Kingdom of Greece

Context: Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose the mighty British navy, and citing the need for a respite after two wars, King Constantine favoured continued neutrality, while Venizelos actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side. Venizelos resigned, but won the next elections, and again formed the government. When Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally in October 1915, Venizelos invited Entente forces into Greece (the Salonika front), for which he was again dismissed by Constantine.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The Greek army evacuated not only Anatolia but also Eastern Thrace and the islands of Imbros and Tenedos (Treaty of Lausanne). A compulsory population exchange was agreed between the two countries, with over 1.5 million Christians and almost half a million Muslims being uprooted. This catastrophe marked the end of the "Megali Idea", and left Greece financially exhausted, demoralised, and having to house and feed a proportionately huge number of refugees.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: On 10 October 1935, a few months after he suppressed a Venizelist Coup in March 1935, Georgios Kondylis, the former Venizelist stalwart, abolished the Republic in another coup and declared the monarchy restored. A rigged plebiscite confirmed the regime change (with an unsurprising 97.88% of votes), and King George II returned.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: In the meantime, Adolf Hitler was reluctantly forced to divert German troops to rescue Mussolini from defeat, and attacked Greece through Yugoslavia and Bulgaria on 6 April 1941. Despite British assistance, by the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country. The King and the government escaped to Crete, where they stayed until the end of the Battle of Crete. They then transferred to Egypt, where a government in exile was established.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The largest resistance group, the National Liberation Front (EAM), was controlled by the Communists, as was (ELAS) led by Aris Velouchiotis and a civil war soon broke out between it and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in those areas liberated from the Germans. The exiled government in Cairo was only intermittently in touch with the resistance movement, and exercised virtually no influence in the occupied country.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Part of this was due to the unpopularity of the King George II in Greece itself, but despite efforts by Greek politicians, British support ensured his retention at the head of the Cairo government. As the German defeat drew nearer, the various Greek political factions convened in Lebanon in May 1944, under British auspices, and formed a government of national unity, under George Papandreou, in which EAM was represented by six ministers.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: A few days later, on 3 December 1944, a large-scale pro-EAM demonstration in Athens ended in violence and ushered an intense, house-to-house struggle with British and monarchist forces (the "Dekemvriana"). After three weeks, the Communists were defeated: the Varkiza agreement ended the conflict and disarmed ELAS, and an unstable coalition government was formed. The anti-EAM backlash grew into a full-scale "White Terror", which exacerbated tensions.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The Communists boycotted the March 1946 elections, and on the same day, fighting broke out again. By the end of 1946, the Communist Democratic Army of Greece had been formed, pitted against the governmental National Army, which was backed first by Britain and after 1947 by the United States.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Communist successes in 1947–1948 enabled them to move freely over much of mainland Greece, but with the extensive reorganisation, the deportation of rural populations and American material support, the National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of the countryside. In 1949, the insurgents suffered a major blow, as Yugoslavia closed its borders following the split between Marshal Josip Broz Tito with the Soviet Union.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The postwar settlement saw Greece's territorial expansion, which had begun in 1832, come to an end. The 1947 Treaty of Paris required Italy to hand over the Dodecanese islands to Greece. These were the last majority-Greek-speaking areas to be united with the Greek state, apart from Cyprus which was a British possession until it became independent in 1960. Greece's ethnic homogeneity was increased by the postwar expulsion of 25,000 Albanians from Epirus (see Cham Albanians).

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The only significant remaining minorities are the Muslims in Western Thrace (about 100,000) and a small Slavic-speaking minority in the north. Greek nationalists continued to claim southern Albania (which they called Northern Epirus), home of a significant Greek population (about 3%–12% in the whole of Albania), and the Turkish-held islands of Imvros and Tenedos, where there were smaller Greek minorities.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: During the Civil war (1946–49) but even more after that, the parties in the parliament were divided into three political concentrations. The political formation Right-Centre-Left, given the exacerbation of political animosity that had preceded dividing the country in the 1940s, tended to turn the concurrence of parties into ideological positions.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The left, which had been ostracised from the political life of the country, found a way of expression through the constitution of EDA (United Democratic Left) in 1951, which turned out to be a significant pole, yet steadily excluded from the decision making centres. After the disbandment of the centre as an autonomous political institution, EDA practically expanded its electoral influence to a significant part of the EAM-based Centre-Left.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The 1960s are part of the period 1953–72, during which Greek economy developed rapidly and was structured within the scope of European and worldwide economic developments. One of the key features of that period was the major political event of the country's accession to the EEC, in an attempt to create a common market. The relevant treaty was contracted in 1962.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The peak of development was registered principally in manufacture, mainly in the textile and chemical industry and in the sector of metallurgy, the growth rate of which tended to reach 11% during 1965–70. The other large branch where distinct economic and social consequences were brought about, was that of construction. Consideration, a Greek invention, favoured the creation of a class of small-medium contractors on the one hand and settled the housing system and property status on the other.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The first constitution of the Kingdom of Greece was the Greek Constitution of 1844. On 3 September 1843, the military garrison of Athens, with the help of citizens, rebelled and demanded from King Otto the concession of a Constitution.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The Constitution that was proclaimed in March 1844 came from the workings of the "Third of September National Assembly of the Hellenes in Athens" and was a Constitutional Pact, in other words, a contract between the monarch and the Nation. This Constitution re-established the Constitutional Monarchy and was based on the French Constitution of 1830 and the Belgian Constitution of 1831.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The ministers' responsibility for the King's actions is established, who also appoints and removes them. Justice stems from the King and is dispensed in his name by the judges he himself appoints.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Lastly, this Assembly voted the electoral law of 18 March 1844, which was the first European law to provide, in essence, for universal male suffrage.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The Second National Assembly of the Hellenes took place in Athens (1863–1864) and dealt both with the election of a new sovereign as well as with the drafting of a new Constitution, thereby implementing the transition from constitutional monarchy to a Crowned republic.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Following the refusal of Prince Alfred of Great Britain (who was elected by an overwhelming majority in the first referendum of the country in November 1862) to accept the crown of the Greek kingdom, the government offered the crown to the Danish prince George Christian Willem of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gluecksburg, who was crowned constitutional King of Greece under the name "George I, King of the Hellenes".

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The Assembly chose the system of a single chamber Parliament (Vouli) with a four-year term, and hence abolished the Senate, which many accused of being a tool in the hands of the monarchy. Direct, secret and universal elections were adopted as the manner to elect the MPs, while elections were to be held simultaneously throughout the entire nation.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Additionally, article 71 introduced a conflict between being an MP and a salaried public employee or mayor at the same time, but not with serving as an army officer.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The Greek Constitution of 1911 was a major step forward in the constitutional history of Greece. Following the rise to power of Eleftherios Venizelos after the Goudi revolt in 1909, Venizelos set about attempting to reform the state. The main outcome of this was a major revision to the Greek Constitution of 1864.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The most noteworthy amendments to the Constitution of 1864 concerning the protection of human rights, were the more effective protection of personal security, equality in tax burdens, of the right to assemble and of the inviolability of the domicile. Furthermore, the Constitution facilitated expropriation to allocate property to landless farmers, while simultaneously judicially protecting property rights.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Greece had a strong wealthy commercial class of rural notables and island shipowners, and access to of land expropriated from Muslim owners who had been driven off during the War of Independence.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Land reform represented the first real test for the new Greek kingdom. The new Greek government deliberately adopted land reforms intended to create a class of free peasants. The "Law for the Dotation of Greek Families" of 1835 extended 2,000 drachmas credit to every family, to be used to buy a farm at auction under a low-cost loan plan. The country was full of displaced refugees and empty Ottoman estates.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: By a series of land reforms over several decades, the government distributed this confiscated land among veterans and the poor, so that by 1870 most Greek peasant families owned about . These farms were too small for prosperity, but the land reform signalled the goal of a society in which Greeks were equals and could support themselves, instead of working for hire on the estates of the rich. The class basis of rivalry between Greek factions was thereby reduced.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Greek industry went into decline slightly before the country joined the EC, and this trend continued. Although worker productivity rose significantly in Greece, labour costs increased too fast for the Greek manufacturing industry to remain competitive in Europe. There was also very little modernization in Greek industries due to a lack of financing.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: This strategy was repeated again in 1926 due to the government's inability to pay back loans incurred from the decade of war and the resettlement of the refugees. Deflation occurred after this dichotomization of the drachma, as well as a rise in interest rates. These policies had the effect of causing much of the populace to lose faith in their government, and investment decreased as people began to stop holding their assets in cash which had become unstable, and began holding real goods.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: These industries were for the most part "built on sand" as one report of the Bank of Greece put it, as without massive protection they would not have been able to survive. Despite the global depression, Greece managed to suffer comparatively little, averaging an average growth rate of 3.5% from 1932 to 1939. The fascist regime of Yannis Metaxas took over the Greek government in 1936, and economic growth was strong in the years leading up to the Second World War.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: After both world wars the Greek shipping industry was hit hard by the decline in global trade, but both times it revived quickly. The Greek government aided the revival of the Greek shipping industry with insurance promises following the Second World War. Tycoons such as Aristotle Onassis also aided in strengthening the Greek merchant fleet, and shipping has remained one of the few sectors in which Greece still excels.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Greek economy was in a deplorable state in 1950 (after the end of the Civil War), with its relative position dramatically affected. In that year Greece had a per capita GDP of $1,951, which was well below that of countries like Portugal ($2,132), Poland ($2,480), and even Mexico ($2,085). Greece's per capita GDP was comparable to that of countries like Bulgaria ($1,651), Japan ($1,873), or Morocco ($1,611).

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Notable sculptors of the new Greek Kingdom were Leonidas Drosis whose major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the Academy of Athens, Lazaros Sochos, Georgios Vitalis, Dimitrios Filippotis, Ioannis Kossos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Greek Golden age of Cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Michael Cacoyannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Melina Mercouri, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti, Irene Papas etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements.

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Kingdom of Greece

Context: Most members of the former royal family are living abroad; Constantine II and his wife, Anne-Marie and unmarried children resided in London until 2013 when they returned to Greece to reside permanently. As male-line descendants of King Christian IX of Denmark the members of the dynasty bear the title of "Prince or Princess of Denmark"; this is why they are traditionally referred to as Princes or Princesses of "Greece and Denmark".

Question: Когда в Греции была свергнута монархия?


Cornelia (wife of Caesar)

Context: Cornelia (c. 97 – c. 69 BC) was the first or second wife of Julius Caesar, and the mother of his only legitimate child, Julia. A daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Cornelia was related by birth or marriage to many of the most influential figures of the late Republic.

Question: Сколько лет было жене Гая Юлия Це́заря, когда она выходила за него замуж?


Cornelia (wife of Caesar)

Context: Cornelia was the daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, one of the most influential politicians at Rome during the conflict between the generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. He held the consulship for a term of four consecutive years, from BC 87 to 84, when he was slain in a soldiers' mutiny. During this period, he espoused the side of Marius, leaving his family exposed to Sulla's wrath on the latter's return in 82.

Question: Сколько лет было жене Гая Юлия Це́заря, когда она выходила за него замуж?


Cornelia (wife of Caesar)

Context: By his wife, Annia, Cinna had a son, Lucius, and two daughters, conventionally known as "Cornelia Major", who married Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, and "Cornelia Minor", the wife of Caesar. The designations "Major" and "Minor" were not really part of their names, but were used to distinguish between sisters, who bore the same nomen. Since there were a great many Corneliae at Rome, Caesar's wife is occasionally referred to as "Cornelia Cinnae", or "Cinna's Cornelia".

Question: Сколько лет было жене Гая Юлия Це́заря, когда она выходила за него замуж?


Aspirin

Context: A precursor to aspirin found in leaves from the willow tree (genus "Salix") has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years. In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated the medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time. Over the next 50 years, other chemists established the chemical structure and devised more efficient production methods.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar because aspirin can decompose through hydrolysis in moist conditions, yielding salicylic and acetic acids.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: In 1971, British pharmacologist John Robert Vane, then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed aspirin suppressed the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. For this discovery he was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, jointly with Sune Bergström and Bengt Ingemar Samuelsson.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Prostaglandins, local hormones produced in the body, have diverse effects, including the transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat, and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots. Heart attacks are caused primarily by blood clots, and low doses of aspirin are seen as an effective medical intervention to prevent a second acute myocardial infarction.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: About 50–80% of salicylate in the blood is bound to human serum albumin, while the rest remains in the active, ionized state; protein binding is concentration-dependent. Saturation of binding sites leads to more free salicylate and increased toxicity. The volume of distribution is 0.1–0.2 L/kg. Acidosis increases the volume of distribution because of enhancement of tissue penetration of salicylates.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Complicating the use of aspirin for prevention is the phenomenon of aspirin resistance. For people who are resistant, aspirin's efficacy is reduced. Some authors have suggested testing regimens to identify people who are resistant to aspirin.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: A meta-analysis through 2019 said that there was an association between taking aspirin and lower risk of cancer of the colorectum, esophagus, and stomach.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Although cohort and longitudinal studies have shown low-dose aspirin has a greater likelihood of reducing the incidence of dementia, numerous randomised controlled trials have not validated this.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Along with rheumatic fever, Kawasaki disease remains one of the few indications for aspirin use in children in spite of a lack of high quality evidence for its effectiveness.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Low-dose aspirin supplementation has moderate benefits when used for prevention of pre-eclampsia. This benefit is greater when started in early pregnancy.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: For some people, aspirin does not have as strong an effect on platelets as for others, an effect known as aspirin-resistance or insensitivity. One study has suggested women are more likely to be resistant than men, and a different, aggregate study of 2,930 people found 28% were resistant.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: A study in 100 Italian people found, of the apparent 31% aspirin-resistant subjects, only 5% were truly resistant, and the others were noncompliant.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Another study of 400 healthy volunteers found no subjects who were truly resistant, but some had "pseudoresistance, reflecting delayed and reduced drug absorption".

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: In general, for adults, doses are taken four times a day for fever or arthritis, with doses near the maximal daily dose used historically for the treatment of rheumatic fever. For the prevention of myocardial infarction (MI) in someone with documented or suspected coronary artery disease, much lower doses are taken once daily.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Low-dose aspirin use was also associated with a trend toward lower risk of cardiovascular events, and lower aspirin doses (75 or 81mg/day) may optimize efficacy and safety for people requiring aspirin for long-term prevention.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: In children with Kawasaki disease, aspirin is taken at dosages based on body weight, initially four times a day for up to two weeks and then at a lower dose once daily for a further six to eight weeks.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: In October 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the drug label to be updated for all nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid. They recommend avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy. One exception to the recommendation is the use of low-dose 81mg aspirin at any point in pregnancy under the direction of a health care professional.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Taking it with vitamin C has been investigated as a method of protecting the stomach lining. Taking equal doses of vitamin C and aspirin may decrease the amount of stomach damage that occurs compared to taking aspirin alone.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: It is a widespread habit among eye specialists (ophthalmologists) to prescribe aspirin as an add-on medication for patients with retinal vein occlusion (RVO), such as central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) and branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO). The reason of this widespread use is the evidence of its proven effectiveness in major systemic venous thrombotic disorders, and it has been assumed that may be similarly beneficial in various types of retinal vein occlusion.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: However, a large-scale investigation based on data of nearly 700 patients showed "that aspirin or other antiplatelet aggregating agents or anticoagulants adversely influence the visual outcome in patients with CRVO and hemi-CRVO, without any evidence of protective or beneficial effect". Several expert groups, including the Royal College of Ophthalmologists, recommended against the use of antithrombotic drugs (incl. aspirin) for patients with RVO.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Large doses of salicylate, a metabolite of aspirin, cause temporary tinnitus (ringing in the ears) based on experiments in rats, via the action on arachidonic acid and NMDA receptors cascade.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: The ISIS-2 trial demonstrated that aspirin at doses of 160mg daily for one month, decreased the mortality by 21% of participants with a suspected myocardial infarction in the first five weeks. A single daily dose of 324mg of aspirin for 12 weeks has a highly protective effect against acute myocardial infarction and death in men with unstable angina.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: There are a many anecdotal reportings that aspirin can improve plant's growth and resistance though most research involved salicylic acid instead of aspirin.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Aspirin

Context: Dogs are better able to tolerate aspirin than cats are. Cats metabolize aspirin slowly because they lack the glucuronide conjugates that aid in the excretion of aspirin, making it potentially toxic if dosing is not spaced out properly. No clinical signs of toxicosis occurred when cats were given 25mg/kg of aspirin every 48 hours for 4 weeks, but the recommended dose for relief of pain and fever and for treating blood clotting diseases in cats is 10mg/kg every 48 hours to allow for metabolization.

Question: Как Ацетилсалици́ловая кислота́ называется по-народному?


Effective temperature

Context: The effective temperature of a body such as a star or planet is the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation. Effective temperature is often used as an estimate of a body's surface temperature when the body's emissivity curve (as a function of wavelength) is not known.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: When the star's or planet's net emissivity in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity (less than that of a black body), the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature. The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties, including greenhouse effect.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: Stars have a decreasing temperature gradient, going from their central core up to the atmosphere. The "core temperature" of the Sun—the temperature at the centre of the Sun where nuclear reactions take place—is estimated to be 15,000,000 K.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: To find the effective (blackbody) temperature of a planet, it can be calculated by equating the power received by the planet to the known power emitted by a blackbody of temperature .

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: The next assumption we can make is that the entire planet is at the same temperature , and that the planet radiates as a blackbody. The Stefan–Boltzmann law gives an expression for the power radiated by the planet:

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: Where formula_4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. Note that the planet's radius has cancelled out of the final expression.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: The surface temperature of a planet can be estimated by modifying the effective-temperature calculation to account for emissivity and temperature variation.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: The area of the planet that absorbs the power from the star is which is some fraction of the total surface area , where is the radius of the planet. This area intercepts some of the power which is spread over the surface of a sphere of radius . We also allow the planet to reflect some of the incoming radiation by incorporating a parameter called the albedo. An albedo of 1 means that all the radiation is reflected, an albedo of 0 means all of it is absorbed. The expression for absorbed power is then:

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: The next assumption we can make is that although the entire planet is not at the same temperature, it will radiate as if it had a temperature over an area which is again some fraction of the total area of the planet. There is also a factor , which is the emissivity and represents atmospheric effects. ranges from 1 to 0 with 1 meaning the planet is a perfect blackbody and emits all the incident power. The Stefan–Boltzmann law gives an expression for the power radiated by the planet:

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: Note the ratio of the two areas. Common assumptions for this ratio are for a rapidly rotating body and for a slowly rotating body, or a tidally locked body on the sunlit side. This ratio would be 1 for the subsolar point, the point on the planet directly below the sun and gives the maximum temperature of the planet — a factor of (1.414) greater than the effective temperature of a rapidly rotating planet.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Effective temperature

Context: Also note here that this equation does not take into account any effects from internal heating of the planet, which can arise directly from sources such as radioactive decay and also be produced from frictions resulting from tidal forces.

Question: Какая максимальная температура на Юпитере?


Russell E. Train

Context: He was trained in the ways of Washington from an early age. His father had an office at the White House, where he served as President Herbert Hoover's Naval aide. In 1932, Mrs. Hoover invited Mr. Train and his older brothers, Cuthbert and Middleton, to spend the night at the White House, where they slept in the Andrew Jackson bedroom and breakfasted with the president and Mrs. Hoover on the portico overlooking the Ellipse and the Washington Monument.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: "I think what made the greatest impression on me," he wrote years later, "were the tall glasses of fresh California orange juice. I had never seen anything like those large glassfuls before."

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: Over the following two years Train attended Columbia University Law School, where he took an accelerated schedule and graduated with an LLB in 1948.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: Early in his career, Train served from 1949 to 1956 as Attorney, Chief Counsel, and Minority Advisor on various Congressional committees and from 1956 to 1957 as Assistant to the Secretary and Head of the Legal Advisory Staff for the U.S. Treasury Department.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 1954, Train married the former Aileen Bowdoin Travers; they became the parents to four children – Nancy, Emily, Bowdoin and Errol.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: He was a judge for the U.S. Tax Court from 1957 to 1965, one of several appointments which went against a previously observed Senate Resolution prohibiting the appointment to that body of persons recently employed by the Treasury Department.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 1959, Train founded the Wildlife Leadership Foundation in hopes of establishing effective wildlife parks and reserves. In 1961, he founded the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) to aid Africans in developing capacity to manage their own wildlife resources. He was chairman of the AWF from 1961 to 1969. He also helped establish the College of African Wildlife Management at Mweka (near Moshi), Tanzania.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: When the World Wildlife Fund (U.S.) was formed in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1961, Russell Train became its first ever Vice-President; in later years he was named Chair Emeritus of the WWF. He was President of The Conservation Foundation from 1965 to 1969. In this role, Train helped to bring the environment to the American public's consciousness and lobbied for a high-level policy group at the highest levels of government.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 1966, Train became a member of the National Water Commission, charged by Congress with reviewing national water policies.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 1968, Train was selected to serve as Chairman, Task Force on Environment for U.S. President-elect Richard M. Nixon. His selection, and the creation of the task force, signals the growing acceptance by the incoming administration of the "environment" as a public policy concept.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: Train served as Under Secretary of the Department of the Interior from 1969 to 1970. Between 1970 and 1973 he was Chairman of the newly formed Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ).

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: During his time as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Train led during the approval of the catalytic converter to achieve Clean Air Act automobile emission reductions; and the implementation of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) and the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: As head of the EPA under Presidents Nixon and Ford, Train is generally credited with helping to place the issue of the environment on the presidential and national agenda in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a key period in the environmental movement.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: Train opened a dialog on global environmental issues with Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, marking the birth of modern American environmental diplomacy Nixon pursued environmental diplomacy to garner domestic political support.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: Through Train's efforts, in 1983 the WWF-administered J. Paul Getty Wildlife Conservation Prize was presented to awardees in the White House Rose Garden by President Ronald Reagan. President Reagan called the Getty Prize "the Nobel Prize for Conservation." Begun in 1974, the Getty Prize originally honored outstanding contributions to wildlife conservation and now focuses on the education of future conservationists.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 1985, Train became chairman of the board of directors of World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation Foundation and served as chairman until 1994. In this same year, the Conservation Foundation formally affiliated with WWF. Though the organizations shared the same board of directors as well as some staff, they remained separate legal entities until their merger in 1990.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: During 1988 he also worked as co-chairman of Conservationists for Bush, making reference to George H. W. Bush, and from 1990 to 1992 as chairman of the National Commission on the Environment.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In September 1994, Train was elected WWF chairman emeritus. That same year, WWF launched the Russell E. Train Education for Nature (EFN) Program to help build capacity for conservation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America by supporting academic and mid-career training. To date, EFN has awarded over 1,200 scholarships and training grants totaling 11.3 million since its establishment.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 2003, "Politics, Pollution and Panda: An Environmental Memoir by Russell E. Train" was published. A chronicle of his career, the book is also a history of the birth and growth of U.S. national interest in environmental issues.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 1991, Train received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his work in conservation.

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Russell E. Train

Context: In 2001, Train received the 7th Annual Heinz Award Chairman's Medal, 2001, a prestigious prize honoring individuals who have made extraordinary achievements on issues of importance. Train was recognized as "a tireless advocate for the cause of the environment since 1961… the architect of an environmental agenda without parallel in history in its scope…and as a "truly outstanding example of how a single life can make a difference in the world."

Question: В скольких войнах всего участвовал Парово́з Э?


Tower Green

Context: The following nobles are known to have been executed by beheading (all by an axe except Anne Boleyn, who was beheaded with a sword) on the Tower Green:

Question: Сколько королев Англии было казнено?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: Fagus sylvatica, the European beech or common beech is a deciduous tree belonging to the beech family Fagaceae.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: The leaves are alternate, simple, and entire or with a slightly crenate margin, 5–10 cm long and 3–7 cm broad, with 6–7 veins on each side of the leaf (7–10 veins in "Fagus orientalis"). When crenate, there is one point at each vein tip, never any points between the veins. The buds are long and slender, long and thick, but thicker (to ) where the buds include flower buds.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: The leaves of beech are often not abscissed (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called marcescence. This particularly occurs when trees are saplings or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: A beech forest is very dark and few species of plant are able to survive there, where the sun barely reaches the ground. Young beeches prefer some shade and may grow poorly in full sunlight. In a clear-cut forest a European beech will germinate and then die of excessive dryness. Under oaks with sparse leaf cover it will quickly surpass them in height and, due to the beech's dense foliage, the oaks will die from lack of sunlight.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: The root system is shallow, even superficial, with large roots spreading out in all directions. European beech forms ectomycorrhizas with a range of fungi including many "Russula" species, as well as "Laccaria amethystina", and with the species "Ramaria flavosaponaria". "Tomentella" Pat. species and "Cenococcum geophilum" have been found in Danish and Spanish beech forests. These fungi are important in enhancing uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: It is only after the budding that root growth of the year begins. The first roots to appear are very thin (with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm). Later, after a wave of above ground growth, thicker roots grow in a steady fashion.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: Since the early 19th century there have been numerous cultivars of European beech made by horticultural selection, often repeatedly; they include:

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: The nuts are eaten by humans and animals. Slightly toxic to humans if eaten in large quantities due to the tannins and alkaloids they contain, the nuts were nonetheless pressed to obtain an oil in 19th-century England that was used for cooking and in lamps. They were also ground to make flour, which could be eaten after the tannins were leached out by soaking.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


Fagus sylvatica

Context: "Biscogniauxia nummularia" (beech tarcrust) is an ascomycete primary pathogen of beech trees, causing strip-canker and wood rot. It can be found at all times of year and is not edible.

Question: Когда цветет бук европе́йский?


List of ambassadors of Russia to the United States

Context: The Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Russian Federation to the United States of America is the official representative of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation to the President of the United States and the Government of the United States of America.

Question: Кто является послом России в США в 2019 году?


Context: On 17 March 2021, Russia recalled Ambassador Antonov back to Moscow for consultations after U.S. President Joe Biden said Russian President Vladimir Putin would "pay a price" for Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.

Question: Кто является послом России в США в 2019 году?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Missile defense systems are a type of missile defense intended to shield a country against incoming missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or other ballistic missiles. The United States, Russia, India, France, Israel, Italy, United Kingdom, China and Iran have all developed missile defense systems.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: The Ballistic Missile Defence Program is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi-layered ballistic missile defense system to protect India from ballistic missile attacks.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Introduced in light of the ballistic missile threat from Pakistan, it is a double-tiered system consisting of two interceptor missiles, namely the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) missile for high-altitude interception, and the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) Missile for lower altitude interception. The two-tiered shield should be able to intercept an incoming missile having a range of up to 5,000 kilometers.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: PAD was tested in November 2006, followed by AAD in December 2007. With the test of the PAD missile, India became the fourth country to have successfully developed an Anti-ballistic missile system, after United States, Russia and Israel. On 6 March 2009, India again successfully tested its missile defense shield, during which a test "enemy" missile was intercepted at an altitude of 75 km.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Apart from DRDO's endeavour to develop a potent missile defense, India is reportedly examining the Israeli Arrow, the Almaz design bureau's S-300 PMU-1/-2 and S-400 and the Antey design bureau's Antey 2500/S-300VM. India has procured a squadron of S-300V systems which are in use as an 'anti-tactical ballistic missile screen'.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Defending against an attack by a cruise missile on the other hand is similar to tackling low-flying manned aircraft and hence most methods of aircraft defence can be used for a cruise missile defence system.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: In order to ward off the threats of nuke-tipped cruise missile attack India has a new missile defence programme which will be focused solely on intercepting cruise missiles. The technological breakthrough has been created with an Advanced Air Defence missile (AAD).

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: DRDO Chief, Dr V K Saraswat stated in an Interview "Our studies have indicated that this AAD will be able to handle a cruise missile intercept,"

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Furthermore, India is acquiring airborne radars like AWACS to ensure detection of cruise missiles in order to stay on top of the threat.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: On 17 November 2010, in an interview Rafael's Vice President Mr. Lova Drori confirmed that the David's Sling system has been offered to the Indian Armed Forces.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: The Arrow system consists of the joint production hypersonic Arrow anti-missile interceptor, the Elta EL/M-2080 "Green Pine" early-warning AESA radar, the Tadiran Telecom "Golden Citron" ("Citron Tree") C3I center, and the Israel Aerospace Industries "Brown Hazelnut" ("Hazelnut Tree") launch control center. The system is transportable, as it can be moved to other prepared sites.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Apart from Arrow missile, Israel has Iron dome which is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometers away and David's Sling that is designed to intercept medium- to long-range rockets and cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40 km to 300 km.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Iron Beam is a directed high energy laser (HEL) which during its prototype tests has shot down aerial targets at distances up to the 4 kilometer range.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: The S-300PMU1 and PMU2 can intercept SRBMs, and the S-300V and S-400 Triumf systems are capable of intercepting a multiple IRBM attack by all DF-21 model IRBMs. These air-defense systems have been purchased by Turkey, India, China, Saudi Arabia, and South Korea. Other countries which have also expressed interest include Iran and Belarus.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: The U.S. Sentinel program was a planned national missile defense during the 1970s, but was never deployed. Elements of Sentinel were actually deployed briefly as the Safeguard Program, although it was not national in scope.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: United States has had in development a nationwide antimissile program since the 1990s. After the renaming in 2002, the term now refers to the entire program, not just the ground-based interceptors and associated facilities.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Other elements yet to be integrated into National Missile Defense (NMD) may include anti-ballistic missiles, or sea-based, space-based, laser, and high-altitude missile systems. The NMD program is limited in scope and designed to counter a relatively small ICBM attack from a less sophisticated adversary. Unlike the earlier Strategic Defense Initiative program, it is not designed to be a robust shield against a large attack from a technically sophisticated adversary.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: As of 2012, this system is operational with limited capability. In early April 2013, the Pentagon announced plans to deploy 14 more Ground-Based Interceptor (GBI) missiles to Alaska in response to the North Korean threats to deliver nuclear weapons to the United States. A Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) battery was deployed to Guam as well.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: China tested the FJ ABM in the Cold War but they were ultimately cancelled. The PLA has currently developed the KT series of anti ballistic missiles and also have adopted limited anti ballistic capabilities on the HQ-9, KS series, and HQ-16.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: China successfully tested its exoatmospheric interception capabilities in a test in 2010 and also in a test in 2013, being the second of two countries able to do so. The anti missile technology is successful to this day. The BMD system was again tested on 8 September 2017 and was deemed successful.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Four versions of the S-300 are in service, the PMU, PMU1 and PMU2 and the navalised S-300FM Rif. Based on the S-300PMU1, the Rif equips the PLAN’s two Type 51C Luzhou air-defence destroyers enabling them to contribute to the protection of a coastal site against SRBM attack.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: The S-300PMU2 has the best chance of intercepting an SRBM missile as it employs the 48N6E2 missile which has a warhead optimised for destroying ballistic missiles, and better kinematics compared to earlier 48N6 missiles.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: However, it might be noted that on 11 January 2007 the Chinese successfully performed an anti-satellite missile test using a KT-1 missile with a Kinetic Kill Vehicle mounted.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Taiwan operates the Sky Bow family of BMD systems. Development of Sky Bow I began in 1981 with deployment beginning in 1993. The Sky Bow II is an improved version of the Sky Bow I. Both the Sky Bow I and Sky Bow II use a common silo launch system.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: In 2001 development of the completely new Sky Bow III system began with flight testing commencing in 2009 and deployment soon after. The Sky Bow III has a top speed of Mach 7. A naval variant of the Sky Bow III has also been developed.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: In addition to the BMD force the Army operates the Antelope air defence system which has a significant anti-cruise missile capability. The ROCAF also operates imported Patriot PAC-3 batteries.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: In 2018, the Japan Ground Self Defense Force (JGSDF), initiated their 54th year of Hawk system and missile training at Fort Bliss.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Since 1998, when North Korea launched a Taepodong-1 missile over northern Japan, the Japanese have been jointly developing a new surface-to-air interceptor known as the Patriot Advanced Capability 3 (PAC-3) with the US. So far tests have been successful, and there are planned 11 locations that the PAC-3 will be installed. A military spokesman said that tests had been done on two sites, one of them a business park in central Tokyo, and Ichigaya – a site not far from the Imperial Palace.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Along with the PAC-3, Japan has installed the US-developed Aegis ship-based anti-ballistic missile system, which was tested successfully on 18 December 2007. The missile was launched from a Japanese warship, in partnership with the US Missile Defense Agency and destroyed a mock target launched from the coast.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Like the UAE (see below), South Korea has agreed to deploy THAAD systems. The agreement was announced in July 2016.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: That day, the first vehicles of a THAAD battery deployed to South Korea. Two launcher trucks arrived at Osan Air Base, South Korea, on 6 March 2017. By 6 September 2017 the AN/TPY-2 radar, the fire control system, and all six launchers (with 48 THAAD interceptors) were fully deployed.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: United Arab Emirates (UAE) has graduated its first two American Terminal High Altitude Air Defense (THAAD) unit classes at Fort Bliss in 2015, and in 2016. Its first live-fire exercises with Patriot missiles took place in 2014. The UAE is "the first GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) partner to possess an upper tier ballistic missile defense capability the THAAD weapon system," stated the US Army general who addressed this graduating class.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Gruselle noted most French security experts doubted the technological feasibility of intercontinental ballistic missile defense. Some thought it foolish to spend huge amounts of money on unproven technologies that lacked operational or political usefulness. Instead, the French defense policy community viewed missile defense merely as an American "economic weapon" used to defeat the Soviet Union and win the Cold War.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: The extant missile defenses are currently vulnerable to maneuverable hypersonic vehicles, which can maneuver at speeds high enough to defeat missile defenses. China is among the countries pursuing hypersonic vehicles as warhead delivery systems.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Yousaf Butt, a critic of missile defense, states in "The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" that "just as with nuclear weapons, the U.S. infatuation with missile defense will cause other nations to desire this expensive technology".

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


Missile defense systems by country

Context: Russia's top military officer has threatened to carry out a pre-emptive strike on U.S.-led NATO missile defense facilities in Eastern Europe if Washington goes ahead with its plan to build a missile shield. Russian Defense Minister Anatoliy Serdyukov also warned that talks between Moscow and Washington on the topic are "close to a dead end." U.S. State Department special envoy Ellen Tauscher responded that neither country could afford another arms race.

Question: Когда была основана Национальная противоракетная оборона в России?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: According to the OSCE's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, the public broadcaster TVP "failed in its legal duty to provide balanced and impartial coverage" and "acted as a campaign vehicle for the incumbent".

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: Pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution, the president must be elected by an absolute majority of valid votes. If no candidate succeeds in passing this threshold in the first round, a second round of voting is held with the two candidates who received the largest shares of the vote.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: In order to be registered to contest the election, a candidate must be a Polish citizen, be at least 35 years old on the day of the first round of the election, and have collected at least 100,000 voters' signatures by 10 June 2020 at midnight.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: On 30 April 2020, three former Polish presidents and six prime ministers called for a boycott of 2020 presidential election, on the grounds that the election would be unconstitutional and could not guarantee the confidentiality of voters.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: On 6 May, Jarosław Gowin, the leader of Agreement, and Jarosław Kaczyński, the leader of Law and Justice struck an agreement to move the election. The two parties had earlier been engaged in a political struggle over whether the election should proceed in May.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: On 7 May, the Sejm approved legislation for the election to be held via postal ballot. The same day, PKW announced that "The current legal regulation deprived the National Electoral Commission of the instruments necessary to perform its duties. In connection with the above, the National Electoral Commission informs voters, election committees, candidates, election administration and local government units that voting on 10 May 2020 cannot take place."

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: The movement of the election day was met with support and opposition from both the "anti" and "pro" Law and Justice spheres of Polish politics. An opinion poll for Rzeczpospolita, gauged public support for the Gowin-Kaczyński agreement at 43.5%, with 36.3% being against, and the rest undecided.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: On 15 September 2020, Wojewódzki sąd administracyjny (administrative court) ("") in Warsaw judged that the decision of Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki to hold the elections only by correspondence way on 10 May 2020 was "gross violation of the law and was issued without [legal] grounds" and violated article 7 of the Polish Constitution, article 157, paragraph 1 and article 187, paragraph 1 and 2 of the Electoral Code. The opposition demands Morawiecki's resignation.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: In December 2019, PSL chairman Władysław Kosiniak-Kamysz announced that he would be launching a campaign for president.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: At the beginning of January 2020, Włodzimierz Czarzasty said that The Left would nominate Robert Biedroń.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: The party held an open primary, a first in Polish politics. The 2019–20 Confederation presidential primary is modeled on the US style, with various rounds. Krzysztof Bosak was nominated during the final round of voting held at the convention in Warsaw on 18 January.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: These are candidates who collected the necessary 100,000 signatures supporting their candidacy to run, but are not supported by parties currently in the Sejm:

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: These following candidates made electoral comitties but failed to submit 100,000 signatures supporting their run by the 26 March deadline:

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: Duda and Trzaskowski both refused to take part in debates at each other's preferred media outlet and a proposal from Duda and supported by Trzaskowski to hold a joint debate hosted by TVP, Polsat and TVN was rejected by TVP Director Jacek Kurski.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: In the second round, there was a close race between Duda and Trzaskowski. Duda had a slight lead in 9:00 pm exit polls which gave him 50.4% of the vote to Trzaskowski's 49.6%. This was within the 2% margin of error leading to the pollster Ipsos announcing the race to be too close to call. Duda's vote share eventually amounted to 51.03%, securing his reelection.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: US President Donald Trump, President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg, Lega Nord leader and former Italian Minister of the Interior Matteo Salvini, Lithuanian President Gitanas Nausėda, UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson, Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, Czech President Miloš Zeman, Slovak President Zuzana Čaputová, and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky congratulated Duda on his victory.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: Observers viewed the election results as illustrating a divided Polish society. They also predicted that PiS would continue pursuing its policies in a number of areas and clashing with the EU. Duda performed strongest among older, rural, and eastern voters.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


2020 Polish presidential election

Context: The Supreme Court ruled the election valid, stating that doubts about the television's honesty notwithstanding, TVP was not the only media source available for voters, and that voters were free to choose what media to watch.

Question: Кто является президентов Польши по данным на 2019 год?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: According to Herodotus, more than four thousand years ago natural asphalt was employed in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon, great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates, and this fact confirmed by Diodorus Siculus. Herodotus mentioned pitch spring on Zacynthus (Ionian islands, Greece). Also, Herodotus described a well for bitumen (very thick oil) and oil near Ardericca in Cessia.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: In China, petroleum was used more than 2000 years ago. In I Ching, one of the earliest Chinese writings cites the use of oil in its raw state without refining was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BC. In addition, the Chinese were the first to use petroleum as fuel as early as the fourth century BC.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: The earliest mention of petroleum in the Americas occurs in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of the Trinidad Pitch Lake in 1595; while thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of New York was published in Gabriel Sagard's "Histoire du Canada". A Finnish born Swede, scientist and student of Carl Linnaeus, Peter Kalm, in his work "Travels into North America" published first in 1753 showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsylvania.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: In 1745 under the Empress Elizabeth of Russia the first oil well and refinery were built in Ukhta by Fiodor Priadunov. Through the process of distillation of the "rock oil" (petroleum) he received a kerosene-like substance, which was used in oil lamps by Russian churches and monasteries (though households still relied on candles).

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: Oil sands were mined from 1745 in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn, Alsace under the direction of Louis Pierre Ancillon de la Sablonnière, by special appointment of Louis XV.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: The Pechelbronn oil field was active until 1970, and was the birthplace of companies like Antar and Schlumberger. The first modern refinery was built there in 1857.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: The modern history of petroleum began in the 19th century with the refining of paraffin from crude oil. The Scottish chemist James Young in 1847 noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the Riddings colliery at Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: The new oils were successful, but the supply of oil from the coal mine soon began to fail (eventually being exhausted in 1851). Young, noticing that the oil was dripping from the sandstone roof of the coal mine, theorized that it somehow originated from the action of heat on the coal seam and from this thought that it might be produced artificially.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: Following up this idea, he tried many experiments and eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: Ignacy Łukasiewicz improved Gesner's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available "rock oil" ("petr-oleum") seeps, in 1852, and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka, near Krosno in central European Galicia (Poland) in 1854. These discoveries rapidly spread around the world, and Meerzoeff built the first modern Russian refinery in the mature oil fields at Baku in 1861. At that time Baku produced about 90% of the world's oil.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: Additionally, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: This refinery obtained, on the basis of a contract concluded in October 1856 between Teodor Mehedinţeanu and the City Hall of Bucharest, the exclusive right to supply the illumination of the Wallachian capital with oil lamp. The contract began to be executed on April 1, 1857, when, by replacing the kidnapped oil with the products supplied by the Rafov refinery, "Bucharest became the first city in the world illuminated entirely with distilled crude oil."

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: In 1857, the total production of Romania was amounted to 275 tons of crude oil. With this figure, Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics, before other large oil producing states such as the United States of America (1860), Russia (1863), Mexico (1901) or Persia (1913).

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: In 1875, crude oil was discovered by David Beaty at his home in Warren, Pennsylvania. This led to the opening of the Bradford oil field, which, by the 1880s, produced 77 percent of the global oil supply. However, by the end of the 19th century, the Russian Empire, particularly the Branobel company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: The top three oil producing countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the United States. About 80% of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5% coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia (12.5%), UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. However, with high oil prices (above $100/barrel), Venezuela has larger reserves than Saudi Arabia due to its crude reserves derived from bitumen.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


History of the petroleum industry

Context: Austria-Hungary lose its primate on oil production which had been at the root of the 1910 Petroleum War.

Question: Когда в России был обнаружен газ?


Khazars

Context: (Khwarazm in which Khazars were known as Turks, just as Hungarians were known as Turks in Byzantium) in Volga Bulgaria.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: After their conversion it is reported that they adopted the Hebrew script, and it is likely that, although speaking a Turkic language, the Khazar chancellery under Judaism probably corresponded in Hebrew.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as "tuduns". In some cases, such as the Byzantine settlements in southern Crimea, a "tudun" would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's sphere of influence. Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by ibn Fadlan as "Jawyshyghr" and "Kündür", but their responsibilities are unknown.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Due to the outbreak of the First Muslim Civil War and other priorities, the Arabs refrained from repeating an attack on the Khazars until the early 8th century. The Khazars launched a few raids into Transcaucasian principalities under Muslim dominion, including a large-scale raid in 683–685 during the Second Muslim Civil War that rendered much booty and many prisoners. There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Göktürks in Transoxiana.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Whatever the impact of Marwan's campaigns, warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737. Arab raids continued until 741, but their control in the region was limited as maintaining a large garrison at Derbent further depleted the already overstretched army. A third Muslim civil war soon broke out, leading to the Abbasid Revolution and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city that its vineyards and garden had been razed, that not a grape or raisin remained in the land, and not even alms for the poor were available. An attempt to rebuild may have been undertaken, since Ibn Hawqal and al-Muqaddasi refer to it after that date, but by Al-Biruni's time (1048) it was in ruins.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: The Khazar state was not the only Jewish state to rise between the fall of the Second Temple (67–70 CE) and the establishment of Israel (1948). A state in Yemen also adopted Judaism in the 4th century, lasting until the rise of Islam.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Many sources suggest, and a notable number of scholars have argued, that the charismatic Ashina clan played a germinal role in the early Khazar state, although Zuckerman dismisses the widespread notion of their pivotal role as a "phantom". The Ashina were closely associated with the Tengri cult, whose practices involved rites performed to assure a tribe of heaven's protective providence. The qağan was deemed to rule by virtue of "qut", "the heavenly mandate/good fortune to rule."

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad empire, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: The Arab Georgian martyr St Abo, who converted to Christianity within the Khazar kingdom around 779–80, describes local Khazars as irreligious. Some reports register a Christian majority at Samandar, or Muslim majorities.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: The topic is emotionally charged in Israel, and a few scholars, such as Moshe Gil (2011) and Shaul Stampfer (2013) argue that the conversion of the Khazar elite to Judaism never happened.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Both the date of the conversion, and the extent of its influence beyond the elite, often minimised in some scholarship, are a matter of dispute, but at some point between 740 and 920 CE, the Khazar royalty and nobility appear to have converted to Judaism, in part, it is argued, perhaps to deflect competing pressures from Arabs and Byzantines to accept either Islam or Orthodoxy.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: The earliest surviving Arabic text that refers to Khazar Jewishness appears to be that of ibn Rustah, a Persian scholar who wrote an encyclopedic work on geography in the early tenth century. It is believed that ibn Rustah derived much of his information from the works of his contemporary Abu al Jayhani based in Central Asia.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: ascribed to Saadia Gaon or to the Karaite scholar Benjamin Nahâwandî, interpreted "The Lord hath loved him" as a reference "to the Khazars, who will go and destroy Babel" (i.e., Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs. This has been taken as an indication of hopes by Jews that the Khazars might succeed in destroying the Caliphate.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Another Turkish Crimean group, the Krymchaks had retained very simple Jewish traditions, mostly devoid of halakhic content, and very much taken with magical superstitions which, in the wake of the enduring educational efforts of the great Sephardi scholar Chaim Hezekiah Medini, came to conform with traditional Judaism.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Though the assertion they were not of Jewish stock enabled many Crimean Karaites to survive the Holocaust, which led to the murder of 6,000 Krymchaks, after the war, many of the latter, somewhat indifferent to their Jewish heritage, took a cue from the Crimean Karaites, and denied this connection in order to avoid the antisemitic effects of the stigma attached to Jews.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Scholarly anthropologists, such as Roland B. Dixon (1923), and writers like H. G. Wells (1920) used it to argue that "The main part of Jewry never was in Judea", a thesis that was to have a political echo in later opinion.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: One thesis held that the Khazar Jewish population went into a northern diaspora and had a significant impact on the rise of Ashkenazi Jews. Connected to this thesis is the theory, expounded by Paul Wexler, that the grammar of Yiddish contains a Khazar substrate. In 2018, Kevin Alan Brook cited genetic data to argue against the claim that Ashkenazim have any amount of Khazarian ancestry.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: According to Nadia Abu El-Haj, the issues of origins are generally complicated by the difficulties of writing history via genome studies and the biases of emotional investments in different narratives, depending on whether the emphasis lies on direct descent or on conversion within Jewish history. The lack of Khazar DNA samples that might allow verification also presents difficulties.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Benjamin Disraeli's early novel Alroy (1833) draws on Menachem ben Solomon's story. The question of mass religious conversion and the indeterminability of the truth of stories about identity and conversion are central themes of Milorad Pavić's best-selling mystery story "Dictionary of the Khazars".

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: H.N. Turteltaub's "Justinian", Marek Halter's "Book of Abraham" and "Wind of the Khazars", and Michael Chabon's "Gentlemen of the Road" allude to or feature elements of Khazar history or create fictional Khazar characters.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


Khazars

Context: Cities associated with the Khazars include Atil, Khazaran, Samandar; in the Caucasus, Balanjar, Kazarki, Sambalut, and Samiran; in Crimea and the Taman region, Kerch, Theodosia, Yevpatoria (Güzliev), Samkarsh (also called Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha), and Sudak; and in the Don valley, Sarkel. A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the Mayaki-Saltovo region. Some scholars suppose that the Khazar settlement of Sambat on the Dnieper refers to the later Kyiv.

Question: На каком языке говорили в Хаза́рском кагана́те?


List of world records in chess

Context: The world records in chess listed here are achieved in organized tournament, match, or simultaneous exhibition play.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The longest decisive tournament game is Danin–Azarov, Turnov 2016, which Danin won in 239 moves. In the 9th round of THT Extraliga (highest Czech team league), Danin needed to win his game to make the match end in a 4:4 draw. Although he managed to do so, his team (TŽ Třinec) was relegated from the highest league in the end.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The longest game played in a world championship is the 6th game of the 2021 World Chess Championship between Magnus Carlsen and Ian Nepomniachtchi, which Carlsen won in 136 moves.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: If one counts forfeited games as a loss in zero moves, then there have been many such forfeits, the most notable examples being Game 2 of the 1972 world championship match between Boris Spassky and Bobby Fischer, which Fischer defaulted, and Game 5 of the 2006 world championship match between Vladimir Kramnik and Veselin Topalov, which Kramnik defaulted.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Under recently instituted FIDE rules, a player who is late for the beginning of a round loses the game, as does a player who has a forbidden electronic device (by default any device). The former rule was used at the 2009 Chinese Championship to forfeit Hou Yifan for arriving five seconds late for the beginning of a round. The latter rule was used to forfeit Aleksander Delchev against Stuart Conquest after the move 1.d4 in the 2009 European Team Championship.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In the Premier I group at the 2003 Capablanca Memorial tournament, Péter Székely took just 130 moves (an average of 10 moves per game) to draw all 13 of his games.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In Rogoff–Williams, World Junior Chess Championship, Stockholm 1969, the first capture (94.bxc5) occurred on White's 94th move. Filipowicz–Smederevac, Polanica Zdroj 1966, was drawn in 70 moves under the fifty-move rule, without any piece or pawn having been captured.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Nuber–Keckeisen, Mengen 1994 lasted 31 moves without a single capture. In the end Keckeisen, facing imminent checkmate, resigned.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In the decisive game Yates–Znosko-Borovsky, Tunbridge Wells 1927, the first capture occurred on Black's 40th move.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The latest castling occurred on Black's 48th move in Neshewat-Garrison, Michigan 1994 and Somogyi-Black, New York 2002.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia has continued to hold the record for greatest number of grandmasters. In the November 2018 rating list, 229 of the 1645 grandmasters were from Russia.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In 2005, Reykjavík, Iceland, with eight grandmasters (Jón L. Árnason, Jóhann Hjartarson, Margeir Pétursson, Friðrik Ólafsson, Thröstur Thórhallsson, Helgi Grétarsson, Hannes Stefansson, and Bobby Fischer) had a higher percentage of resident grandmasters per capita than any other city worldwide; the city of 114,000 had, therefore, one grandmaster per 14,000 residents.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: As of November 2018, Germany has the highest number of active FIDE-rated players with 11,813. Russia, by comparison, has 11,313.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The USSR team that participated in the 13th Olympiad (Munich 1958) had been claimed as the strongest team ever. It was composed of four world champions (Mikhail Botvinnik, Vasily Smyslov, Mikhail Tal and Tigran Petrosian), one world championship challenger (David Bronstein) and Paul Keres, four times runner-up in the Candidates Tournament.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In top-class chess it is rare for a player to complete a tournament or match with a 100 percent score. Some notable examples are:

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: William Lombardy is the only player ever to achieve a perfect score in the World Junior Chess Championship, open to players under the age of 20 as of January 1 in the year of competition. He scored 11–0 at Toronto 1957.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Vera Menchik won four consecutive Women's World Chess Championship tournaments with perfect scores, a total of 45 games (8–0 at Prague 1931, 14–0 at Folkestone 1933, 9–0 at Warsaw 1935, and 14–0 at Stockholm 1937). She only played 43 of the 45 games, since Harum, the Austrian contestant, was unable to reach Folkestone and thus forfeited all of her games in that double round robin event.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Alekhine scored 9–0 on for France at the 3rd Chess Olympiad (Hamburg, 1930), and Dragoljub Čirić scored 8–0 as second reserve (the sixth player on his team) for Yugoslavia at the 17th Olympiad (Havana, 1966), but each played only about half of the possible games. Robert Gwaze scored 9–0 on first board for Zimbabwe at the 35th Olympiad (Bled, 2002).

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Wesley So scored 9/9 in the 2011 Inter-Provincial Chess Team Championship, with a performance rating of 3037, won the gold medal in men's blitz at the SEA Games 2011 at Indonesia with a score of 9/9 and a rating performance of 3183, and won the 2013 Calgary International Blitz Championship with a score of 9/9.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The record for consecutive professional tournament victories is 15; Garry Kasparov placed first or equal first in 15 consecutive tournaments from 1981 to 1990. The same page credits Kasparov with "a record for the most consecutive victories in super tournaments" at 10, without defining what a super tournament is.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The highest percentage score at an Interzonal was 82.5% (16½ points out of 20 games), scored by Alexander Kotov at the 1952 Stockholm Interzonal. The largest margin of victory was achieved by Bobby Fischer, who won the Palma de Mallorca Interzonal in 1970 with 18½ points out of 23 games, 3½ points ahead of second-place finishers Bent Larsen, Efim Geller and Robert Hübner.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Nicholas MacLeod holds the record for the most games lost in a single tournament: he lost 31 games at the Sixth American Chess Congress at New York 1889, while winning six and drawing one. MacLeod was only 19, and the tournament, a 20-player double-round robin, was one of the longest tournaments in chess history. The most games lost by a player who lost "all" of his games in a tournament was by Colonel Moreau. At Monte Carlo 1903, Moreau lost all 26 of his games.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: At the Büsum 1969 tournament, Friedrich Sämisch lost all 15 games by exceeding the time control. He lost all 13 of his games at the Linköping 1969 tournament the same way.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Thirteen players tied for first with 5–1 scores at the National Open held on March 17–19, 2000 in Las Vegas: grandmasters Jaan Ehlvest, Alexander Goldin, Alexander Baburin, Pavel Blatny, Eduard Gufeld, Yuri Shulman, Alex Yermolinsky, Gregory Kaidanov, Dmitry Gurevich, Alexander Stripunsky, and Gregory Serper, and International Masters Rade Milovanovic and Levon Altounian.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: At the Linares 2001 tournament, five of the six players (83.3%) finished with a minus score. Garry Kasparov won with 7½/10, while Judit Polgár, Alexander Grischuk, Peter Leko, Alexei Shirov, and Anatoly Karpov tied for second to sixth places, each with 4½/10.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: At the 1999 Petrosian Memorial tournament, 42 of the 45 games (93.3%) were drawn. Five of the ten players drew all nine of their games.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The highest known tournament performance rating is 3103, achieved by Karen H. Grigoryan, when he scored a perfect 9/9 at the 2019 Cidade de Famalicão tournament.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The highest known performance rating at the top level is 3098 by Fabiano Caruana at the 2014 Sinquefield Cup.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Before the introduction of chess clocks, it was common for players to take more than an hour to decide on a move. Among the players who had a reputation for playing particularly slowly (taking over 2 hours for a move) are Alexander McDonnell and Elijah Williams, however, it was not normal practice to time a player's moves so claims about the slowness of a player in an untimed game must be considered unverified.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In Vigo, Spain in 1980, the Brazilian International Master Francisco Trois spent 2 hours and 20 minutes over his 7th move, deciding which of two viable moves to make. After blitzing out another 21 moves in serious time trouble, he resigned. His opponent, Luis Santos asked him after the game, "How can you think for over two hours when there are only two possible moves? I don't understand." Trois replied, "Neither do I."

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Wilhelm Steinitz won his last 16 games at Vienna 1873, including a two-game playoff against Joseph Henry Blackburne at the end. He played no serious chess until an 1876 match against Blackburne that Steinitz swept 7–0. After a long period of inactivity, Steinitz played at Vienna 1882, where he won his first two games before finally ending his winning streak with a draw. Steinitz's 25-game winning streak over nine years has never been equaled.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Bogdan Lalić's unbeaten streak of 155 games (against less elite players than those Carlsen faced) is confirmed to have taken place between 2010 and 2011, according to the FIDE ratings website.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: This includes games against players who were not yet or were no longer world champion at the time of the game.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Paul Keres, Viktor Korchnoi, and Alexander Beliavsky are the only chess players to have defeated 9 undisputed world champions in classical games.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: If disputed world champions are included, then Garry Kasparov, Korchnoi, and Beliavsky share the record at 11. Kasparov has defeated 7 undisputed world champions (Smyslov, Tal, Petrosian, Spassky, Karpov, Kramnik, Anand) as well as 4 FIDE world champions (Alexander Khalifman, Ruslan Ponomariov, Rustam Kasimdzhanov and Veselin Topalov). Korchnoi defeated the 9 mentioned above, plus FIDE champions Ponomariov and Topalov. Beliavsky defeated the 9 mentioned above, plus FIDE champions Khalifman and Topalov.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: If draws are included, Korchnoi beat or drew with 11 undisputed world chess champions in a row in classical games (he had draws against Anand and Kramnik) and all 4 disputed world champions (draws against Khalifman and Kasimdzhanov) – that is, every one since Alekhine's death in 1946.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: FIDE (chess's international governing body) adopted Elo ratings in 1970. Players who peaked before this year therefore do not feature in rating records.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The highest rating ever achieved is 2882, by Magnus Carlsen on the May 2014 list and once again on the August 2019 list.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: On the July 1972 FIDE rating list, Bobby Fischer's rating of 2785 was 125 points ahead of the second-highest rated player, then-reigning World Champion Boris Spassky (2660). Kasparov's biggest lead at his peak was 82 points in January 2000. In both the January and July 1990 rating lists, Kasparov was rated 2800 while Karpov was the only player rated 2700+, with third place being at 2680 although the identity of the third-place player changed. Magnus Carlsen's biggest lead was 74 points in October 2013.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Jeff Sonas of Chessmetrics calculates that in April 1876 Wilhelm Steinitz was the top-ranked player in the world, with a rating a record 199 points above that of Henry Bird, the second-ranked player.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Garry Kasparov was the world's highest-rated player on FIDE's rating list for a record 255 months, a number that is well ahead of all other world number ones since the inception of the list. Before the list, Emanuel Lasker was the world's highest-rated player for 292 months between June 1890 and December 1926 according to Chessmetrics.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: The youngest player to be awarded the grandmaster title by FIDE is Abhimanyu Mishra. In 2021, he qualified for the title at the age of 12 years, 4 months, and 25 days. See List of youngest grandmasters for the history of this record.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Several players have been awarded honorary or retrospective grandmaster titles based on their past achievements. The oldest of these was Enrico Paoli, who was awarded the title in 1996 at the age of 88.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Apart from retrospective awards, a number of players have achieved the title by winning the World Senior Championship. The oldest player to gain the title in this way was Yuri Shabanov, who won the 2003 event and was awarded the title at the age of 66.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: On July 28, 2012, Awonder Liang, aged 9 years, 3 months, and 20 days, beat Grandmaster Larry Kaufman in the Washington International tournament.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In the aforementioned rapid match in November 2015 between Mark Taimanov and Viktor Korchnoi, Taimanov was approximately 89 years and 9 months old when he won one of the match games against Korchnoi. The oldest known player to beat a grandmaster in a tournament game at standard time controls is Anthony Saidy. In Round 3 of the National Open Chess Championship in Las Vegas, played sometime between June 17 and 19, 2019, Saidy, aged 82 years and 1 month, beat grandmaster Vladimir Belous (age 25).

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: In 1922, José Raúl Capablanca, the recently-crowned World Champion, played 103 opponents simultaneously in Cleveland. He completed the exhibition in seven hours, scoring 102 wins and one draw (99.5%), the best result ever in a simultaneous exhibition on over 75 boards.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?


List of world records in chess

Context: Paul Morphy also gave an impressive exhibition. On April 26, 1859, at London's St. James Chess Club, Morphy played "five games simultaneously against a group of masters who could be described as among the top ten players of the day", scoring 3–2. He defeated Jules Arnous de Rivière and Henry Bird, drew with Samuel Boden and Johann Löwenthal, and lost only to Thomas Wilson Barnes.

Question: Сколько длился самый длинный шахматный матч в мире в 20 веке?