Time". Auden describes Freud as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives."

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Literary critic Harold Bloom has been influenced by Freud. Camille Paglia has also been influenced by Freud, whom she calls "Nietzsche's heir" and one of the greatest sexual psychologists in literature, but has rejected the scientific status of his work in her "Sexual Personae" (1990), writing, "Freud has no rivals among his successors because they think he wrote science, when in fact he wrote art."

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Some French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva and Luce Irigaray, have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Lacan. Irigaray has produced a theoretical challenge to Freud and Lacan, using their theories against them to put forward a "psychoanalytic explanation for theoretical bias". Irigaray, who claims that "the cultural unconscious only recognizes the male sex", describes how this affects "accounts of the psychology of women".

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Sigmund Freud is the subject of three major films or TV series, the first of which was 1962's" " starring Montgomery Clift as Freud, directed by John Huston from a revision of a script by an uncredited Jean-Paul Sartre. The film is focused on Freud's early life from 1885 to 1890 and combines multiple case studies of Freud into single ones, and multiple friends of his into single characters.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In 1984, the BBC produced the six-episode mini-series "Freud: the Life of a Dream" starring David Suchet in the lead role.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The stage play "The Talking Cure" and subsequent film "A Dangerous Method" focus on the conflict between Freud and Carl Jung. Both are written by Christopher Hampton and are partly based on the non-fiction book "A Most Dangerous Method" by John Kerr. Viggo Mortensen plays Freud and Michael Fassbender plays Jung. The play is a reworking of an earlier unfilmed screenplay.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud is employed to more comic effect in the 1983 film "Lovesick" in which Alec Guinness plays Freud's ghost who gives love advice to a modern psychiatrist played by Dudley Moore. Freud is also presented in a comedic light in the 1989 film, "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure". Portrayed by Rod Loomis, Freud is one of several historical figures recruited by the film's time traveling lead characters to assist them in passing their high school history class presentation.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Canadian author Kim Morrissey's stage play about the Dora case, "Dora: A Case of Hysteria", attempts to thoroughly debunk Freud's approach to the case. French playwright Hélène Cixous' 1976 "Portrait of Dora" is also critical of Freud's approach, though less acerbically.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: The narrator of Bob Dylan's darkly humorous 2020 song "My Own Version of You" calls "Mr. Freud with his dreams" one of the "best-known enemies of mankind" and refers to him as burning in hell.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: In the online, superhero-themed, animated series "Super Science Friends", Freud appears as a main character alongside other famous historical science figures.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud was portrayed in a 2019 episode of the online YouTube series "Epic Rap Battles of History", rapping against Mother Teresa. He is portrayed by series co-creator Nice Peter.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Sigmund Freud

Context: "The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud". Translated from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey, in collaboration with Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey, Alan Tyson, and Angela Richards. 24 volumes, London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953–1974.

Question: متى  عاش فرويد مختص الطب النفسي؟


Train station

Context: A train station, railway station, railroad station or depot is a railway facility or area where trains stop to load or unload passengers, freight or both. It generally consists of at least one platform, one track and a station building providing such ancillary services as ticket sales, waiting rooms and baggage/freight service. If a station is on a single-track line, it often has a passing loop to facilitate traffic movements.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Places at which passengers only occasionally board or leave a train, sometimes consisting of a short platform and a waiting shed but sometimes indicated by no more than a sign, are variously referred to as "stops", "flag stops", "halts", or "provisional stopping places". The stations themselves may be at ground level, underground or elevated. Connections may be available to intersecting rail lines or other transport modes such as buses, trams or other rapid transit systems.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: In British English, traditional terminology favours "railway station" or simply "station", even though "train station", which is often perceived as an Americanism, is now about as common as "railway station" in writing; "railroad station" is not used, "railroad" being obsolete. In British usage, the word "station" is commonly understood to mean a railway station unless otherwise qualified.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: The two-storey Mount Clare station in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, which survives as a museum, first saw passenger service as the terminus of the horse-drawn Baltimore and Ohio Railroad on 22 May 1830.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: The first stations had little in the way of buildings or amenities. The first stations in the modern sense were on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830. Manchester's Liverpool Road Station, the second oldest terminal station in the world, is preserved as part of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. It resembles a row of Georgian houses.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Early stations were sometimes built with both passenger and freight facilities, though some railway lines were goods-only or passenger-only, and if a line was dual-purpose there would often be a freight depot apart from the passenger station.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Dual-purpose stations can sometimes still be found today, though in many cases goods facilities are restricted to major stations.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Stations built more recently often have a similar feel to airports, with a simple, abstract style. Examples of modern stations include those on newer high-speed rail networks, such as the Shinkansen in Japan, THSR in the Republic of China, TGV lines in France, and ICE lines in Germany.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Many stations, either larger or smaller, offer interchange with local transportation; this can vary from a simple bus stop across the street to underground rapid-transit urban rail stations.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: In many African, South American, and Asian countries, stations are also used as a place for public markets and other informal businesses. This is especially true on tourist routes or stations near tourist destinations.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: As well as providing services for passengers and loading facilities for goods, stations can sometimes have locomotive and rolling stock depots (usually with facilities for storing and refuelling rolling stock and carrying out minor repair jobs).

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Occasionally, a station serves two or more railway lines at differing levels. This may be due to the station's position at a point where two lines cross (example: Berlin Hauptbahnhof), or may be to provide separate station capacity for two types of service, such as intercity and suburban (examples: Paris-Gare de Lyon and Philadelphia's 30th Street Station), or for two different destinations.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Stations may also be classified according to the layout of the platforms. Apart from single-track lines, the most basic arrangement is a pair of tracks for the two directions; there is then a basic choice of an island platform between, two separate platforms outside the tracks (side platforms), or a combination of the two. With more tracks, the possibilities expand.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: In a station, there are different types of tracks to serve different purposes. A station may also have a passing loop with a loop line that comes off the straight main line and merge back to the main line on the other end by railroad switches to allow trains to pass.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: A track with a spot at the station to board and disembark trains is called station track or house track regardless of whether it is a main line or loop line. If such track is served by a platform, the track may be called platform track. A loop line without a platform which is used to allow a train to clear the main line at the station only, it is called passing track. A track at the station without a platform which is used for trains to pass the station without stopping is called through track.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: There may be other sidings at the station which are lower speed tracks for other purposes. A maintenance track or a maintenance siding, usually connected to a passing track, is used for parking maintenance equipment, trains not in service, autoracks or sleepers. A refuge track is a dead-end siding that is connected to a station track as a temporary storage of a disabled train.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: A "terminus" or "terminal" is a station at the end of a railway line. Trains arriving there have to end their journeys (terminate) or reverse out of the station. Depending on the layout of the station, this usually permits travellers to reach all the platforms without the need to cross any tracks – the public entrance to the station and the main reception facilities being at the far end of the platforms.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Sometimes, however, the track continues for a short distance beyond the station, and terminating trains continue forwards after depositing their passengers, before either proceeding to sidings or reversing to the station to pick up departing passengers. Bondi Junction and Kristiansand Station, Norway, are like this.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: A terminus is frequently, but not always, the final destination of trains arriving at the station. Especially in continental Europe, a city may have a terminus as its main railway station, and all main lines converge on it. In such cases all trains arriving at the terminus must leave in the reverse direction from that of their arrival. There are several ways in which this can be accomplished:

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: An American example of a terminal with this feature is Union Station in Washington, DC, where there are bay platforms on the main concourse level to serve terminating trains and standard island platforms one level below to serve trains continuing southwards. The lower tracks run in a tunnel beneath the concourse and emerge a few blocks away to cross the Potomac River into Virginia.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Terminals that have competing rail lines using the station frequently set up a jointly owned terminal railroad to own and operate the station and its associated tracks and switching operations.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: During a journey, the term station stop may be used in announcements, to differentiate a halt during which passengers may alight for another reason, such as a locomotive change.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: While a junction or interlocking usually divides two or more lines or routes, and thus has remotely or locally operated signals, a station stop does not. A station stop usually does not have any tracks other than the main tracks, and may or may not have switches (points, crossovers).

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: A halt, in railway parlance in the Commonwealth of Nations and Ireland, is a small station, usually unstaffed or with very few staff, and with few or no facilities. In some cases, trains stop only on request, when passengers on the platform indicate that they wish to board, or passengers on the train inform the crew that they wish to alight.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: From 1903 to 1947 the GWR built 379 halts and inherited a further 40 from other companies at the Grouping of 1923. Peak building periods were before the First World War (145 built) and 1928–39 (198 built). Ten more were opened by British Rail on ex-GWR lines. The GWR also built 34 "platforms".

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: In rural and remote communities across Canada and the United States, passengers wanting to board the train at such places had to flag the train down to stop it, hence the name "flag stops" or "flag stations".

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: In the United Kingdom, rail operators will arrange alternative transport (typically a taxi) at no extra cost to the ticket holder if the station they intend to travel to or from is inaccessible.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: Goods or freight stations deal exclusively or predominantly with the loading and unloading of goods and may well have marshalling yards (classification yards) for the sorting of wagons. The world's first goods terminal was the 1830 Park Lane Goods Station at the South End Liverpool Docks. Built in 1830, the terminal was reached by a tunnel.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


Train station

Context: As goods are increasingly moved by road, many former goods stations, as well as the goods sheds at passenger stations, have closed. In addition, many goods stations today are used purely for the cross-loading of freight and may be known as transshipment stations, where they primarily handle containers. They are also known as container stations or terminals.

Question: ما هي أقدم محطة قطار؟


The Monkees (album)

Context: The song "Last Train to Clarksville" was released as a single shortly before the release of the album and went to the top of the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. It was the only hit single from the album. "I'll Be True to You" was previously released as a single by the Hollies in January 1965 under the title "Yes I Will".

Question: ماهو أول ألبوم لفرقة المونكيز ؟


The Monkees (album)

Context: The album was recorded in several separate sessions around Los Angeles from July 5–25, 1966. Early sessions were produced by the trio of Tommy Boyce, Bobby Hart and Jack Keller; later sessions were produced by Boyce and Hart. Michael Nesmith produced two sessions scheduled around the work done by Boyce, Hart, and Keller.

Question: ماهو أول ألبوم لفرقة المونكيز ؟


The Monkees (album)

Context: Bonus track at the end of Side 1: "I Can't Get Her Off My Mind" (Prev. unissued early version) – 2:55<br>

Question: ماهو أول ألبوم لفرقة المونكيز ؟


The Monkees (album)

Context: Bonus track at the end of Side 2: "I Don't Think You Know Me" (Goffin, King) (Prev. unissued alternate version) – 2:18

Question: ماهو أول ألبوم لفرقة المونكيز ؟


The Monkees (album)

Context: The following tracks were included on the 2006 deluxe edition of the album. Some were previously unreleased, while others were on the 1994 Rhino reissue or the "Missing Links" series. Studio chatter is included between some bonus tracks.

Question: ماهو أول ألبوم لفرقة المونكيز ؟


Zabivaka

Context: Designed by student designer Ekaterina Bocharova, the mascot was selected by internet voting in Russia.

Question: ما هي تميمة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2018؟


Zabivaka

Context: The combination of white, blue and red T shirt and shorts are the national colours of the Russian team.

Question: ما هي تميمة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2018؟


Zabivaka

Context: The name was suggested at the show by the chairman of the World Cup 2018 Organising Committee Vitali Mutko. FIFA paid Bocharova $500.

Question: ما هي تميمة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2018؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: In 1890, the AWSA merged with a rival organization, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). The new organization, called the National American Woman Suffrage Association, was initially led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who had been the leaders of the NWSA.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: It was organized by leaders of the New England Woman Suffrage Association (NEWSA), which had been created in November 1868 as part of the developing split within the women's movement. The AWSA and the NEWSA operated separately with somewhat overlapping leadership.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: African Americans attended the AWSA's founding convention and played important roles in the organization. Robert Purvis was elected vice president for Pennsylvania at that convention. Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, also a founding member of the AWSA, gave the closing address at the annual conventions in 1873 and 1875.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: Suffrage activists who hoped to prevent a split in the movement convinced Susan B. Anthony, one of the leaders of the NWSA, to attend the AWSA's founding convention. She was given a seat on the platform where she heard speeches voicing a determination to replace the NWSA. She rose to speak immediately after Lucy Stone's speech, offering to cooperate with the AWSA and saying the movement was more important than any one organization. The split, however, continued for many years.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: In 1870, Lucy Stone, the leader of the AWSA, began publishing an eight-page weekly newspaper called the "Woman's Journal" as the voice of the AWSA. Eventually it became a voice of the women's movement as a whole.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: The author of a study of African American women in the suffrage movement lists nine who participated in the AWSA during the 1870s and six who participated in the NWSA.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: Several modest but significant gains for women suffrage occurred during the twenty-year period of AWSA activity. Women in two Western states, Wyoming and Utah, won the right to vote. An average of 4.4 states per year considered, but did not adopt woman suffrage. Eight additional states also considered referenda on the issue; none, however, were successful.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


American Woman Suffrage Association

Context: The AWSA was initially larger than the NWSA, but it declined in strength during the 1880s. Stanton and Anthony, the leading figures in the NWSA, were more widely known as leaders of the women's suffrage movement during this period and more influential in setting its direction.

Question: متى تأسست  منظمة سوفرجت الأمريكية؟


Emerging market

Context: When countries "graduate" from their emerging status, they are referred to as emerged markets, emerged economies or emerged countries, where countries have developed from emerging economy status, but have yet to reach the technological and economic development of developed countries.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The research on emerging markets is diffused within management literature. While researchers such as George Haley, Vladimir Kvint, Hernando de Soto, Usha Haley, and several professors from Harvard Business School and Yale School of Management have described activity in countries such as India and China, how a market emerges is little understood.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: In 2009, Dr. Kvint published this definition: "an emerging market country is a society transitioning from a dictatorship to a free-market-oriented-economy, with increasing economic freedom, gradual integration with the Global Marketplace and with other members of the GEM (Global Emerging Market), an expanding middle class, improving standards of living, social stability and tolerance, as well as an increase in cooperation with multilateral institutions"

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: In 2008 Emerging Economy Report, the Center for Knowledge Societies defines "emerging economies" as those "regions of the world that are experiencing rapid informationalization under conditions of limited or partial industrialization". It appears that emerging markets lie at the intersection of non-traditional user behavior, the rise of new user groups and community adoption of products and services, and innovations in product technologies and platforms.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: More critical scholars have also studied key emerging markets like Mexico and Turkey. Thomas Marois (2012, 2) argues that financial imperatives have become much more significant and has developed the idea of 'emerging finance capitalism' – an era wherein the collective interests of financial capital principally shape the logical options and choices of government and state elites over and above those of labor and popular classes.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: Julien Vercueil recently proposed an pragmatic definition of the "emerging economies", as distinguished from "emerging markets" coined by an approach heavily influenced by financial criteria. According to his definition, an emerging economy displays the following characteristics:

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: At the beginning of the 2010s, more than 50 countries, representing 60% of the world's population and 45% of its GDP, matched these criteria. Among them, the BRICs.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The term "rapidly developing economies" is being used to denote emerging markets such as The United Arab Emirates, Chile and Malaysia that are undergoing rapid growth.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: Lists of emerging (or developed) markets vary; guides may be found in such investment information sources as "EMIS" (a Euromoney Institutional Investor Company), "The Economist", or market index makers (such as MSCI).

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: Newly industrialized countries are emerging markets whose economies have not yet reached developed status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: Individual investors can invest in emerging markets by buying into emerging markets or global funds. If they want to pick single stocks or make their own bets they can do it either through ADRs (American depositor Receipts – stocks of foreign companies that trade on US stock exchanges) or through exchange traded funds (exchange traded funds or ETFs hold basket of stocks). The exchange traded funds can be focused on a particular country (e.g., China, India) or region (e.g., Asia-Pacific, Latin America).

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: A few countries appear in every list (BRICS, Mexico, Turkey). Indonesia and Turkey are categorized with Mexico and Nigeria as part of the MINT economies. While there are no commonly agreed upon parameters on which the countries can be classified as "Emerging Economies", several firms have developed detailed methodologies to identify the top performing emerging economies every year

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: EAGLEs (emerging and growth-leading economies): Expected Incremental GDP in the next 10 years to be larger than the average of the G7 economies, excluding the US.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: NEST: Expected Incremental GDP in the next decade to be lower than the average of the G6 economies (G7 excluding the US) but higher than Italy's.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The Emerging Market Bond Index Global (EMBI Global) by J.P. Morgan was the first comprehensive EM sovereign index in the market, after the EMBI+. It provides full coverage of the EM asset class with representative countries, investable instruments (sovereign and quasi-sovereign), and transparent rules.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The EMBI Global includes only USD-denominated emerging markets sovereign bonds and uses a traditional, market capitalization weighted method for country allocation. As of March end 2016, the EMBI Global's market capitalization was $692.3bn.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: J.P. Morgan has introduced what is called an "Index Income Ceiling" (IIC), defined as the income level that is adjusted every year by the growth rate of the World GNI per capita, provided by the World Bank as "GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) annually". Once a country has GNI per capita below or above the IIC level for three consecutive years, the country eligibility will be determined.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The Emerging Markets Index by MasterCard is a list of the top 65 cities in emerging markets. The following countries had cities featured on the list (as of 2008):

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The report organizes emerging countries with the definition of the E20+1, considering the size, as measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and weight each country in terms of the demography and social variables. It is also considered the emerging economy groupings of major international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United Nations (UN) as well as those from think tanks and research institutes.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: In the first semester of 2021, EMI released the EMI Quarterly Report, analyzing data of stock markets and M&A of emerging countries. In 2022, EMI launched the EMI EMNC Rankings, ranking the 500 largest companies by revenue (EMNC 500R), the 500 largest market capitalized companies (500MC), and listing 200 best ESG performers companies (200ESG).

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Emerging market

Context: The following table lists the 25 largest emerging economies by GDP (nominal) and GDP (PPP) in their respective peak year. Members of the G-20 major economies are in bold.

Question: هل مصرهي دولة  نامية؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989 and summarized in a simple document describing the behavior of a client and a server using the first HTTP protocol version that was named 0.9.<ref name="HTTP/0.9-specifications"></ref>

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/3 is the latest version of the protocol, published in 2022; already used by 25% of websites ahead of standardization. HTTP/3 has lower latency for real-world web pages, if enabled on the server, load faster than with HTTP/2, and even faster than HTTP/1.1, in some cases over 3× faster than HTTP/1.1 (which is still commonly only enabled). That's in part because the TCP (of TCP/IP), is no longer used, as in the older standards.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: That first version of HTTP protocol soon evolved into a more elaborated version that was the first draft toward a far future version 1.0.<ref name="HTTP/1.0-first-unofficial-draft"></ref>

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Development of early HTTP Requests for Comments (RFCs) started a few years later and it was a coordinated effort by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), with work later moving to the IETF.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/1 was finalized and fully documented (as version 1.0) in 1996. It evolved (as version 1.1) in 1997 and then its specifications were updated in 1999 and in 2014.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/2 is a more efficient expression of HTTP's semantics "on the wire", and was published in 2015; used by more than 46% of websites, now supported by almost all web browsers (96% of users) and major web servers over Transport Layer Security (TLS) using an Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN) extension where TLS 1.2 or newer is required.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/3 is the successor to HTTP/2, published in 2022; used by 25% of websites, it is now supported by many web browsers (73% of users). HTTP/3 uses QUIC instead of TCP for the underlying transport protocol. Like HTTP/2, it does not obsolesce previous major versions of the protocol. Support for HTTP/3 was added to Cloudflare and Google Chrome first, and is also enabled in Firefox.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: A web browser is an example of a "user agent" (UA). Other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers (web crawlers), voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: To allow intermediate HTTP nodes (proxy servers, web caches, etc.) to accomplish their functions, some of the HTTP headers (found in HTTP requests/responses) are managed hop-by-hop whereas other HTTP headers are managed end-to-end (managed only by the source client and by the target web server).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, thus Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is commonly used. However, HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), using the Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI's) schemes "http" and "https". As defined in , URIs are encoded as hyperlinks in HTML documents, so as to form interlinked hypertext documents.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In HTTP/1.1 instead a TCP connection can be reused to make multiple resource requests (i.e. of HTML pages, frames, images, scripts, stylesheets, etc.).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead, specially under high traffic conditions.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/2 is a revision of previous HTTP/1.1 in order to maintain the same client–server model and the same protocol methods but with these differences in order:

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/2 communications therefore experience much less latency and, in most cases, even more speed than HTTP/1.1 communications.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/3 is a revision of previous HTTP/2 in order to use QUIC + UDP transport protocols instead of TCP/IP connections also to slightly improve the average speed of communications and to avoid the occasional (very rare) problem of TCP/IP connection congestion that can temporarily block or slow down the data flow of all its streams (another form of "head of line blocking").

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: The first web server went live in 1990. The protocol used had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server. The response from the server was always an HTML page.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In 1991, the first documented official version of HTTP was written as a plain document, less than 700 words long, and this version was named HTTP/0.9. HTTP/0.9 supported only GET method, allowing clients to only retrieve HTML documents from the server, but not supporting any other file formats or information upload.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Since 1992, a new document was written to specify the evolution of the basic protocol towards its next full version. It supported both the simple request method of the 0.9 version and the full GET request that included the client HTTP version. This was the first of the many unofficial HTTP/1.0 drafts that preceded the final work on HTTP/1.0.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: After having decided that new features of HTTP protocol were required and that they had to be fully documented as official RFCs, in early 1995 the HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG, led by Dave Raggett) was constituted with the aim to standardize and expand the protocol with extended operations, extended negotiation, richer meta-information, tied with a security protocol which became more efficient by adding additional methods and header fields.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: The HTTP WG planned to revise and publish new versions of the protocol as HTTP/1.0 and HTTP/1.1 within 1995, but, because of the many revisions, that timeline lasted much more than one year.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: The HTTP WG planned also to specify a far future version of HTTP called HTTP-NG (HTTP Next Generation) that would have solved all remaining problems, of previous versions, related to performances, low latency responses, etc. but this work started only a few years later and it was never completed.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In May 1996, was published as a final HTTP/1.0 revision of what had been used in previous 4 years as a pre-standard HTTP/1.0-draft which was already used by many web browsers and web servers.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In early 1996 developers started to even include unofficial extensions of the HTTP/1.0 protocol (i.e. keep-alive connections, etc.) into their products by using drafts of the upcoming HTTP/1.1 specifications.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In June 1999, was released to include all improvements and updates based on previous (obsolete) HTTP/1.1 specifications.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Resuming the old 1995 plan of previous HTTP Working Group, in 1997 an "HTTP-NG Working Group" was formed to develop a new HTTP protocol named HTTP-NG (HTTP New Generation). A few proposals / drafts were produced for the new protocol to use multiplexing of HTTP transactions inside a single TCP/IP connection, but in 1999, the group stopped its activity passing the technical problems to IETF.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In 2007, the IETF HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG bis or HTTPbis) was restarted firstly to revise and clarify previous HTTP/1.1 specifications and secondly to write and refine future HTTP/2 specifications (named httpbis).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In June 2014, the HTTP Working Group released an updated six-part HTTP/1.1 specification obsoleting :

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In 2009, Google, a private company, announced that it had developed and tested a new HTTP binary protocol named SPDY. The implicit aim was to greately speed up web traffic (specially between future web browsers and its servers).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: SPDY was indeed much faster than HTTP/1.1 in many tests and so it was quickly adopted by Chromium and then by other major web browsers.<ref name="SPDY-vs-HTTP/1.1"></ref>

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Some of the ideas about multiplexing HTTP streams over a single TCP/IP connection were taken from various sources, including the work of W3C HTTP-NG Working Group.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In January–March 2012, HTTP Working Group (HTTPbis) announced the need to start to focus on a new HTTP/2 protocol (while finishing the revision of HTTP/1.1 specifications), maybe taking in consideration ideas and work done for SPDY.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: After a few months about what to do to develop a new version of HTTP, it was decided to derive it from SPDY.<ref name="HTTP/2-introduction"></ref>

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In May 2015, HTTP/2 was published as and quickly adopted by all web browsers already supporting SPDY and more slowly by web servers.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Since 2016 many product managers and developers of user agents (browsers, etc.) and web servers have begun planning to gradually deprecate and dismiss support for HTTP/0.9 protocol, mainly for the following reasons:<ref name="HTTP/0.9-chrome-deprecated"></ref>

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: * it has no HTTP headers and lacks many other features that nowadays are required for minimal security reasons;

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: * it has not been widespread since 1999..2000 (because of HTTP/1.0 and HTTP/1.1) and is commonly used only by some very old network hardware, i.e. routers, etc.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In 2020, HTTP/3 first drafts have been published and major web browsers and web servers started to adopt it.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In June 2022, a batch of RFCs was published, deprecating many of the previous documents and introducing a few minor changes and a refactoring of HTTP semantics description into a separate document.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP is a stateless application-level protocol and it requires a reliable network transport connection to exchange data between client and server. In HTTP implementations, TCP/IP connections are used using well known ports (typically port 80 if the connection is unencrypted or port 443 if the connection is encrypted, see also List of TCP and UDP port numbers). In HTTP/2, a TCP/IP connection plus multiple protocol channels are used. In HTTP/3, the application transport protocol QUIC over UDP is used.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In HTTP/0.9, the TCP/IP connection is always closed after server response has been sent, so it is never persistent.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In HTTP/1.0, as stated in RFC 1945, the TCP/IP connection should always be closed by server after a response has been sent.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was officially introduced so that a connection could be reused for more than one request/response. Such persistent connections reduce request latency perceptibly because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP 3-Way-Handshake connection after the first request has been sent. Another positive side effect is that, in general, the connection becomes faster with time due to TCP's slow-start-mechanism.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/2 extended the usage of persistent connections by multiplexing many concurrent requests/responses through a single TCP/IP connection.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP/1.0 added headers to manage resources cached by client in order to allow conditional GET requests; in practice a server has to return the entire content of the requested resource only if its last modified time is not known by client or if it changed since last full response to GET request. One of these headers, "Content-Encoding", was added to specify whether the returned content of a resource was or was not compressed.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: If the total length of the content of a resource was not known in advance (i.e. because it was dynamically generated, etc.) then the header codice_1 was not present in HTTP headers and the client assumed that when server closed the connection, the content had been entirely sent. This mechanism could not distinguish between a resource transfer successfully completed and an interrupted one (because of a server / network error or something else).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: * chunked transfer encoding to allow content to be streamed in chunks in order to reliably send it even when the server does not know in advance its length (i.e. because it is dynamically generated, etc.).

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP provides multiple authentication schemes such as basic access authentication and digest access authentication which operate via a challenge–response mechanism whereby the server identifies and issues a challenge before serving the requested content.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP provides a general framework for access control and authentication, via an extensible set of challenge–response authentication schemes, which can be used by a server to challenge a client request and by a client to provide authentication information.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Above mechanism belong to HTTP protocol and it is managed by client and server HTTP software (if configured to require authentication before allowing client access to one or more web resources), not by web application that usually use a web application session.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: The HTTP Authentication specification also provides an arbitrary, implementation-specific construct for further dividing resources common to a given root URI. The realm value string, if present, is combined with the canonical root URI to form the protection space component of the challenge. This in effect allows the server to define separate authentication scopes under one root URI.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: HTTP is a stateless protocol. A stateless protocol does not require the web server to retain information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Some web applications need to manage user sessions, so they implement states, or server side sessions, using for instance HTTP cookies or hidden variables within web forms.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: To start an application user session, an interactive authentication via web application login must be performed. To stop a user session a logout operation must be requested by user. These kind of operations do not use HTTP authentication but a custom managed web application authentication.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in .

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: Method names are case sensitive. This is in contrast to HTTP header field names which are case-insensitive.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: All general-purpose web servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods, and all other methods are considered optional by the specification.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: A request method is "safe" if a request with that method has no intended effect on the server. The methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS, and TRACE are defined as safe. In other words, safe methods are intended to be read-only. They do not exclude side effects though, such as appending request information to a log file or charging an advertising account, since they are not requested by the client, by definition.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: In contrast, the methods POST, PUT, DELETE, CONNECT, and PATCH are not safe. They may modify the state of the server or have other effects such as sending an email. Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming web robots or web crawlers; some that do not conform tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟


Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Context: One example of this occurring in practice was during the short-lived Google Web Accelerator beta, which prefetched arbitrary URLs on the page a user was viewing, causing records to be automatically altered or deleted "en masse". The beta was suspended only weeks after its first release, following widespread criticism.

Question: ماهو معنى بروتكول الإتش تي تي بي ؟