Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Capital punishment was used by only 5 of 50 states in 2020. They were Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas. Government executions, as reported by Amnesty International, took place in only 20 of the world's 195 countries. The Federal government, however, which had not executed for 16 years prior, did so in 2020, pushed by Donald Trump and Attorney General William Barr.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Executions for various crimes, especially murder and rape, occurred from the creation of the United States up to the beginning of the 1960s. Until then, "save for a few mavericks, no one gave any credence to the possibility of ending the death penalty by judicial interpretation of constitutional law", according to abolitionist Hugo Bedau.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In "Furman v. Georgia", the U.S. Supreme Court considered a group of consolidated cases. The lead case involved an individual convicted under Georgia's death penalty statute, which featured a "unitary trial" procedure in which the jury was asked to return a verdict of guilt or innocence and, simultaneously, determine whether the defendant would be punished by death or life imprisonment. The last pre-"Furman" execution was that of Luis Monge on June 2, 1967.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The "Furman" decision caused all death sentences pending at the time to be reduced to life imprisonment, and was described by scholars as a "legal bombshell". The next day, columnist Barry Schweid wrote that it was "unlikely" that the death penalty could exist anymore in the United States.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Executions resumed on January 17, 1977, when Gary Gilmore went before a firing squad in Utah. Although hundreds of individuals were sentenced to death in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s, only ten people besides Gilmore (who had waived all of his appeal rights) were actually executed prior to 1984.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Following the decision, the use of capital punishment in the United States soared. This was in contrast to trends in other parts of advanced industrial democracies where the use of capital punishment declined or was prohibited. Forty-seven European States, including Russia, are members of the Council of Europe, and they all comply with the European Convention of Human Rights which prohibits capital punishment. The last execution in the UK took place in 1964, and in 1977 in France.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In 1977, the Supreme Court's "Coker v. Georgia" decision barred the death penalty for rape of an adult woman. Previously, the death penalty for rape of an adult had been gradually phased out in the United States, and at the time of the decision, Georgia and the Federal government were the only two jurisdictions to still retain the death penalty for this offense.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The last person executed for non-homicidal rape in the United States was Ronald Wolfe, executed by Missouri in 1964 for the rape of an 8 year old girl, while the last person executed for robbery was James Coburn, executed by Alabama in 1965.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In the 1980 case "Godfrey v. Georgia", the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that murder can be punished by death only if it involves a narrow and precise aggravating factor.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The U.S. Supreme Court has placed two major restrictions on the use of the death penalty. First, the case of "Atkins v. Virginia", decided on June 20, 2002, held that the execution of intellectually disabled inmates is unconstitutional. Second, in 2005, the court's decision in "Roper v. Simmons" struck down executions for offenders under the age of 18 at the time of the crime.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In the 2008 case "Kennedy v. Louisiana", the court also held 5–4 that the death penalty is unconstitutional when applied to non-homicidal crimes against the person, including child rape. Only two death row inmates (both in Louisiana) were affected by the decision. Nevertheless, the ruling came less than five months before the 2008 presidential election and was criticized by both major party candidates Barack Obama and John McCain.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Nebraska's legislature also passed a repeal in 2015, but a referendum campaign gathered enough signatures to suspend it. Capital punishment was reinstated by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The same day, California's electorate defeated a proposal to repeal the death penalty, and adopted another initiative to speed up its appeal process.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: On October 11, 2018, Washington state became the 20th state to abolish capital punishment when its state Supreme Court deemed the death penalty unconstitutional on the grounds of racial bias.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: New Hampshire became the 21st state to abolish capital punishment on May 30, 2019, when its state senate overrode Governor Sununu's veto by a vote of 16–8.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Colorado became the 22nd state to abolish capital punishment when governor Jared Polis signed a repeal bill on March 23, 2020, and commuted all existing death sentences in the state to life without parole.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Virginia became the 23rd state to abolish capital punishment, and the first Southern state to do so when governor Ralph Northam signed a repeal bill on March 24, 2021, and commuted all existing death sentences in the state to life without parole.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Since "Furman", 11 states have organized popular votes dealing with the death penalty through the initiative and referendum process. All resulted in a vote for reinstating it, rejecting its abolition, expanding its application field, specifying in the state constitution that it is not unconstitutional, or expediting the appeal process in capital cases.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In 1996, Congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act to streamline the appeal process in capital cases. The bill was signed into law by President Bill Clinton, who had endorsed capital punishment during his 1992 presidential campaign.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Women accounted for just one fifth of all executions between 1632 and 1759, in the colonial United States. Women were more likely to be acquitted, and the relatively low number of executions of women may have been impacted by the scarcity of female laborers. Slavery was not yet widespread in the 17th century mainland and planters relied mostly on Irish indentured servants. To maintain subsistence levels in those days everyone had to do farm work, including women.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The second half of the 17th century saw the executions of 14 women and 6 men who were accused of witchcraft during the witch hunt hysteria and the Salem Witch Trials. While both men and women were executed, 80% of the accusations were towards women, so the list of executions disproportionately affected men by a margin of 6 (actual) to 4 (expected), i.e. 50% more men were executed than expected from the percentage of accused who were men.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Aggravating factors for seeking capital punishment of murder vary greatly among death penalty states. California has twenty-two.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Some aggravating circumstances are nearly universal, such as robbery-murder, murder involving rape of the victim, and murder of an on-duty police officer.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Several states have included child murder to their list of aggravating factors, but the victim's age under which the murder is punishable by death varies. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In order for a person to be eligible for a death sentence when convicted of aggravated first-degree murder, the jury or court (when there is not a jury) must determine at least one of sixteen aggravating factors that existed during the crime's commission. The following is a list of the 16 aggravating factors under federal law.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The opinion of the court in "Kennedy v. Louisiana" says that the ruling does not apply to "treason, espionage, terrorism, and drug kingpin activity, which are offenses against the State".

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Since no one is on death row for such offenses, the court has yet to rule on the constitutionality of the death penalty applied for them.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Treason, espionage and large-scale drug trafficking are all capital crimes under federal law. Treason is also punishable by death in six states (Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina). Large-scale drug trafficking is punishable by death in two states (Florida and Missouri), and aircraft hijacking in two others (Georgia and Mississippi). Vermont has an invalidated pre-"Furman" statute allowing the electric chair for treason despite abolishing capital punishment in 1965.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States typically involves five critical steps: (1) prosecutorial decision to seek the death penalty (2) sentencing, (3) direct review, (4) state collateral review, and (5) federal habeas corpus.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Clemency, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: While judges in criminal cases can usually impose a harsher prison sentence than the one demanded by prosecution, the death penalty can be handed down only if the accuser has specifically decided to seek it.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: A proposed remedy against prosecutorial arbitrariness is to transfer the prosecution of capital cases to the state attorney general.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In 2017, Florida governor Rick Scott removed all capital cases from local prosecutor Aramis Ayala because she decided to never seek the death penalty no matter the gravity of the crime.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Of the 27 states with the death penalty, 25 require the sentence to be decided by the jury, and 24 require a unanimous decision by the jury.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Two states do not use juries in death penalty cases. In Nebraska the sentence is decided by a three-judge panel, which must unanimously agree on death, and the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment if one of the judges is opposed. Montana is the only state where the trial judge decides the sentence alone. The only state which does not require a unanimous jury decision is Alabama. At least 10 jurors must concur, and a retrial happens if the jury deadlocks.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In all states in which the jury is involved, only death-qualified prospective jurors can be selected in such a jury, to exclude both people who will always vote for the death sentence and those who are categorically opposed to it. However, the states differ on what happens if the penalty phase results in a hung jury:

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The first outcome is referred as the "true unanimity" rule, while the third has been criticized as the "single-juror veto" rule.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In Virginia, state habeas corpus for condemned men are heard by the state supreme court under exclusive original jurisdiction since 1995, immediately after direct review by the same court. This avoids any proceeding before the lower courts, and is in part why Virginia has the shortest time on average between death sentence and execution (less than eight years) and has executed 113 offenders since 1976 with only five remaining on death row .

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: To reduce litigation delays, other states require convicts to file their state collateral appeal before the completion of their direct appeal, or provide adjudication of direct and collateral attacks together in a "unitary review".

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: If the federal court refuses to issue a writ of "habeas corpus", the death sentence ordinarily becomes final for all purposes. In recent times, however, prisoners have postponed execution through another avenue of federal litigation; the Civil Rights Act of 1871 – codified at – allows complainants to bring lawsuits against state actors to protect their federal constitutional and statutory rights.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: While direct appeals are normally limited to just one and automatically stay the execution of the death sentence, Section 1983 lawsuits are unlimited, but the petitioner will be granted a stay of execution only if the court believes he has a likelihood of success on the merits.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: While the execution warrant is issued by the governor in several states, in the vast majority it is a judicial order, issued by a judge or by the state supreme court at the request of the prosecution.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The warrant usually sets an execution day. Some states instead provide a longer period, such as a week or 10 days to carry out the execution. This is designated to avoid issuing a new warrant in case of a last-minute stay of execution that would be vacated only few days or few hours later.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In recent years there has been an average of one death sentence for every 200 murder convictions in the United States.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Alabama has the highest "per capita" rate of death sentences. This is because Alabama was one of the few states that allowed judges to override a jury recommendation in favor of life imprisonment, a possibility it removed in March 2017.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: According to the Death Penalty Information Center, the top three factors determining whether a convict gets a death sentence in a murder case are not aggravating factors, but instead the location the crime occurred (and thus whether it is in the jurisdiction of a prosecutor aggressively using the death penalty), the quality of legal defense, and the race of the victim (murder of white victims being punished more harshly).

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The distribution of death sentences among states is loosely proportional to their populations and murder rates. California, which is the most populous state, also has the largest death row, with over 700 inmates. Wyoming, which is the least populous state, has only one condemned man.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: But executions are more frequent (and happen more quickly after sentencing) in conservative states. Texas, which is the second most populous state in the Union, carried out over 500 executions during the post-"Furman" era, more than a third of the national total. California has carried out only 13 executions during the same period, and has carried out none since 2006.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: African Americans make up 41% of death row inmates. African Americans have made up 34% of those actually executed since 1976. Twenty-one white offenders have been executed for the murder of a black person since 1976. During that same period, 299 black offenders have been executed for the murder of a white person. 54% of people wrongfully convicted and sentenced to death in the United States are black.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Approximately 13.5% of death row inmates are of Hispanic or Latino descent. In 2019, individuals identified as Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 5.5% of homicides. The death penalty exhortation rate for Hispanic and Latino Americans is 8.6%.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: As of May 20, 2021, the Death Penalty Information Center reports that there are 51 women on death row. 17 women have been executed since 1976, compared to 1,516 men during the same time period.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: All 27 states with the death penalty for murder provide lethal injection as the primary method of execution. Vermont's remaining death penalty statute for treason provides electrocution as the method of execution.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Some states allow other methods than lethal injection, but only as secondary methods to be used merely at the request of the prisoner or if lethal injection is unavailable.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Several states continue to use the historical three-drug protocol: firstly an anesthetic, secondly pancuronium bromide, a paralytic, and finally potassium chloride to stop the heart. Eight states have used a single-drug protocol, inflicting only an overdose of a single anesthetic to the prisoner.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: While some state statutes specify the drugs required, a majority do not, giving more flexibility to prison officers.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Pressures from anti-death penalty activists and shareholders have made it difficult for correctional services to get the chemicals. Hospira, the only U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug in 2011. In 2016, it was reported that more than 20 U.S. and European drug manufacturers including Pfizer (the owner of Hospira) had taken steps to prevent their drugs from being used for lethal injections.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Since then, some states have used other anesthetics, such as pentobarbital, etomidate, or fast-acting benzodiazepines like midazolam. Many states have since bought lethal injection drugs from foreign furnishers, and most states have made it a criminal offense to reveal the identities of furnishers or execution team members. In November 2015, California adopted regulations allowing the state to use its own public compounding pharmacies to make the chemicals.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone (a 333-fold lethal overdose for an opioid-naive person) and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein cannot be found for intravenous injection.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Lethal injection was held to be a constitutional method of execution by the U.S. Supreme Court in three cases: "Baze v. Rees" (2008), "Glossip v. Gross" (2015), and "Bucklew v. Precythe" (2019).

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In four states (Arizona, Kentucky, Tennessee and Utah), the alternative method is offered only to inmates sentenced to death for crimes committed prior to a specified date (usually when the state switched from the earlier method to lethal injection).

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: When an offender chooses to be executed by a means different from the state default method, which is always lethal injection, he/she loses the right to challenge its constitutionality in court. See "Stewart v. LaGrand", 526 U.S. 115 (1999).

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Depending on the state, the following alternative methods are statutorily provided in case lethal injection is either found unconstitutional by a court or unavailable for practical reasons:

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Several states including Oklahoma, Tennessee and Utah, have added back-up methods recently (or have expanded their application fields) in reaction to the shortage of lethal injection drugs.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Some states such as Florida have a larger provision dealing with execution methods unavailability, requiring their state departments of corrections to use "any constitutional method" if both lethal injection and electrocution are found unconstitutional. This was designed to make unnecessary any further legislative intervention in that event, but the provision applies only to legal (not practical) infeasibility.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The method of execution of federal prisoners for offenses under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 is that of the state in which the conviction took place. If the state has no death penalty, the judge must choose a state with the death penalty for carrying out the execution.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The federal government has a facility (at U.S. Penitentiary Terre Haute) and regulations only for executions by lethal injection, but the United States Code allows U.S. Marshals to use state facilities and employees for federal executions.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The last public execution in the U.S. was that of Rainey Bethea in Owensboro, Kentucky, on August 14, 1936.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: It was the last execution in the nation at which the general public was permitted to attend without any legally imposed restrictions. "Public execution" is a legal phrase, defined by the laws of various states, and carried out pursuant to a court order. Similar to "public record" or "public meeting", it means that anyone who wants to attend the execution may do so.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall" or "enclosure", or to "exclude public view". Most state laws currently use such explicit wording to prohibit public executions, while others do so only implicitly by enumerating the only authorized witnesses.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: All states allow news reporters to be execution witnesses for information of the general public, except Wyoming which allows only witnesses authorized by the condemned.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Several states also allow victims' families and relatives selected by the prisoner to watch executions. An hour or two before the execution, the condemned is offered religious services and to choose their last meal (except in Texas which abolished it in 2011).

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The execution of Timothy McVeigh on June 11, 2001, was witnessed by over 200 people, most by closed-circuit television. Most were survivors, or relatives of victims of, the 1995 Oklahoma City Bombing, for which McVeigh had been sentenced to death.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: A 2014 study found that the belief that the death penalty helps victims' families to heal may be wrong; more often than finding closure, victims' families felt anger and wanted revenge, with potential side effects of depression, PTSD and a decreased satisfaction with life. Furthermore, the researchers found that a sense of compassion or remorse expressed from the perpetrator to the victim's family had a statistically significant positive effect on the family's ability to find closure.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In November 2009, another Gallup poll found that 77% of Americans believed that the mastermind of the September 11 attacks, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, should receive the death penalty if convicted, 12 points higher than the rate of general support for the death penalty upon Gallup's most recent poll at the time. A similar result was found in 2001 when respondents were polled about the execution of Timothy McVeigh for the Oklahoma City bombing that killed 168 people.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Capital punishment is a controversial issue, with many prominent organizations and individuals participating in the debate. Amnesty International and other groups oppose capital punishment on moral grounds.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The United States is one of the four developed countries that still practice capital punishment, along with Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Religious groups are widely split on the issue of capital punishment. The Fiqh Council of North America, a group of highly influential Muslim scholars in the United States, has issued a fatwa calling for a moratorium on capital punishment in the United States until various preconditions in the legal system are met.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Advocates of the death penalty say that it deters crime, is a good tool for prosecutors in plea bargaining, improves the community by eliminating recidivism by executed criminals, provides "closure" to surviving victims or loved ones, and is a just penalty. Some advocates against the death penalty argue that "most of the rest of the world gave up on human sacrifice a long time ago."

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Data shows that the application of the death penalty is strongly influenced by racial bias. Furthermore, some opponents argue that it is applied in an arbitrary manner by a criminal justice system that has been shown to be biased through the systemic influence of socio-economic, geographic, and gender factors. Another argument in the capital punishment debate is the cost.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Additionally, in 2021–22, states such as South Carolina have experienced a shortage of the drugs used to make the lethal cocktail and some inmates have had to choose between death by electric chair or death by firing squad (aiming for the heart). Critics note that these other methods are more likely to induce pain in the inmate during execution and that these methods of execution have a high risk of being botched.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Austin Sarat, a professor of jurisprudence and political science at Amherst College, in his book "Gruesome Spectacles: Botched Executions and America's Death Penalty", found that from 1890 to 2010, 276 executions were botched out of a total of 8,776, or 3.15%, with lethal injections having the highest rate. Sarat writes that between 1980 and 2010 the rate of botched executions was higher than ever: 8.53 percent.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In states with the death penalty, the governor usually has the discretionary power to commute a death sentence or to stay its execution. In some states the governor is required to receive an advisory or binding recommendation from a separate board. In a few states like Georgia, the board decides alone on clemency. At the federal level, the power of clemency belongs to the President of the United States.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The largest number of clemencies was granted in January 2003 in Illinois when outgoing Governor George Ryan, who had already imposed a moratorium on executions, pardoned four death-row inmates and commuted the sentences of the remaining 167 to life in prison without the possibility of parole. When Governor Pat Quinn signed legislation abolishing the death penalty in Illinois in March 2011, he commuted the sentences of the fifteen inmates on death row to life imprisonment.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: All executions were suspended through the country between September 2007 and April 2008. At that time, the United States Supreme Court was examining the constitutionality of lethal injection in "Baze v. Rees". This was the longest period with no executions in the United States since 1982. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld this method in a 7–2 ruling.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In addition to the states that have no valid death penalty statute, the following 16 states and 3 jurisdictions either have an official moratorium on executions or have had no executions for more than ten years as of 2022:

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Since 1976, four states have only executed condemned prisoners who voluntarily waived any further appeals: Pennsylvania has executed three inmates, Oregon two, Connecticut one, and New Mexico one. In the last state, Governor Toney Anaya commuted the sentences of all five condemned prisoners on death row in late 1986.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In California, United States District Judge Jeremy Fogel suspended all executions in the state on December 15, 2006, ruling that the implementation used in California was unconstitutional but that it could be fixed. California Governor Gavin Newsom declared an indefinite moratorium on March 13, 2019.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: On November 25, 2009, the Kentucky Supreme Court affirmed a decision by the Franklin County Circuit Court suspending executions until the state adopts regulations for carrying out the penalty by lethal injection.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: In November 2011, Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber announced a moratorium on executions in Oregon, canceling a planned execution and ordering a review of the death penalty system in the state.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: On February 13, 2015, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf announced a moratorium on the death penalty. Wolf will issue a reprieve for every execution until a commission on capital punishment, which was established in 2011 by the Pennsylvania State Senate, produces a recommendation. The state had not executed anyone since Gary M. Heidnik in 1999.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Futures studies

Context: As a field, futures studies expands on the research component, by emphasizing the communication of a strategy and the actionable steps needed to implement the plan or plans leading to the preferable future. It is in this regard, that futures studies evolves from an academic exercise to a more traditional business-like practice, looking to better prepare organizations for the future.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: The futures field also excludes those who make future predictions through professed supernatural means.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: To complete a futures study, a domain is selected for examination. The domain is the main idea of the project, or what the outcome of the project seeks to determine. Domains can have a strategic or exploratory focus and must narrow down the scope of the research. It examines what will, and more importantly, will not be discussed in the research.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Futures practitioners study trends focusing on STEEP (Social, Technological, Economic, Environments and Political) baselines. Baseline exploration examine current STEEP environments to determine normal trends, called baselines. Next, practitioners use scenarios to explore different futures outcomes. Scenarios examine how the future can be different.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: 1. Collapse Scenarios seek to answer: What happens if the STEEP baselines fall into ruin and no longer exist? How will that impact STEEP categories?

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: 2. Transformation Scenarios: explore futures with the baseline of society transiting to a “new” state. How are the STEEP categories effected if society has a whole new structure?

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: 3. New Equilibrium: examines an entire change to the structure of the domain. What happens if the baseline changes to a “new” baseline within the same structure of society?

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Some intellectual foundations of futures studies appeared in the mid-19th century. Isadore Comte, considered the father of scientific philosophy, was heavily influenced by the work of utopian socialist Henri Saint-Simon, and his discussion of the metapatterns of social change presages futures studies as a scholarly dialogue.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: In 1845, Scientific American, the oldest continuously published magazine in the U.S., began publishing articles about scientific and technological research, with a focus upon the future implications of such research. It would be followed in 1872 by the magazine Popular Science, which was aimed at a more general readership.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: The genre of science fiction became established towards the end of the 19th century, with notable writers, including Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, setting their stories in an imagined future world.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Moving from narrow technological predictions, Wells envisioned the eventual collapse of the capitalist world system after a series of destructive total wars. From this havoc would ultimately emerge a world of peace and plenty, controlled by competent technocrats.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: In his fictional works, Wells predicted the invention and use of the atomic bomb in "The World Set Free" (1914). In "The Shape of Things to Come" (1933) the impending World War and cities destroyed by aerial bombardment was depicted. However, he didn't stop advocating for the establishment of a futures science. In a 1933 BBC broadcast he called for the establishment of "Departments and Professors of Foresight", foreshadowing the development of modern academic futures studies by approximately 40 years.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: In the United States, President Hoover created the Research Committee on Social Trends, which produced a report in 1933. The head of the committee, William F. Ogburn, analyzed the past to chart trends and project those trends into the future, with a focus on technology. Similar technique was used during The Great Depression, with the addition of alternative futures and a set of likely outcomes that resulted in the creation of Social Security and the Tennessee Valley development project.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: The WWII era emphasized the growing need for foresight. The Nazis used strategic plans to unify and mobilize their society with a focus on creating a fascist utopia. This planning and the subsequent war forced global leaders to create their own strategic plans in response. The post-war era saw the creation of numerous nation states with complex political alliances and was further complicated by the introduction of nuclear power.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Project RAND was created in 1946 as joint project between the United States Army Air Forces and the Douglas Aircraft Company, and later incorporated as the non-profit RAND corporation. Their objective was the future of weapons, and long-range planning to meet future threats. Their work has formed the basis of US strategy and policy in regard to nuclear weapons, the Cold War, and the space race.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Inventors such as Buckminster Fuller also began highlighting the effect technology might have on global trends as time progressed.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: In 2010, the Free University of Berlin initiated a master's degree Programme in Futures Studies, which is the first one in Germany. In 2012, the Finland Futures Research Centre started a master's degree Programme in Futures Studies at Turku School of Economics, a business school which is part of the University of Turku in Turku, Finland.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Foresight and futures work cover any domain a company considers important; therefore, a futurist must be able to cross domains and industries in their work. There is continued discussion by people in the profession on how to advance it, with some preferring to keep the field open to anyone interested in the future and others arguing to make the credentialing more rigorous. There are approximately 23 graduate and PhD programs in foresight globally, and many other certification courses.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: While understanding the difference between the concepts of probability and predictability are very important to understanding the future, the field of futures studies is generally more focused on long-term futures in which the concept of plausibility becomes the greater concern.  The usefulness of probability and predictability to the field lies more in analyzing the quantifiable trends and drivers which influence future change, than in predicting future events.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Such improvements in the predictability of individual events do not though, from a complexity theory viewpoint, address the unpredictability inherent in dealing with entire systems, which emerge from the interaction between multiple individual events.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Futurology is sometimes described by scientists as pseudoscience. Science exists in the realm of the certain and builds knowledge through attempting to falsify predictions.  Futures studies, however, exists in the realm of the uncertain but also builds knowledge through attempting to falsify predictions and exposing uncertainty.  So in a sense, both science and futures studies share the same goal. The difference is that futures studies attempts to understand, mitigate, and utilize uncertainty.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Scenarios are a central technique in Futures Studies and are often confused with other techniques. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Therefore, to some degree, the field has aimed to move away from prediction. Current futurists often present multiple scenarios that help their audience envision what "may" occur instead of merely "predicting the future". They claim that understanding potential scenarios helps individuals and organizations prepare with flexibility.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Many corporations use futurists as part of their risk management strategy, for horizon scanning and emerging issues analysis, and to identify wild cards – low probability, potentially high-impact risks. Understanding a range of possibilities can enhance the recognition of opportunities and threats. Every successful and unsuccessful business engages in futuring to some degree – for example in research and development, innovation and market research, anticipating competitor behavior and so on.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: "Wild cards" refer to low-probability and high-impact events "that happen quickly" and "have huge sweeping consequences," and materialize too quickly for social systems to effectively respond. Elina Hultunen notes that wild cards are not new, though they have become more prevalent. One reason for this may be the increasingly fast pace of change. Oliver Markley proposed four types of wild cards:

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Marketers have increasingly started to embrace futures studies, in an effort to benefit from an increasingly competitive marketplace with fast production cycles, using such techniques as trendspotting as popularized by Faith Popcorn.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Possible new trends grow from innovations, projects, beliefs or actions and activism that have the potential to grow and eventually go mainstream in the future.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Very often, trends relate to one another the same way as a tree-trunk relates to branches and twigs. For example, a well-documented movement toward equality between men and women might represent a branch trend. The trend toward reducing differences in the salaries of men and women in the Western world could form a twig on that branch.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Understanding the technology adoption cycle helps futurists monitor trend development. Trends start as weak signals by small mentions in fringe media outlets, discussion conversations or blog posts, often by innovators. As these ideas, projects, beliefs or technologies gain acceptance, they move into the phase of early adopters.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: In the beginning of a trend's development, it is difficult to tell if it will become a significant trend that creates changes or merely a trendy fad that fades into forgotten history. Trends will emerge as initially unconnected dots but eventually coalesce into persistent change.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Some trends emerge when enough confirmation occurs in the various media, surveys or questionnaires to show that it has an increasingly accepted value, behavior or technology, it becomes accepted as a bona fide trend. Trends can also gain confirmation by the existence of other trends perceived as springing from the same branch. Some commentators claim that when 15% to 25% of a given population integrates an innovation, project, belief or action into their daily life then a trend becomes mainstream.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Gartner created their Hype Cycle to illustrate the phases a technology moves through as it grows from research and development to mainstream adoption. The unrealistic expectations and subsequent disillusionment that virtual reality experienced in the 1990s and early 2000s is an example of the middle phases encountered before a technology can begin to be integrated into society.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Education in the field of futures studies has taken place for some time. Beginning in the United States in the 1960s, it has since developed in many different countries. Futures education encourages the use of concepts, tools and processes that allow students to think long-term, consequentially, and imaginatively. It generally helps students to:

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Thorough documentation of the history of futures education exists, for example in the work of Richard A. Slaughter (2004), David Hicks, Ivana Milojević to name a few.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: A Futures Studies program is offered at Tamkang University, Taiwan. Futures Studies is a required course at the undergraduate level, with between three and five thousand students taking classes on an annual basis. Housed in the Graduate Institute of Futures Studies is an MA Program. Only ten students are accepted annually in the program. Associated with the program is the "Journal of Futures Studies".

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: As of 2003, over 40 tertiary education establishments around the world were delivering one or more courses in futures studies. The World Futures Studies Federation has a comprehensive survey of global futures programs and courses. The Acceleration Studies Foundation maintains an annotated list of primary and secondary graduate futures studies programs.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: The University of Stellenbosch Business School in South Africa offers a PGDip in Future Studies as well as a MPhil in Future Studies degree.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Imperial cycles represent an "expanding pulsation" of "mathematically describable" macro-historic trend.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Four later anthropologists—Hornell Hart, Raoul Naroll, Louis Morano, and Robert Carneiro—researched the expanding imperial cycles. They reached the same conclusion that a world empire is not only pre-determined but close at hand and attempted to estimate the time of its appearance.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: As foresight has expanded to include a broader range of social concerns all levels and types of education have been addressed, including formal and informal education. Many countries are beginning to implement Foresight in their Education policy. A few programs are listed below:

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: 3.     The consequences, for better, or worse, or both, of the science or technology on the people and your world

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: “A full Science Fiction Prototyping (SFP) is 6-12 pages long, with a popular structure being; an introduction, background work, the fictional story (the bulk of the SFP), a short summary and a summary (reflection). Most often science fiction prototypes extrapolate current science forward and, therefore, include a set of references at the end.”

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Several governments have formalized strategic foresight agencies to encourage long range strategic societal planning, with most notable are the governments of Singapore, Finland, and the United Arab Emirates. Other governments with strategic foresight agencies include Canada's Policy Horizons Canada and the Malaysia's Malaysian Foresight Institute.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Foresight is a framework or lens which could be used in risk analysis and management in a medium- to long-term time range. A typical formal foresight project would identify key drivers and uncertainties relevant to the scope of analysis. It would also analyze how the drivers and uncertainties could interact to create the most probable scenarios of interest and what risks they might contain. An additional step would be identifying actions to avoid or minimize these risks.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: One classic example of such work was how foresight work at the Royal Dutch Shell international oil company led to envision the turbulent oil prices of the 1970s as a possibility and better embed this into company planning. Yet the practice at Shell focuses on stretching the company's thinking rather than in making predictions. Its planning is meant to link and embed scenarios in “organizational processes such as strategy making, innovation, risk management, public affairs, and leadership development.”

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: Foresight studies can also consider the possibility of “wild card” events – or events that many consider would be impossible to envision – although often such events can be imagined as remote possibilities as part of foresight work. One of many possible areas of focus for a foresight lens could also be identifying conditions for potential scenarios of high-level risks to society.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Futures studies

Context: The Association for Professional Futurists recognizes the Most Significant Futures Works for the purpose of identifying and rewarding the work of foresight professionals and others whose work illuminates aspects of the future.

Question: 未来学という分野はいつ生まれた？


Queer

Context: Queer is an umbrella term for people who are not heterosexual or are not cisgender. Originally meaning "strange" or "peculiar", "queer" came to be used pejoratively against those with same-sex desires or relationships in the late 19th century. Beginning in the late 1980s, queer activists, such as the members of Queer Nation, began to reclaim the word as a deliberately provocative and politically radical alternative to the more assimilationist branches of the LGBT community.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: In the 21st century, "queer" became increasingly used to describe a broad spectrum of non-normative sexual and/or gender identities and politics. Academic disciplines such as queer theory and queer studies share a general opposition to binarism, normativity, and a perceived lack of intersectionality, some of them only tangentially connected to the LGBT movement. Queer arts, queer cultural groups, and queer political groups are examples of modern expressions of queer identities.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: Critics of the use of the term include members of the LGBT community who associate the term more with its colloquial, derogatory usage, those who wish to dissociate themselves from queer radicalism, and those who see it as amorphous and trendy. "Queer" is sometimes expanded to include any non-normative sexuality, including cisgender queer heterosexuality, although some LGBTQ people view this use of the term as appropriation.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: By the late 19th century, "queer" was beginning to gain a connotation of sexual deviance, used to refer to feminine men or men who were thought to have engaged in same-sex relationships. An early recorded usage of the word in this sense was in an 1894 letter by John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: "Queer" was used in mainstream society by the 20th century, along with "fairy" and "faggot", as a pejorative term to refer to men who were perceived as flamboyant. This was, as historian George Chauncey notes, "the predominant image of "all" queers within the straight mind".

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: In contrast to the terms used within the subculture, medical practitioners and police officers tended to use medicalized or pathological terms like "invert", "pervert", "degenerate", and "homosexual".

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: None of the terms, whether inside or outside of the subculture, equated to the general concept of a homosexual identity, which only emerged with the ascension of a binary (heterosexual/homosexual) understanding of sexual orientation in the 1930s and 1940s. As this binary became embedded into the social fabric, "queer" began to decline as an acceptable identity in the subculture.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: Beginning in the late 1980s, the label "queer" began to be reclaimed from its pejorative use as a neutral or positive self-identifier by LGBT people. An early example of this usage by the LGBT community was by an organisation called Queer Nation, which was formed in March 1990 and circulated an anonymous flier at the New York Gay Pride Parade in June 1990 titled "Queers Read This". The flier included a passage explaining their adoption of the label queer:

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: The term may be capitalized when referring to an identity or community, rather than as an objective fact describing a person's desires, in a construction similar to the capitalized use of Deaf. The 'Q' in extended versions of the LGBT acronym, such as "LGBTQIA+", is most often considered an abbreviation of queer. It can also stand for questioning.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: Other LGBT people disapprove of reclaiming or using "queer" because they consider it offensive, derisive or self-deprecating because use by heterosexuals as a pejorative continues to this day, and some LGBT people avoid "queer" because they perceive it as faddish slang, or alternatively as academic jargon.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: In academia, the term "queer" and the related verb "queering" broadly indicate the study of literature, discourse, academic fields, and other social and cultural areas from a non-heteronormative perspective. It often means studying a subject against the grain from the perspective of gender studies.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: Several LGBT social movements around the world use the identifier "queer", such as the Queer Cyprus Association in Cyprus and the Queer Youth Network in the United Kingdom. In India, pride parades include Queer Azaadi Mumbai and the Delhi Queer Pride Parade. The use of "queer" and "Q" is also widespread in Australia, including national counselling and support service Qlife and "QNews".

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: Other social movements exist as offshoots of queer culture or combinations of queer identity with other views. Adherents of queer nationalism support the notion that the LGBT community forms a distinct people due to their unique culture and customs. Queercore (originally "homocore") is a cultural and social movement that began in the mid-1980s as an offshoot of punk expressed in a do-it-yourself style through zines, music, writing, art and film.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: The term queer migration is used to describe the movement of LGBTQ people around the world often to escape discrimination or ill treatment due to their orientation or gender expression. Organizations such as the Iranian Railroad for Queer Refugees and Rainbow Railroad attempt to assist individuals in such relocations.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Queer

Context: Multidisciplinary queer arts festivals include the Outburst Queer Arts Festival Belfast in Northern Ireland, the Queer Arts Festival in Canada, and the National Queer Arts Festival in the United States.

Question: 『クィア・アズ・フォーク』のリメイク版のタイトルはなんですか？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The Middle Ages in Romania began with the withdrawal of the Mongols, the last of the migrating populations to invade the territory of modern Romania, after their attack of 1241–1242. It came to an end with the reign of Michael the Brave (1593–1601) who managed, for a short time in 1600, to rule Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania, the three principalities whose territories were to be united some three centuries later to form Romania.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: At the end of the 8th century the establishment of the Khazar Khaganate north of the Caucasus Mountains created an obstacle in the path of nomadic people moving westward. In the following period, the local population of the Carpathian–Danubian area profited from the peaceful political climate and a unitary material culture, called "Dridu", that developed in the region. Finds from the "Dridu" settlements, such as coulters and sickles, confirm the role of agriculture in their economy.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The 11th-century settlements in Transylvania are characterized by small huts with ceramic assemblages marked by clay cauldrons. The increasing number of coin finds suggests that the province experienced economic growth in the late 11th century. The first document pertaining to the province is a royal charter of 1075 referring to taxes on salt levied at Turda. The earliest precious metal mine in medieval Transylvania, the silver mine at Rodna was first mentioned in 1235.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The expansion across the Carpathians was stopped by the invasion of the Mongols that lasted from March 31, 1241 to April, 1242. It was a major watershed in the medieval history of the region: although the number of casualties is disputed, even the most prudent estimates do not go below 15 percent of the total population.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: By the middle of the 14th century, the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives. Grand Prince Olgierd of Lithuania penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done. He won a major victory over the united Mongol troops on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: After the king's victory, one of his loyal adherents, Thomas Szécsényi was appointed "voivode" who suppressed a Saxon revolt in 1324. At that time, the autonomous Saxon province was divided into seats, each administered by a judge appointed by the king. In appreciation of the Transylvanian noblemen's services in the crushing of the revolt, Charles I exempted them from the taxes they had so far paid to the "voivode"s.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: In this period, one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia. For instance, Brașov was granted a staple right in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany. Thereafter, foreign merchants had to sell their most sought-after merchandise, broadcloth to the tradesmen of Brașov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals, cotton, wax and honey.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1359. Wallachia issued its own currency under Vladislav I (1364–"c." 1377). The earliest written information about Gypsies in modern Romania, a deed issued by Dan I of Wallachia ("c." 1383–1386) refers to Vladislav I's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodița monastery. Later on, all the important monasteries and "boyars" owned Gipsy slaves.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: After 1241 the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester was controlled by the Golden Horde.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Nevertheless, the contemporary Thomas Tuscus's reference to the Romanians' conflict with the Ruthenians in 1277 suggests that Romanian political entities existed in northern Moldavia at that time. In 1345 Andrew Lackfi, the count of the Székelys led an army over the Carpathians and occupied this region where a border province was organized by Louis I of Hungary.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to the "dismounting of Dragoș", a Romanian "voivode" of the Voivodeship of Maramureș. Although Dragoș was succeeded by his son, Sas, his line did not last long. His descendants were soon expelled by Bogdan, a former "voivode" of Maramureș who fled to Moldavia and joined with local "boyars" in a revolt.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The succession to the throne, similarly to Wallachia, was governed by the hereditary-elective principle. Thus either a legitimate or an illegitimate member of the Mușatin family could be proclaimed prince by an assembly of the "boyars". In 1387 Peter I Mușat recognized Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland as his suzerain, but Hungary also maintained its claim of suzerainty over the principality.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Therefore, the princes of Moldavia could counterbalance the influence of Poland and Hungary by playing one off against the other.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: After 1242 most of the territory between the Danube and the Black Sea was included in the area dominated by the Mongols. Although the Byzantine Empire reestablished control over the Danube Delta in the 1260s, it fell again under the direct rule of the Golden Horde sometime before 1337. By the end of the 13th century, flourishing communities of Genoese merchants had settled in the towns of Vicina, Chilia and Licostomo.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire, known as "the country of Cavarna", developed in the region. Its first known ruler was Balica. He was succeeded by his brother, Dobrotitsa, for whom part of his holdings, Dobruja, received its name. In about 1385 Ivanco became the ruler of the territory, but he soon disappeared during an Ottoman expedition. Dobruja was occupied by Mircea I of Wallachia in 1390 and by the Ottomans in 1395.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse. The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the "lucrum camarae", a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax. In Transylvania, the "Three Nations" entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467, but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines. Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj (now Cluj-Napoca) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups. In 1486, Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the "University of the Saxons" under the leadership of the elected mayor of Sibiu.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: After Mircea I's death, princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency. For instance, Michael I (1418–1420) was overthrown by his cousin, Dan II (1420–1431), and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin, Radu II the Bald (1421–1427), the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Under Theodosius I (1521–1522) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the "boyar" parties, and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia. Due to the imminent danger of annexation, the "boyars" grouped around Radu V of Afumați (1522–1529) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans. Finally, he was, in 1525, forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: He was ousted by his nephew, Stephen, with the support of Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia. Stephen III the Great was to be the most important medieval Romanian monarch who managed to uphold Moldavia's autonomy against Hungary, Poland and the Ottoman Empire.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: In the early years of his reign, he remained allied with Poland and the Ottoman Empire, and even joined the Ottomans in attacking Wallachia. He also supported the rebellion of 1467 of the Transylvanian Estates; therefore Matthias I of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia, but the royal army was defeated in the battle of Baia.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: He was succeeded by his son, Bogdan III the One-Eyed (1504–1517) whose reign was troubled by a long series of military conflicts with Poland and Wallachia. The good relations with Poland were reestablished under the reign of Stephen IV the Younger (1517–1527). His successor, Peter IV Rareș (1527–1538, 1541–1546) intervened in the struggle for the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary: on the order of the sultan, in 1529 he invaded the Székely Land and defeated the army of Ferdinand I's partisans.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at Sânpaul on July 8, 1575. In the same year, he was elected king of Poland, thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586. He left the administration of the principality first to his brother, Christopher Báthory (1575–1581), and then to his brother's minor son, Sigismund Báthory (1581–1602), bestowing on them the title of "voivode", while he himself took the title of prince.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: In February, 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti-Ottoman alliance formed by the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II, Philip II of Spain and many smaller Italian and German states. Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war, Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28, 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch. In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund's title of prince.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The short and unworthy reigns of Radu V's successors only increased the crisis of Wallachia. Starting with Mircea the Shepherd (1545–1559), the first prince placed on the throne by the sultan, the crown became negotiable, according to the largest tribute offered. Even Michael the Brave who in time would turn against the Ottomans ascended the throne with the support of some people who had influence with the Sublime Porte, among them Sir Edward Barton, the English ambassador to Istanbul.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical mural painting whose technique have remained a secret until today. For example, the interior and exterior frescoes of the Voroneț Monastery represent this "Moldavian style".

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20, 1595 in Alba Iulia, Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia". The treaty stipulated, that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet, together with a council of 12 Wallachian "boyars". Around that time, the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer, but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at Călugăreni and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu. In the meantime, however, the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ștefan Răzvan by Ieremia Movilă (1595–1606). In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II, who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: After Michael the Brave's death, Transylvania was ruled by an imperial military commission, but under Stephen Bocskay (1604–1606) the principality voluntarily accepted Ottoman suzerainty. In the next decades, the princes of Transylvania, among them Gabriel Bethlen (1613–1629), made several unsuccessful attempts to unify Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Romania in the Middle Ages

Context: Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave's death. Radu Mihnea, prince of Wallachia (1611–1616, 1623–1626) and of Moldavia (1616–1623), was the first ruler to appoint Greeks from the Phanar district of Istanbul to high government posts. This started a trend that ultimately led to the so-called "Phanariot period" in Romania's history.

Question: ワラキアの主要産業は何？


Chisso

Context: The , since 2012 reorganized as JNC (Japan New Chisso), is a . It is an important supplier of liquid crystal used for LCDs, but is best known for its role in the 34-year-long pollution of the water supply in Minamata, Japan that led to thousands of deaths and victims of disease.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: As of March 2001, over 10,000 individuals had received financial remuneration from Chisso to compensate them for the harm caused by the chemical release. By 2004, Chisso Corporation had paid $86 million in compensation, and, in the same year, the company was ordered to clean up its contamination. However, the incident remains controversial for not only the poisoning itself but also for the tactics that the company used to suppress the negative aftermath.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: After the war, Noguchi visited Europe and decided Nichitsu should pioneer an alternative synthesis of ammonium sulfate in Japan. In 1924, the Nichitsu plant at Nobeoka began production using the Casale ammonia synthesis which required the use of extremely high temperatures and pressures. Once the process was proved a success, the Minamata plant was converted to the process and began mass production.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: Nichitsu grew steadily, invested its profits in new technology and expanded production into new areas and slowly became a large conglomerate of many different companies.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: In 1924, Shitagau Noguchi decided to expand Nichitsu into Korea. In those days, Korea was a colony of Japan.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: In 1926, he established two companies in Korea as subsidiaries of Nichitsu, mirroring the foundation of the parent company: and . Noguchi wanted to repeat his success in Ōkuchi and Minamata, but on an even greater scale in Korea.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: The power company constructed hydroelectric power plants one after another along rivers draining into the Yalu River. In 1927, the fertilizer subsidiary built a huge chemical complex in Hungnam. The hydroelectric power plants supplied electricity for the chemical plant, in the same way as the Ōkuchi power plant had done so for the Minamata chemical factory.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: Nichitsu invested Korea more aggressively than any other Japanese company. It and its subsidiaries grew rapidly in Korea, and came to be recognized as an emerging zaibatsu.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: The difference between Nichitsu's zaibatsu and established zaibatsu like Mitsubishi and Mitsui was that Nichitsu did not have its own bank and insurance company. Nichitsu therefore relied on government-controlled banks.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: As Japan lost the Second World War in 1945, Nichitsu and its zaibatsu collapsed and was forced to abandon all properties and interests in Korea. Furthermore, the US-controlled Allied occupation of Japan ordered the dismissal of the company, regarding it as a company that adhered to the militarism government.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: In 1950, the , usually referred to as Shin Nichitsu, was founded as a successor of the old company. Other successor companies include Asahi Kasei and Sekisui Chemical.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: Nichitsu had started production of acetaldehyde using a mercury catalyst at its Minamata plant in May 1932, and Shin Nichitsu continued production after the war. The plant discharged wastewater from its acetaldehyde plant into Minamata Bay via Hyakken Harbour. The wastewater contained many pollutants and poisonous substances including methylmercury, a highly toxic chemical.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: This chemical was absorbed by fish and shellfish and bioaccumulated up the food chain. People who unknowingly ate the fish over many years suffered from severe mercury poisoning. Hajime Hosokawa, a doctor at a Shin Nichitsu's company hospital, officially reported on May 1, 1956 an "epidemic of an unknown disease of the central nervous system", marking the official discovery of Minamata disease.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Chisso

Context: In 1963, doctors at Kumamoto University concluded that the cause of Minamata disease was mercury emitted by Shin Nihon Chisso Hiryo. In 1965, the company changed its name to . In May 1968, Chisso finally stopped using a mercury catalyst in the production of acetaldehyde. In 1969, patients sued Chisso for compensation. Many lawsuits were filed against Chisso after 1969, and some of them go on even now.

Question: 日本で化学肥料が導入されたのはいつ


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape architecture has been taught in the University of Manchester since the 1950s. The course in the Manchester School of Architecture enables students to gain various bachelor's and master's degrees, including MLPM(Hons) which is accredited by the Landscape Institute and by the Royal Town Planning Institute. "

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: The practice of landscape architecture spread from the Old to the New World. The term "landscape architect" was used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted in the United States in 1863 and

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: The variety of the professional tasks that landscape architects collaborate on is very broad, but some examples of project types include:

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape managers use their knowledge of landscape processes to advise on the long-term care and development of the landscape. They often work in forestry, nature conservation and agriculture.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape scientists have specialist skills such as soil science, hydrology, geomorphology or botany that they relate to the practical problems of landscape work. Their projects can range from site surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes. They may also report on the impact of development or the importance of particular species in a given area.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape planners are concerned with landscape planning for the location, scenic, ecological and recreational aspects of urban, rural, and coastal land use. Their work is embodied in written statements of policy and strategy, and their remit includes master planning for new developments, landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing countryside management or policy plans. Some may also apply an additional specialism such as landscape archaeology or law to the process of landscape planning.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Green roof (or more specifically, vegetative roof) designers design extensive and intensive roof gardens for storm water management, evapo-transpirative cooling, sustainable architecture, aesthetics, and habitat creation.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Since this period urban planning has developed into a separate independent profession that has incorporated important contributions from other fields such as civil engineering, architecture and public administration. Urban Planners are qualified to perform tasks independent of landscape architects, and in general, the curriculum of landscape architecture programs do not prepare students to become urban planners.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: The Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA) provides accreditation of university degrees and non-statutory professional registration for landscape architects. Once recognized by AILA, landscape architects use the title 'Registered Landscape Architect' across the six states and territories within Australia.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: AILA's system of professional recognition is a national system overseen by the AILA National Office in Canberra. To apply for AILA Registration, an applicant usually needs to satisfy a number of pre-requisites, including university qualification, a minimum number years of practice and a record of professional experience.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape Architecture within Australia covers a broad spectrum of planning, design, management, and research. From specialist design services for government and private sector developments through to specialist professional advice as an expert witness.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: In Canada, landscape architecture, like law and medicine, is a self-regulating profession pursuant to provincial statute. For example, Ontario's profession is governed by the Ontario Association of Landscape Architects pursuant to the "Ontario Association of Landscape Architects Act". Landscape architects in Ontario, British Columbia, and Alberta must complete the specified components of L.A.R.E (Landscape Architecture Registration Examination) as a prerequisite to full professional standing.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Provincial regulatory bodies are members of a national organization, the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects / L'Association des Architectes Paysagistes du Canada (CSLA-AAPC), and individual membership in the CSLA-AAPC is obtained through joining one of the provincial or territorial components.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape architecture education in Indonesia was held in 18 universities, which graduated D3, Bachelor and Magister graduates. The landscape architecture education incorporate in Association of Indonesian Landscape Architecture Education.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: AIAPP (Associazione Italiana Architettura del Paesaggio) is the Italian association of professional landscape architects formed in 1950 and is a member of IFLA and IFLA Europe (formerly known as EFLA). AIAPP is in the process of contesting this new law which has given the Architects' Association the new title of Architects, Landscape Architects, Planners and Conservationists whether or not they have had any training or experience in any of these fields other than Architecture.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: The New Zealand Institute of Landscape Architects (NZILA) is the professional body for Landscape Architects in NZ.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: In April 2013, NZILA jointly with AILA, hosted the 50th International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA) World Congress in Auckland, New Zealand. The World Congress is an international conference where Landscape Architects from all around the globe meet to share ideas around a particular topic.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Within NZ, Members of NZILA when they achieve their professional standing, can use the title Registered Landscape Architect NZILA.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: NZILA provides an education policy and an accreditation process to review education programme providers; currently there are three accredited undergraduate Landscape Architecture programmes in New Zealand. Lincoln University also has an accredited masters programme in landscape architecture.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: Landscape architecture in Norway was established in 1919 at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) at Ås. The Norwegian School of Landscape Architecture at the Faculty of Landscape and Society is responsible for Europe's oldest landscape architecture education on an academic level. The departments areas include design and design of cities and places, garden art history, landscape engineering, greenery, zone planning, site development, place making and place keeping.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: The UK's professional body is the Landscape Institute (LI). It is a chartered body that accredits landscape professionals and university courses. At present there are fifteen accredited programmes in the UK. Membership of the LI is available to students, academics and professionals, and there are over 3,000 professionally qualified members.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: The Institute provides services to assist members including support and promotion of the work of landscape architects; information and guidance to the public and industry about the specific expertise offered by those in the profession; and training and educational advice to students and professionals looking to build upon their experience.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: In 2008, the LI launched a major recruitment drive entitled "I want to be a Landscape Architect" to encourage the study of Landscape Architecture. The campaign aimed to raise the profile of landscape architecture and highlight its valuable role in building sustainable communities and fighting climate change.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Landscape architecture

Context: As of July 2018, the "I want to be a Landscape Architect" initiative was replaced by a brand new careers campaign entitled "#ChooseLandscape", which aims to raise awareness of landscape as a profession; improve and increase access to landscape education; and inspire young people to choose landscape as a career. This new campaign includes other landscape-related professions such as landscape management, landscape planning, landscape science and urban design.

Question: ランドスケープアーキテクチャーの先駆者は誰？


Abebe Bikila

Context: "Shambel" Abebe Bikila (; August 7, 1932 – October 25, 1973) was an Ethiopian marathon runner who was a back-to-back Olympic marathon champion. He is the first Ethiopian Olympic gold medalist, winning his and Africa's first gold medal at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome while running barefoot. At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, he won his second gold medal. In turn, he became the first athlete to successfully defend an Olympic marathon title. In both victories, he ran in world record time.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: Abebe was 27 when he married 15-year-old Yewebdar Wolde-Giorgis on March 16, 1960. Although the marriage was arranged by his mother, Abebe was happy and they remained married for the rest of his life.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: Between and , the lead changed hands several times. By about , however, Abebe and ben Abdesselam moved away from the rest of the pack. Trailing by about two minutes at the mark were New Zealand's Barry Magee, who was to finish third in 2:17:18.2 and Sergei Popov, the world marathon record holder at the time, who finished fifth.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: Forty days before the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Abebe began to feel pain while training in Debre Zeit. He was brought to the hospital and diagnosed with acute appendicitis, and had an appendectomy on September 16. Back on his feet in a few days, Abebe left the hospital within a week.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: He was the first runner to successfully defend an Olympic marathon title. Abebe, Waldemar Cierpinski, and Eliud Kipchoge are the only athletes to have won two gold medals in the event, and they all did it back-to-back. For the second time, Abebe received Ethiopia's only gold medal and again returned home to a hero's welcome. The Emperor promoted him to the commissioned-officer rank of "metoaleqa" (lieutenant). Abebe received the Order of Menelik II, a Volkswagen Beetle and a house.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: On April 21, 1965, as part of the opening ceremonies for the second season of the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair, Abebe and fellow athlete and Imperial Guardsman Mamo Wolde, ran a ceremonial half-marathon from the Arsenal in Central Park (at 64th Street and Fifth Avenue in Manhattan) to the Singer Bowl at the fair. They carried a parchment scroll with greetings from Haile Selassie.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: The following month, Abebe returned to Japan and won his second Mainichi Marathon, held in Shiga Prefecture. In 1966 he ran marathons at Zarautz and Inchon–Seoul, winning both. The following year, Abebe did not finish the Zarautz International Marathon in July 1967. He had injured his hamstring, an injury from which he would never recover. Abebe had begun to limp, and the 1966 Incheon–Seoul Marathon was the last marathon he ever completed.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: In July 1968, he travelled to Germany for treatment of "circulatory ailments" in his legs; the German government refused to accept payment for the medical services. Abebe returned in time to join the rest of the Ethiopian Olympic team training in Asmara, which has an altitude () and climate similar to Mexico City (the host of the next Olympic Games).

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: In 1970, Abebe began training for wheelchair-athlete archery competitions. In July, he competed in archery and table tennis at the Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Games in London. The following April, Abebe participated in games for disabled people in Norway. Although he had been invited as a guest, he competed in archery and table tennis and defeated a field of sixteen in cross-country sled dog racing with a time of 1:16:17.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: Abebe was invited to the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich as a special guest, and received a standing ovation during the opening ceremony. His countryman Mamo Wolde did not match his back-to-back Olympic marathon victories, finishing third behind Frank Shorter of the United States and Karel Lismont of Belgium. After Shorter received his gold medal, he shook Abebe's hand.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: On October 25, 1973, Abebe died in Addis Ababa at age 41 of a cerebral hemorrhage, a complication related to his accident four years earlier. He was buried with full military honours; his state funeral was attended by an estimated 65,000 people including Emperor Haile Selassie, who proclaimed a day of mourning for the country's national hero. Abebe is interred in a tomb with a bronze statue at Saint Joseph Church in Addis Ababa.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: He is a national hero in Ethiopia, and a stadium in Addis Ababa is named in his honour. In late 1972, the American Community School of Addis Ababa dedicated its gymnasium (which included facilities for disabled people) to Abebe.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: On March 21, 2010, the Rome Marathon observed the 50th anniversary of his Olympic victory. The winner, Ethiopian runner Siraj Gena, ran the last of the race barefoot and received a €5,000 bonus. A plaque commemorating the anniversary is mounted on a wall on the Via di San Gregorio, and a footbridge in Ladispoli was named in Abebe's honour.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: Abebe is also the subject of a 2009 feature film, "Atletu" ("The Athlete"), directed by Davey Frankel and Rasselas Lakew. The film starring Rasselas focuses on the final years of Abebe's life: his quest to regain the Olympic title, the accident and his struggle to compete again.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Abebe Bikila

Context: Robin Williams referred to Abebe's barefoot running during his 2009 stand-up comedy tour, "Weapons of Self-Destruction": "[Abebe] won the Rome Olympics running barefoot. He was then sponsored by Adidas. He ran the next Olympics; he carried the fucking shoes". Abebe did not carry his shoes but wore them; he was not sponsored by Adidas but was perhaps secretly sponsored by Puma.

Question: アベベ・ビキラの最速記録は？


Axeman of New Orleans

Context: As the killer's epithet implies, the victims usually were attacked with an axe, which often belonged to the victims themselves. In most cases, a panel on a back door of a home was removed by a chisel, which along with the panel was left on the floor near the door. The intruder then attacked one or more of the residents with either an axe or straight razor. The crimes were not motivated by robbery, and the perpetrator never removed items from his victims' homes.

Question: ニューオーリンズの斧男は警察に逮捕されましたか？


Axeman of New Orleans

Context: According to scholar Richard Warner, the chief suspect in the crimes was Frank "Doc" Mumphrey (1875–1921), who used the alias Leon Joseph Monfre/Manfre.

Question: ニューオーリンズの斧男は警察に逮捕されましたか？


Metal toxicity

Context: Toxicity is a function of solubility. Insoluble compounds as well as the metallic forms often exhibit negligible toxicity. The toxicity of any metal depends on its ligands. In some cases, organometallic forms, such as methylmercury and tetraethyl lead, can be extremely toxic. In other cases, organometallic derivatives are less toxic such as the cobaltocenium cation.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Toxic metals can bioaccumulate in the body and in the food chain. Therefore, a common characteristic of toxic metals is the chronic nature of their toxicity. This is particularly notable with radioactive heavy metals such as radium, which imitates calcium to the point of being incorporated into human bone, although similar health implications are found in lead or mercury poisoning.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Chelation therapy is administered under very careful medical supervision due to various inherent risks. Even when the therapy is administered properly, the chelation drugs can have significant side effects. Chelation administered inappropriately can cause neurodevelopmental toxicity, increase risk of developing cancer, and cause death; chelation also removes essential metal elements and requires measures to prevent their loss.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Arsenic poisoning is a medical condition caused by elevated levels of arsenic in the body. The dominant basis of arsenic poisoning is from ground water that naturally contains high concentrations of arsenic. A 2007 study found that over 137 million people in more than 70 countries are probably affected by arsenic poisoning from drinking water.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Copper toxicity, also called copperiedus, refers to the consequences of an excess of copper in the body. Copperiedus can occur from eating acid foods cooked in uncoated copper cookware, or from exposure to excess copper in drinking water, as a side-effect of estrogen birth control pills, or other environmental sources. It can also result from the genetic condition Wilson's disease.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Lithium is used in some medications, specifically to treat bipolar disorder. The level of "sufficient" medication is thought by many physicians to be close to toxic tolerance for kidney function. Therefore, the patient is often monitored for this purpose.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Manganism or manganese poisoning is a toxic condition resulting from chronic exposure to manganese and first identified in 1837 by James Couper.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Symptoms typically include sensory impairment (vision, hearing, speech), disturbed sensation and a lack of coordination. The type and degree of symptoms exhibited depend upon the individual toxin, the dose, and the method and duration of exposure.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Argyria or argyrosis is a condition caused by inappropriate exposure to chemical compounds of the element silver, or to silver dust. The most dramatic symptom of argyria is that the skin turns blue or bluish-grey. It may take the form of "generalized argyria" or "local argyria". Generalized argyria affects large areas over much of the visible surface of the body. Local argyria shows in limited regions of the body, such as patches of skin, parts of the mucous membrane or the conjunctiva.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Thallium and its compounds are often highly toxic. Contact with skin is dangerous, and adequate ventilation should be provided when melting this metal. Many thallium(I) compounds are highly soluble in water and are readily absorbed through the skin. Exposure to them should not exceed 0.1 mg per m2 of skin in an 8-hour time-weighted average (40-hour work week). Thallium is a suspected human carcinogen.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Tin poisoning refers to the toxic effects of tin and its compounds. Cases of poisoning from tin metal, its oxides, and its salts are "almost unknown"; on the other hand certain organotin compounds are almost as toxic as cyanide.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, excess zinc can be harmful, and cause zinc toxicity. Such toxicity levels have been seen to occur at ingestion of greater than 225 mg of zinc. Excessive absorption of zinc can suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to bacteria, plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: It is difficult to differentiate the effects of low level metal poisoning from the environment with other kinds of environmental harms, including nonmetal pollution. Generally, increased exposure to heavy metals in the environment increases risk of developing cancer.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Metal toxicity

Context: Without a diagnosis of metal toxicity and outside of evidence-based medicine, but perhaps because of worry about metal toxicity, some people seek chelation therapy to treat autism, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, or any sort of neurodegeneration. Chelation therapy does not improve outcomes for those diseases.

Question: 水銀は人体にどのような悪影響を及ぼす


Marxism–Leninism

Context: The Salvadoran Civil War (1979–1992) featured the popularly supported Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, an organisation of left-wing parties fighting against the right-wing military government of El Salvador. In 1983, the United States invasion of Grenada (25–29 October 1983) thwarted the assumption of power by the elected government of the New Jewel Movement (1973–1983), a Marxist–Leninist vanguard party led by Maurice Bishop.

Question: マルクス・レーニン主義はいつ誕生した


Marxism–Leninism

Context: Social resistance to the policies of Marxist–Leninist regimes in Eastern Europe accelerated in strength with the rise of the Solidarity, the first non-Marxist–Leninist controlled trade union in the Warsaw Pact that was formed in the People's Republic of Poland in 1980.

Question: マルクス・レーニン主義はいつ誕生した


Marxism–Leninism

Context: Soviet collectivism and egalitarianism were an important part of Marxist–Leninist ideology in the Soviet Union, where it played a key part in forming the New Soviet man, willingly sacrificing their life for the good of the collective. Terms such as "collective" and "the masses" were frequently used in the official language and praised in agitprop literature by Vladimir Mayakovsky ("Who needs a "1"") and Bertolt Brecht ("The Decision" and "Man Equals Man").

Question: マルクス・レーニン主義はいつ誕生した


Marxism–Leninism

Context: Marxism–Leninism supports the creation of a one-party state led by a communist party as a means to develop socialism and then communism. The political structure of the Marxist–Leninist state involves the rule of a communist vanguard party over a revolutionary socialist state that represents the will and rule of the proletariat. Through the policy of democratic centralism, the communist party is the supreme political institution of the Marxist–Leninist state.

Question: マルクス・レーニン主義はいつ誕生した