Baruch Samuel Blumberg

Context: Jonathan Chernoff, the scientific director at the Fox Chase Cancer Center where Blumberg spent most of his working life said, "I think it's fair to say that Barry prevented more cancer deaths than any person who's ever lived." In reference to Blumberg's discovery of the Hepatitis B vaccine, former NASA administrator Daniel Goldin said, "Our planet is an improved place as a result of Barry's few short days in residence."

Question: من إكتشف فيروس التهاب الكبد ؟


Baruch Samuel Blumberg

Context: In 2011, the Library of Congress and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) announced the establishment of the Baruch S. Blumberg NASA/Library of Congress Chair in Astrobiology, a research position housed within the library's John W. Kluge Center, which explores the effects of astrobiology research on society. The chair was named for Blumberg in recognition of his service to the Library of Congress Scholars Council, and his commitment to "research and dialogue between disciplines."

Question: من إكتشف فيروس التهاب الكبد ؟


Baruch Samuel Blumberg

Context: In 2011, in recognition of Blumberg's long professional and personal association with the department of biochemistry and the Glycobiology Institute, Oxford University established the Baruch Blumberg Professorship in Virology.

Question: من إكتشف فيروس التهاب الكبد ؟


Baruch Samuel Blumberg

Context: The Baruch S. Blumberg papers are held at the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, PA. The collection contains 458 linear feet of materials documenting the life and career of Blumberg.

Question: من إكتشف فيروس التهاب الكبد ؟


Alveolar process

Context: The alveolar process () or alveolar bone is the thickened ridge of bone that contains the tooth sockets on the jaw bones (in humans, the maxilla and the mandible). The structures are covered by gums as part of the oral cavity.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The synonymous terms alveolar ridge and alveolar margin are also sometimes used more specifically to refer to the ridges on the inside of the mouth which can be felt with the tongue, either on roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and the hard palate or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The connected, supporting area of the jaw (delineated by the apexes of the roots of the teeth) is known as the basal bone.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: On the maxilla, the alveolar process is a ridge on the inferior surface, making up the thickest part of the bone. On the mandible it is a ridge on the superior surface. The structures hold the teeth and are encased by gums as part of the oral cavity.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The alveolar crest terminates uniformly at about the neck of the teeth (within about 1 to 2 mm in a healthy specimen).

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The alveolar process proper encases the tooth sockets, and contains a lining of compact bone around the roots of the teeth, called the lamina dura. This is attached by the periodontal ligament (PDL) to the root cementum.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: Although the alveolar process is composed of compact bone, it may be called the cribriform plate because it contains numerous holes where Volkmann's canals pass from the alveolar bone into the PDL. The alveolar bone proper is also called bundle bone because Sharpey's fibres, part of the PDL, are inserted there. Sharpey's fibres in alveolar bone proper are inserted at a right angle (just as with the cemental surface); they are fewer in number, but thicker in diameter than those found in cementum.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The supporting alveolar bone consists of both cortical (compact) bone and trabecular bone. The cortical bone consists of plates on the facial and lingual surfaces of the alveolar bone. These cortical plates are usually about 1.5 to 3 mm thick over posterior teeth, but the thickness is highly variable around anterior teeth. The trabecular bone consists of cancellous bone that is located between the alveolar bone proper and the cortical plates.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The alveolar structure is a dynamic tissue which provides the jawbone with some degree of flexibility and resilience for the embedded teeth as they encounter numerous multi-directional forces.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: Alveolar bone is 67% inorganic material, composed mainly of the minerals calcium and phosphate. The mineral salts it contains are mostly in the form of calcium hydroxyapatite crystals.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The remaining alveolar bone (33%) is organic material, consisting of 28% collagen (mostly type I) and 5% non-collagenous protein.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The developmental disturbance of anodontia (or hypodontia, if only one tooth), in which tooth germs are congenitally absent, may affect the development of the alveolar processes. This occurrence can prevent the alveolar processes of either the maxillae or the mandible from developing. Proper development is impossible because the alveolar unit of each dental arch must form in response to the tooth germs in the area.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The density of the alveolar bone in a given area also determines the route that dental infection takes with abscess formation, as well as the efficacy of local infiltration during the use of local anesthesia. In addition, the differences in alveolar process density determine the easiest and most convenient areas of bony fracture to be used, if needed during tooth extraction of impacted teeth.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: During chronic periodontal disease that has affected the periodontium (periodontitis), localized bone tissue is also lost.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The radiographic integrity of the lamina dura is important in detecting pathological lesions. It appears uniformly radiopaque (or lighter).

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: Congenital epulis is a rare, benign mesenchymal tumour which usually presents at birth. It can be found growing on the alveolar ridge of newborns, presenting as non-ulcerated, pedunculated, reddish pink masses of varying sizes and numbers. Congenital epulis can occur in either of the alveolar ridges, but they are found three times more frequently on the maxillary alveolar ridge than on the mandibular alveolar ridge. They also more commonly present in females compared to males.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: Diagnosis of the condition was previously incidental, however, with improvements in imaging technology, prenatal diagnosis is now possible at 26 weeks (about 6 months). Furthermore, these benign lesions can be treated by surgical excision.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: The alveolar ridge is an area of particular interest in dentistry, as preservation of the ridges results in a higher success rate of therapeutic dental treatments.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: Grafting is an effective technique to reduce the inevitable changes in dimension of the alveolar ridge after tooth extraction. The type of grafting material is important as different materials are more effective than others in maintaining the alveolar ridge.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: No biomaterial can prevent alveolar bone loss entirely after extraction, however, there are five grafting materials with the greatest efficacy in height resorption prevention; three of which are xenograft materials (Gen-Os, Apatos, and MP3), one a platelet concentrate (A-PRF) and one composed of A-PRF and the allograft material AlloOss  combined.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Alveolar process

Context: Other than a maxillar bridge made of gold, part of a mandible with teeth—which had been burnt and broken around the alveolar process—was the only physical evidence used to confirm Adolf Hitler's death in 1945. According to Eva Braun's purported Soviet autopsy report, the alveolar process was missing from her charred maxilla.

Question: ما هو  العظم السنخي؟


Programming language

Context: A programming language is any set of rules that converts strings, or graphical program elements in the case of visual programming languages, to various kinds of machine code output. Programming languages are one kind of computer language, and are used in computer programming to implement algorithms.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Most programming languages consist of instructions for computers. There are programmable machines that use a set of specific instructions, rather than general programming languages. Since the early 1800s, programs have been used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard looms, music boxes and player pianos.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Thousands of different programming languages have been created, and more are being created every year. Many programming languages are written in an imperative form (i.e., as a sequence of operations to perform) while other languages use the declarative form (i.e. the desired result is specified, not how to achieve it).

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Programming language theory is a subfield of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm. Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. Traits often considered important for what constitutes a programming language include:

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. The practical necessity that a programming language support adequate abstractions is expressed by the abstraction principle. This principle is sometimes formulated as a recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All Turing-complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet are often called programming languages.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete language entirely using XML syntax. Moreover, LaTeX, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Very early computers, such as Colossus, were programmed without the help of a stored program, by modifying their circuitry or setting banks of physical controls.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The next step was the development of the so-called "second-generation programming languages" (2GL) or assembly languages, which were still closely tied to the instruction set architecture of the specific computer. These served to make the program much more human-readable and relieved the programmer of tedious and error-prone address calculations.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The first "high-level programming languages", or "third-generation programming languages" (3GL), were written in the 1950s. An early high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: At the University of Manchester, Alick Glennie developed Autocode in the early 1950s. As a programming language, it used a compiler to automatically convert the language into machine code. The first code and compiler was developed in 1952 for the Mark 1 computer at the University of Manchester and is considered to be the first compiled high-level programming language.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: In 1954, FORTRAN was invented at IBM by John Backus. It was the first widely used high-level general purpose programming language to have a functional implementation, as opposed to just a design on paper. It is still a popular language for high-performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The increased use of high-level languages introduced a requirement for "low-level programming languages" or "system programming languages". These languages, to varying degrees, provide facilities between assembly languages and high-level languages. They can be used to perform tasks that require direct access to hardware facilities but still provide higher-level control structures and error-checking.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use:

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Each of these languages spawned descendants, and most modern programming languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of "structured programming", and whether programming languages should be designed to support it. Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that Goto statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: One important trend in language design for programming large-scale systems during the 1980s was an increased focus on the use of "modules" or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, which were often wedded to generic programming constructs.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft's LINQ.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: "Fourth-generation programming languages" (4GL) are computer programming languages that aim to provide a higher level of abstraction of the internal computer hardware details than 3GLs. "Fifth-generation programming languages" (5GL) are programming languages based on solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: All programming languages have some primitive building blocks for the description of data and the processes or transformations applied to them (like the addition of two numbers or the selection of an item from a collection). These primitives are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and meaning respectively.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: A programming language's surface form is known as its syntax. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more graphical in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard-coded in a reference implementation). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus–Naur form (for grammatical structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp:

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: codice_1, codice_2 and codice_3.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation codice_4 has no meaning for a value having a complex type and codice_5 is not defined because the value of codice_6 is the null pointer):

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: If the type declaration on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on undefined variable codice_6 during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: A special case of typed languages are the "single-typed" languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as REXX or SGML, and have only one data type–—most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: In contrast, an "untyped language", such as most assembly languages, allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths. High-level untyped languages include BCPL, Tcl, and some varieties of Forth.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the type theory (verifying or rejecting all operations), most modern languages offer a degree of typing. Many production languages provide means to bypass or subvert the type system, trading type-safety for finer control over the program's execution (see casting).

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: In "static typing", all expressions have their types determined prior to when the program is executed, typically at compile-time. For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: "Weak typing" allows a value of one type to be treated as another, for example treating a string as a number. This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at compile time and even at run time.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: "Strong typing" prevents these program faults. An attempt to perform an operation on the wrong type of value raises an error. Strongly typed languages are often termed "type-safe" or "safe".

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as Perl and JavaScript, which permit a large number of implicit type conversions. In JavaScript, for example, the expression codice_10 implicitly converts codice_11 to a number, and this conversion succeeds even if codice_11 is codice_13, codice_14, an codice_15, or a string of letters. Such implicit conversions are often useful, but they can mask programming errors.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: "Strong" and "static" are now generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term "strongly typed" to mean "strongly, statically typed", or, even more confusingly, to mean simply "statically typed". Thus C has been called both strongly typed and weakly, statically typed.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: It may seem odd to some professional programmers that C could be "weakly, statically typed". However, notice that the use of the generic pointer, the void* pointer, does allow for casting of pointers to other pointers without needing to do an explicit cast. This is extremely similar to somehow casting an array of bytes to any kind of datatype in C without using an explicit cast, such as codice_16 or codice_17.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Most programming languages have an associated core library (sometimes known as the 'standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" programming language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role. The need for diverse programming languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Natural language programming has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger W. Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish". Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idea. Hybrid approaches have been taken in Structured English and SQL.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language "specification" and "implementation".

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language users and the implementors can use to agree upon whether a piece of source code is a valid program in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: An "implementation" of a programming language provides a way to write programs in that language and execute them on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: "compilation" and "interpretation". It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of BASIC compile and then execute the source a line at a time.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run much faster than those that are interpreted in software.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just-in-time compilation. Here the virtual machine, just before execution, translates the blocks of bytecode which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example, Oracle Corporation asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the Java programming language, and Microsoft's C# programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has Common Language Runtime (CLR) as a closed environment.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include MATLAB, VBScript, and Wolfram Language. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, Erlang was originally an Ericsson's internal programming language.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process without human interaction, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a Unix shell or other command-line interface), without compiling, it is called a scripting language.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The explosion of Forth dialects led to the saying "If you've seen one Forth... you've seen "one" Forth."

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel). Python is an object-oriented scripting language.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Programming language

Context: A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being deliberately esoteric or not.

Question: ما هي لغة البرمجة المستخدمة في إنترنت إكسبلورر؟


Cary, North Carolina

Context: Notable mayors include Fred Bond Jr. (1971–1983), Glen Lang (1999–2003), and Harold Weinbrecht (2007–present).

Question: ماهى المدينة ذات أقل نسبة جريمة في كارولاينا الشمالية ؟


Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton

Context: The wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton took place on Friday 29 April 2011 at Westminster Abbey in London, England. The groom was second in the line of succession to the British throne. The couple had been in a relationship since 2003.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In 2001, Middleton and Prince William met while studying at the University of St Andrews. They began dating in 2003.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: TV programmes were also shown in the UK prior to the wedding which provided deeper insights into the couple's relationship and backgrounds, including "When Kate Met William" and Channel 4's "Meet the Middletons".

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: On 5 January, St James's Palace publicised that the ceremony would start at 11:00 local time and that the bride would arrive at the abbey by car rather than by carriage (the latter is the traditional transport for royal brides). The route planned was along The Mall, through Horse Guards Parade, and down Whitehall to the abbey. Beforehand, motorists were warned about using the roads in central London on the wedding day, including by Transport for London, which issued travel advice on road closures.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In a break with royal tradition, the groom had a best man—his brother, Prince Harry—rather than a supporter, while the bride chose her sister, Pippa, as maid of honour. There were four bridesmaids and two page boys:

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: For the customary bridal themes of "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue", Middleton's gown and veil had lace appointments (the "old"); she was given custom-made diamond earrings by her parents (the "new") and the Queen's tiara (the "borrowed"); and a blue ribbon was sewn into the bodice (the "blue"). Middleton's point-toed pump shoes were also from Alexander McQueen and had a lace pattern matching the dress with appliques made by the Royal School of Needlework.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The bride's shield-shaped wired bouquet, designed by Derek Connolly, contained myrtle, lily of the valley, sweet William, ivy and hyacinth.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: All of the bridesmaids wore satin Mary Jane style shoes with a Swarovski crystal buckle designed by Devon-based Rainbow Club. Their flowers were designed and made by Shane Connolly and replicated the flowers in Catherine's bouquet: lily-of-the-valley, sweet William, and hyacinth.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The pageboys' outfits were designed by Kashket and Partners in the style worn by a "Foot Guard officer at the time of the Regency (the 1820s)" with an insignia from the Irish Guards, whose Colonel is Prince William. The tunics are red with gold piping and have Irish shamrocks on the collars. The Pages wore a gold and crimson sash (with tassel) around their waists, as is tradition for officers in the Irish Guards when in the presence of a member of the Royal Family.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: Prince Harry wore the uniform of a captain of the Blues and Royals (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons), with a forage cap. He wore aiguillettes, a cross-belt and gold waist belt with sword slings, but no sword. He wore the wings of the Army Air Corps and Golden Jubilee and Afghanistan Campaign medals.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: Designer Russell Kashket worked with the Princes to address concerns they had with the outfits. One such concern was the heat of the Abbey, so the designers used special material to absorb the heat while still achieving the desired look. Further, military dress uniforms do not traditionally have pockets, but the palace requested that some sort of compartment be added to Harry's outfit so that Catherine's wedding ring would not be lost.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In the marriage vows, the couple promised to "love, comfort, honour and keep" each other. This was sealed by the exchange of a single ring.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The lesson, read by the bride's brother, James Middleton, was from the Epistle to the Romans (Chapter 12, verses 1–2 and 9–18) and is an exhortation to live a righteous and peaceful life.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The sermon, preached by the Bishop of London, commenced with a quotation from Catherine of Siena whose feast day it was. The bishop urged the couple to live selflessly, each remembering the needs of each other and seeking to transform each other by love rather than seeking to reform. He ended the sermon with a prayer composed by the couple themselves:

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: God our Father, we thank you for our families; for the love that we share and for the joy of our marriage.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In the busyness of each day keep our eyes fixed on what is real and important in life and help us to be generous with our time and love and energy.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The service continued with prayers and exhortations by the dean and archbishop. A newly composed choral anthem was sung by the choir. After the signing of the registers, William and Catherine walked down the aisle, pausing briefly to bow and curtsey to the Queen. They were followed in procession by other members of the bridal party, and their families, being joined at the door by the two youngest bridesmaids.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The wedding bouquet was returned to Westminster Abbey and placed on the Tomb of The Unknown Warrior by a royal official, after the photographs had been taken. This followed the tradition started by Prince William's great grandmother, Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, after her marriage to the Duke of York in 1923. The formal portraits were taken by Hugo Burnand at Buckingham Palace following the ceremony.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The bride processed down the aisle to the anthem "I was glad", written by Sir Charles Hubert Hastings Parry, from Psalm 122. It was composed for the crowning of Prince William's great-great-great grandfather, Edward VII, at Westminster Abbey in 1902.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: Choral compositions featured in the service were Parry's "Blest Pair of Sirens" (a setting of an ode by John Milton) during the signing of the register, Paul Mealor's "Ubi Caritas et Amor" as the motet and a specially commissioned anthem, "This is the day which the Lord hath made" consisting of words chosen from the Psalms, by John Rutter.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The music performed before the service included two instrumental pieces by Sir Peter Maxwell Davies ("Veni Creator Spiritus" and "Farewell to Stromness") as well as with works by J.S. Bach, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Edward Elgar, Gerald Finzi, Charles Villiers Stanford, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Percy Whitlock.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The bells of Westminster Abbey rang a full peal as the newly married couple and guests left the church. The ten bells rang a peal called "Spliced Surprise Royal", consisting of 5,040 changes, that took more than three hours to complete. They were rung by the volunteers of the Westminster Abbey Company of Ringers, under the direction of David Hilling.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The menu for the reception remained a secret for several years until a copy of the menu was sold at auction:

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: There were about 5,500 applications to hold royal wedding street parties across England and Wales, including 850 in London, one of which was hosted by Prime Minister David Cameron in Downing Street for charity workers and local children. The anti-monarchy campaign group Republic held an alternative street party in Holborn. The event had initially been blocked by Camden Council after businesses raised concerns about loss of trade.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The international Peace Bridge across the Niagara River between the United States and Canada at Buffalo, New York, and Fort Erie, Ontario, and operated in part by an Ontario Crown corporation, was lit in red, blue and gold, the colours of the royal coat of arms.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In Delhi, India, several hotels broadcast the ceremony live. One hotel offered cream tea and cakes decorated with royal emblems.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In March 2011, William and Catherine set up a gift fund held by The Foundation of Prince William and Prince Harry to allow well-wishers who wanted to give them a wedding gift to donate money to charities with which they were involved, incorporating the armed forces, children, the elderly, art, sport and conservation.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In the United States, the Empire State Building in New York City was lit in red, white, and blue, the colours of the Union Flag at sunset on 29 April to mark the wedding.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: The wedding had been subject to threats of violence and disruption. In February, security agencies, including MI5, identified "dissident Irish republican groups" as possible threats. The group Muslims Against Crusades abandoned a planned protest. The English Defence League vowed to hold a counter-demonstration and promised 50 to 100 EDL members at each railway station in central London to block Muslim extremists in a "ring of steel".

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: Sixty people arrested at the TUC rally on the March for the Alternative had bail conditions that prevented them entering central London over the wedding period.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: On 28 April 2011, political activist Chris Knight and two others were arrested by Scotland Yard "on suspicion of conspiracy to cause public nuisance and breach of the peace". The three were planning a mock execution of Prince Andrew with a home-made guillotine in central London to coincide with the wedding. The guillotine was workable, but lacked a blade.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Context: In Scotland, twenty-one people were arrested at an unofficial "street party" in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow which saw "completely unacceptable levels" of drunkenness, according to Strathclyde Police. A taxi driver died on 10 May from injuries sustained when his cab was struck by a police van attending the Kelvingrove incident.

Question: متى تمت خطوبة الأمير ويليام وكاثرين ميدلتون؟


Finnish markka

Context: The markka (; ; sign: Mk; ISO code: FIM, typically known outside Finland as the Finnish mark) was the currency of Finland from 1860 until 28 February 2002, when it ceased to be legal tender. The mark was divided into 100 pennies (; ), abbreviated as "p". At the point of conversion, the rate was fixed at €1 = Mk 5.94573.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: The name "markka" was based on a medieval unit of weight. Both "markka" and "penni" are similar to words used in Germany for that country's former currency, based on the same etymological roots as the Deutsche Mark and pfennig.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: Although the word "markka" predates the currency by several centuries, the currency was established before being named "markka". A competition was held for its name, and some of the other entries included "sataikko" (meaning "having a hundred parts"), "omena" (apple) and "suomo" (from "Suomi", the Finnish name for Finland).

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: With numbered amounts of marks, the Finnish language does not use plurals but partitive singular forms: "10 markkaa" and "10 penniä" (the nominative is "penni"). In Swedish, the singular and plural forms of mark and penni are the same.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: The mark was introduced in 1860 by the Bank of Finland, replacing the rouble at a rate of four marks to one rouble. Senator Fabian Langenskiöld is called "father of the mark". In 1865, the mark was separated from the Russian rouble and tied to the value of silver. From 1878 to 1915, Finland adopted the gold standard of the Latin Monetary Union. Before the mark, both the Swedish riksdaler and rouble were used side-by-side for a time.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: The monetary policy called "strong mark policy" ("vahvan markan politiikka") was a characteristic feature of the 1980s and early 1990s. The main architect of this policy was President Mauno Koivisto, who opposed floating the currency and devaluations. As a result, the nominal value of the mark was extremely high, and in the year 1990, Finland was nominally the most expensive country in the world according to OECD's Purchasing Power Parities report.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: All coins below 1 markka had ceased to be produced by 1948. In 1952, a new coinage was introduced, with smaller iron (later nickel-plated) Mk 1 and Mk 5 coins alongside aluminium-bronze Mk 10, Mk 20 and Mk 50 coins and (from 1956) silver Mk 100 and Mk 200 denominations. This coinage continued to be issued until the introduction of the new mark in 1963.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: The new mark coinage consisted initially of six denominations: 1 (bronze, later aluminium), 5 (bronze, later aluminium), 10 (aluminium-bronze, later aluminium), 20 and 50 penniä (aluminium-bronze) and 1 mark (silver, later cupro-nickel). From 1972, aluminium-bronze Mk 5 were also issued.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: This section covers the last design series of the Finnish mark, designed in the 1980s by Finnish designer Erik Bruun and issued in 1986.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: In this final banknote series, Bank of Finland used a photograph of Väinö Linna on the Mk 20 note without permission from copyright holders. This was only revealed after several million notes were in use. The Bank paid Mk 100,000 (€17,000) compensation to the rights holders.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Finnish markka

Context: The still-older notes, designed by Eliel Saarinen, were introduced in 1922. They also depicted people, but these were generic men and women, and did not represent any specific individuals. The fact that these men and women were depicted nude caused a minor controversy at the time.

Question: ما هي العملة النقدية في فنلندا؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: Numerous A-list actors were considered for the role of Batman before Keaton was cast. Keaton's casting was controversial since, by 1988, he had become typecast as a comedic actor and many observers doubted he could portray a serious role. Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated top billing, a portion of the film's earnings (including associated merchandise), and his own shooting schedule.

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: Sometime later, Gordon announces that the police have arrested all of the Joker's men and unveils the Bat-Signal. Dent reads a note from Batman, promising that he will defend Gotham should crime strike again, and asks them to use the Bat-Signal to summon him in times of need. Alfred takes Vicki to Wayne Manor, explaining that Bruce will be a little late. She responds that she is not surprised, as Batman looks at the signal's projection from a rooftop, standing watch over the city.

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: Keaton's casting caused a controversy among comic book fans, with 50,000 protest letters sent to Warner Bros. offices. Kane, Hamm, and Uslan also heavily questioned the casting. "Obviously there was a negative response from the comic book people. I think they thought we were going to make it like the 1960s TV series, and make it campy, because they thought of Michael Keaton from "Mr. Mom" and "Night Shift" and stuff like that." Keaton studied "The Dark Knight Returns" for inspiration.

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: Despite the film's box office – over $400 million against a budget of no more than $48 million – Warner Bros. claimed it ended up losing $35.8 million and "not likely to ever show a profit," which has been attributed to a case of Hollywood accounting.

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: The songs written by Prince were criticized for being "too out of place". While Burton has stated he had no problem with the Prince songs, he was less enthusiastic with their use in the film. On the film, Burton remarked, "I liked parts of it, but the whole movie is mainly boring to me. It's OK, but it was more of a cultural phenomenon than a great movie."

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: "Batman" initiated the original "Batman" film series and spawned three sequels: "Batman Returns" (1992), "Batman Forever" (1995), and "Batman & Robin" (1997), the latter two of which were directed by Joel Schumacher instead of Burton and replaced Keaton as Batman with Val Kilmer and George Clooney, respectively.

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: The American Film Institute anointed Batman the 46th greatest movie hero and the Joker the 45th greatest movie villain on "AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains".

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: Robert Wuhl reprises his role as Alexander Knox in The CW's Arrowverse crossover, "Crisis on Infinite Earths". The event also retroactively established that the world of the film and its sequel, "Batman Returns", takes place on Earth-89; which is one of the worlds destroyed by the Anti-Monitor (LaMonica Garrett) during the Crisis. Michael Keaton will be reprising his role as Batman in the upcoming "The Flash" set in the DC Extended Universe.

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Batman (1989 film)

Context: The film was also included in "The Tim Burton Collection" DVD and Blu-ray set in 2012, alongside its first sequel, "Batman Returns".

Question: متى تم عرض أول فيلم لباتمان ؟


Spanish Constitution of 1812

Context: When King Ferdinand VII returned to power in 1814, he dissolved the Cortes and abrogated the constitution, re-establishing absolute monarchy. The constitution was reinstated during the "Trienio Liberal" (1820–1823) and again in 1836–1837 while the Progressives prepared the Constitution of 1837. It was an important model for later constitutions in Spain and Spanish America.

Question: من قام بوضع الدستور الإسباني ؟


Spanish Constitution of 1812

Context: Until the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808, Ferdinand VII ruled as an absolute monarch. Napoleon forced Ferdinand's abdication as well as the renunciation of his father Charles IV's rights, and then placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain.

Question: من قام بوضع الدستور الإسباني ؟


Spanish Constitution of 1812

Context: When the Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810, there appeared to be two possibilities for Spain's political future if the French could be driven out. The first, represented especially by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, was the restoration of the absolutist "Antiguo Régimen" ("Old Regime"); the second was to adopt some sort of written constitution.

Question: من قام بوضع الدستور الإسباني ؟


Spanish Constitution of 1812

Context: As the principal aim of the new constitution was the prevention of arbitrary and corrupt royal rule, it provided for a limited monarchy which governed through ministers subject to parliamentary control. It lays out the structure of three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial.

Question: من قام بوضع الدستور الإسباني ؟


Spanish Constitution of 1812

Context: The first provincial government created under the Constitution was in the province of Guadalajara con Molina. Its deputation first met in the village of Anguita in April 1813, since the capital Guadalajara was the site of ongoing fighting.

Question: من قام بوضع الدستور الإسباني ؟


Michael of Russia

Context: Michael's election and accession to the throne form the basis of the Ivan Susanin legend, which Russian composer Mikhail Glinka dramatized in his opera "A Life for the Tsar".

Question: من كان قيصر روسيا الأول؟


Michael of Russia

Context: Michael's reign saw the greatest territorial expansion in Russian history. During his reign, the conquest of Siberia continued, largely accomplished by the Cossacks and financed by the Stroganov merchant family.

Question: من كان قيصر روسيا الأول؟


Michael of Russia

Context: The two government offices (prikazes) that were most important politically were Posolsky Prikaz ("Foreign Office") and Razryadny Prikaz (a Duma chancellery and a personnel department for both central and provincial administration including military command). Those offices could be pivotal in struggles between Boyar factions, so they were traditionally headed not by Boyars but by dyak (professional clerks).

Question: من كان قيصر روسيا الأول؟


Michael of Russia

Context: The Razryadny Prikaz was first headed by Sydavny Vasilyev; Filaret replaced him by his fellow in captivity Tomilo Lugovskoy, but the latter somehow caused Filaret's anger and was exiled. In 1623 Fedor Likhachov was made head of Prikaz till his shift to Posolsky Prikaz, and in 1630 Razryad was given to Ivan Gavrenev, an outstanding administrator who took up this post for 30 years.

Question: من كان قيصر روسيا الأول؟


Michael of Russia

Context: When Tsar Michael ascended to power, music was largely dead in the nation (except in the folk songs of poor villagers), because of a 12th Century decree from Bishop Cyril Tourovsky that designated it as a product of hell, but he soon invited French and German singers, along with harpsichordists and other instrument players of the west, and western music began to take hold in Russia.

Question: من كان قيصر روسيا الأول؟


Fax

Context: Fax machines were ubiquitous in office environments in the 1980s and 1990s, but have gradually been rendered obsolete by Internet-based technologies such as email and the World Wide Web. They remain particularly popular in Japan, and in medical administration.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and in 1846 was able to reproduce graphic signs in laboratory experiments. He received British patent 9745 on May 27, 1843 for his "Electric Printing Telegraph".

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bain's design and demonstrated a telefax machine. The Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli. He introduced the first commercial telefax service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: The 1888 invention of the telautograph by Elisha Gray marked a further development in fax technology, allowing users to send signatures over long distances, thus allowing the verification of identification or ownership over long distances.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: The Western Union "Deskfax" fax machine, announced in 1948, was a compact machine that fit comfortably on a desktop, using special spark printer paper.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Union's "Telecar" telegram delivery vehicles.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: In the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts and information to ships at sea.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: In 1985, Hank Magnuski, founder of GammaLink, produced the first computer fax board, called GammaFax. Such boards could provide voice telephony via Analog Expansion Bus.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: In many corporate environments, freestanding fax machines have been replaced by fax servers and other computerized systems capable of receiving and storing incoming faxes electronically, and then routing them to users on paper or via an email (which may be secured). Such systems have the advantage of reducing costs by eliminating unnecessary printouts and reducing the number of inbound analog phone lines needed by an office.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, generally viewed as digitally advanced in the NHS, was engaged in a process of removing its fax machines in early 2019. This involved quite a lot of e-fax solutions because of the need to communicate with pharmacies and nursing homes which may not have access to the NHS email system and may need something in their paper records.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: In 2018 two-thirds of Canadian doctors reported that they primarily used fax machines to communicate with other doctors. Faxes are still seen as safer and more secure and electronic systems are often unable to communicate with each other.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: There are several indicators of fax capabilities: group, class, data transmission rate, and conformance with ITU-T (formerly CCITT) recommendations. Since the 1968 Carterphone decision, most fax machines have been designed to connect to standard PSTN lines and telephone numbers.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Group 1 and 2 faxes are sent in the same manner as a frame of analog television, with each scanned line transmitted as a continuous analog signal. Horizontal resolution depended upon the quality of the scanner, transmission line, and the printer. Analog fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured. ITU-T Recommendations T.2 and T.3 were withdrawn as obsolete in July 1996.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: A major breakthrough in the development of the modern facsimile system was the result of digital technology, where the analog signal from scanners was digitized and then compressed, resulting in the ability to transmit high rates of data across standard phone lines. The first digital fax machine was the Dacom Rapidfax first sold in late 1960s, which incorporated digital data compression technology developed by Lockheed for transmission of images from satellites.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Group 3 and 4 faxes are digital formats and take advantage of digital compression methods to greatly reduce transmission times.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Computer modems are often designated by a particular fax class, which indicates how much processing is offloaded from the computer's CPU to the fax modem.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Several different telephone-line modulation techniques are used by fax machines. They are negotiated during the fax-modem handshake, and the fax devices will use the highest data rate that both fax devices support, usually a minimum of 14.4 kbit/s for Group 3 fax.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: As well as specifying the resolution (and allowable physical size) of the image being faxed, the ITU-T T.4 recommendation specifies two compression methods for decreasing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted between the fax machines to transfer the image. The two methods defined in T.4 are:

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Later, other compression techniques were added as options to ITU-T recommendation T.30, such as the more efficient JBIG (T.82, T.85) for bi-level content, and JPEG (T.81), T.43, MRC (T.44), and T.45 for grayscale, palette, and colour content. Fax machines can negotiate at the start of the T.30 session to use the best technique implemented on both sides.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Modified Huffman (MH), specified in T.4 as the one-dimensional coding scheme, is a codebook-based run-length encoding scheme optimised to efficiently compress whitespace. As most faxes consist mostly of white space, this minimises the transmission time of most faxes. Each line scanned is compressed independently of its predecessor and successor.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: The ITU-T T.6 recommendation adds a further compression type of Modified Modified READ (MMR), which simply allows a greater number of lines to be coded by MR than in T.4. This is because T.6 makes the assumption that the transmission is over a circuit with a low number of line errors, such as digital ISDN. In this case, the number of lines for which the differences are encoded is not limited.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: In 1999, ITU-T recommendation T.30 added JBIG (ITU-T T.82) as another lossless bi-level compression algorithm, or more precisely a "fax profile" subset of JBIG (ITU-T T.85). JBIG-compressed pages result in 20% to 50% faster transmission than MMR-compressed pages, and up to 30 times faster transmission if the page includes halftone images.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: The ITU-T T.85 "fax profile" constrains some optional features of the full JBIG standard, such that codecs do not have to keep data about more than the last three pixel rows of an image in memory at any time. This allows the streaming of "endless" images, where the height of the image may not be known until the last row is transmitted.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: A proprietary compression scheme employed on Panasonic fax machines is Matsushita Whiteline Skip (MWS). It can be overlaid on the other compression schemes, but is operative only when two Panasonic machines are communicating with one another. This system detects the blank scanned areas between lines of text, and then compresses several blank scan lines into the data space of a single character. (JBIG implements a similar technique called "typical prediction", if header flag TPBON is set to 1.)

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Group 3 fax machines transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white (bitonal) at a resolution of 204×98 (normal) or 204×196 (fine) dots per square inch. The transfer rate is 14.4 kbit/s or higher for modems and some fax machines, but fax machines support speeds beginning with 2400 bit/s and typically operate at 9600 bit/s. The transferred image formats are called ITU-T (formerly CCITT) fax group 3 or 4. Group 3 faxes have the suffix codice_1 and the MIME type codice_2.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Fax classes denote the way fax programs interact with fax hardware. Available classes include Class 1, Class 2, Class 2.0 and 2.1, and Intel CAS. Many modems support at least class 1 and often either Class 2 or Class 2.0. Which is preferable to use depends on factors such as hardware, software, modem firmware, and expected use.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Fax machines from the 1970s to the 1990s often used direct thermal printers with rolls of thermal paper as their printing technology, but since the mid-1990s there has been a transition towards plain-paper faxes: thermal transfer printers, inkjet printers and laser printers.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: One of the advantages of inkjet printing is that inkjets can affordably print in color; therefore, many of the inkjet-based fax machines claim to have color fax capability. There is a standard called ITU-T30e (formally ITU-T Recommendation T.30 Annex E ) for faxing in color; however, it is not widely supported, so many of the color fax machines can only fax in color to machines from the same manufacturer.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Stroke speed in facsimile systems is the rate at which a fixed line perpendicular to the direction of scanning is crossed in one direction by a scanning or recording spot. Stroke speed is usually expressed as a number of strokes per minute. When the fax system scans in both directions, the stroke speed is twice this number. In most conventional 20th century mechanical systems, the stroke speed is equivalent to drum speed.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: As a precaution, thermal fax paper is typically not accepted in archives or as documentary evidence in some courts of law unless photocopied. This is because the image-forming coating is eradicable and brittle, and it tends to detach from the medium after a long time in storage.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: Another alternative to a physical fax machine is to make use of computer software which allows people to send and receive faxes using their own computers, utilizing fax servers and unified messaging. A virtual (email) fax can be printed out and then signed and scanned back to computer before being emailed. Also the sender can attach a digital signature to the document file.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Fax

Context: With the surging popularity of mobile phones, virtual fax machines can now be downloaded as applications for Android and iOS. These applications make use of the phone's internal camera to scan fax documents for upload or they can import from various cloud services.

Question: في أي عام تم اختراع الفاكس ؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Western Rite Orthodoxy exists both outside and inside Eastern Orthodoxy. Within Eastern Orthodoxy, it is practised by a vicariate of the Antiochian Orthodox church.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: In keeping with the church's teaching on universality and with the Nicene Creed, Eastern Orthodox authorities such as Saint Raphael of Brooklyn have insisted that the full name of the church has always included the term "Catholic", as in "Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Church".

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The common name of the church, "Eastern Orthodox Church", is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: What unites Orthodox Christians is the catholic faith as carried through holy tradition. That faith is expressed most fundamentally in scripture and worship, and the latter most essentially through baptism and in the Divine Liturgy.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The shared beliefs of Orthodoxy, and its theology, exist within holy tradition and cannot be separated from it, for their meaning is not expressed in mere words alone. Doctrine cannot be understood unless it is prayed. Doctrine must also be lived in order to be prayed, for without action, the prayer is idle and empty, a mere vanity, and therefore the theology of demons.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: In addition to these councils, there have been a number of other significant councils meant to further define the Eastern Orthodox position. They are the Synods of Constantinople, in 1484, 1583, 1755, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iași in 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem in 1672. Another council convened in June 2016 to discuss many modern phenomena, other Christian confessions, Eastern Orthodoxy's relation with other religions and fasting disciplines.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Greek, the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire, or Latin, as the Roman priests did. Perhaps the greatest legacy of their efforts is the Russian Orthodox Church, which is the largest of the Orthodox churches.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: During the period 1914-1923 in Asia Minor (Anatolia) the Greek Genocide took place by the Ottomans. During the Greek Genocide, many Orthodox Christians were persecuted and martyred. The culmination of the martyrdom was the Asia Minor Catastrophe with the killing of a large number of Orthodox. Among them, 347 clergymen of the Smyrna region and Metropolitan of Smyrna Chrysostomos were tortured and martyred. The period 1923-1924 was followed by the obligatory Population exchange between Greece and Turkey.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: After the October revolution of 1917, part of the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church fled abroad to escape Bolshevik persecutions, founding an independent church in exile, which reunified with its Russian counterpart in 2007. Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Other councils have helped to define the Eastern Orthodox position, specifically the Quinisext Council, the Synods of Constantinople, 879–880, 1341, 1347, 1351, 1583, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iași, 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, 1672; the Pan-Orthodox Council, held in Greece in 2016, was the only such Eastern Orthodox council in modern times.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: According to Eastern Orthodox teaching the position of "first among equals" gives no additional power or authority to the bishop that holds it, but rather that this person sits as organisational head of a council of equals (like a president).

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: One of the decisions made by the First Council of Constantinople (the second ecumenical council, meeting in 381) and supported by later such councils was that the Patriarch of Constantinople should be given equal honor to the Pope of Rome since Constantinople was considered to be the "New Rome". According to the third canon of the second ecumenical council: "Because [Constantinople] is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome."

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Because of the schism, the Eastern Orthodox no longer recognise the primacy of the pope of Rome. The patriarch of Constantinople therefore, like the Pope before him, now enjoys the title of "first among equals".

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The most reliable estimates currently available number Eastern Orthodox adherents at around 220 million worldwide, making Eastern Orthodoxy the second largest Christian communion in the world after the Catholic Church.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Eastern Orthodox Christianity is the fastest growing religion in certain Western countries, primarily through labor migration from Eastern Europe, and to a lesser degree conversion. Ireland saw a doubling of its Eastern Orthodox population between 2006 and 2011. Spain and Germany have the largest communities in Western Europe, at roughly 1.5 million each, followed by Italy with around 900,000 and France with between 500,000 and 700,000.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: In the Americas, four countries have over 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians: Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and the United States; all but the latter had fewer than 20,000 at the turn of the 20th century. The U.S. has seen its community more than quadruple since 1910, from 460,000 to 1.8 million as of 2017; consequently, the number of Eastern Orthodox parishes has been growing, with a 16% increase between 2000 and 2010.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Through Christ's destruction of Hades' power to hold humanity hostage, he made the path to salvation effective for all the righteous who had died from the beginning of time—saving many, including Adam and Eve, who are remembered in the Church as saints.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The Eastern Orthodox Church understands the death and resurrection of Jesus to be real historical events, as described in the gospels of the New Testament.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Pre-eminent among the saints is the Virgin Mary (commonly referred to as "Theotokos" or "Bogoroditsa": "Mother of God"). In Eastern Orthodox theology, the Mother of God is the fulfillment of the Old Testament archetypes revealed in the Ark of the Covenant (because she carried the New Covenant in the person of Christ) and the burning bush that appeared before Moses (symbolizing the Mother of God's carrying of God without being consumed).

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: In a very strict sense, it is not entirely orthodox to call the holy scripture the "Word of God". That is a title the Eastern Orthodox Church reserves for Christ, as supported in the scriptures themselves, most explicitly in the first chapter of the gospel of John. God's Word is not hollow, like human words. "God said, 'let there be light'; and there was light."

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The Eastern Orthodox Church does not subscribe to the Protestant doctrine of "sola scriptura". The church has defined what Scripture is; it also interprets what its meaning is. Christ promised: "When He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth".

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Scriptures are understood to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy and wisdom literature, and each bears its own consideration in its interpretation. While divinely inspired, the text still consists of words in human languages, arranged in humanly recognisable forms. The Eastern Orthodox Church does not oppose honest critical and historical study of the Bible.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: As the church increased in size through the centuries, the logistic dynamics of operating such large entities shifted: patriarchs, metropolitans, archimandrites, abbots and abbesses, all rose up to cover certain points of administration.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Lesser cycles also run in tandem with the annual ones. A weekly cycle of days prescribes a specific focus for each day in addition to others that may be observed.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The church has developed eight modes or tones (see Octoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast day, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity on New York City's Upper East Side is the largest Orthodox Christian church in the Western Hemisphere.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Eastern Orthodox Christian can baptise.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a baptised person is granted the gift of the Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy Chrism. It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Eastern Orthodox Church. As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: A baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christian is a full member of the church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The creation of Chrism may be accomplished by any bishop at any time, but usually is done only once a year, often when a synod of bishops convenes for its annual meeting. Some autocephalous churches get their chrism from others. Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament, even when an instrument such as a brush is used.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Communion is given only to baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon, called a "cochlear", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Jesus said that "when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Mk 12:25). For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be "fleshy", but "spiritual". Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and Church, is eternal.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The church does recognise that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the Eastern Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry and it is common for such members of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see clerical celibacy). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who do not remarry and become nuns when their children are grown. Only men are allowed to receive holy orders, although deaconesses had both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: In 2016, the Patriarchate of Alexandria decided to reintroduce the order of deaconess. In February 2017, Patriarch Theodoros II consecrated five women to be deaconesses within the Patriarchate of Alexandria.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Hilarion Alfeyev, Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox and Evangelical Protestant Christians share the same positions on "such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage" and desire "vigorous grassroots engagement" between the two Christian communions on such issues.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The Oriental Orthodox Churches are not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite their similar names. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the two churches began in the mid-20th century, and, notably, in the 19th century, when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time; he left his church under the guidance of the Coptic Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Notwithstanding certain overtures by both Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox leaders, the majority of Orthodox Christians, as well as Catholics, are not in favor of communion between their churches, with only a median of 35 percent and 38 percent, respectively, claiming support.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: According to Bat Ye'or, Christians under Islamic rule were denied equality of rights since they were forced to pay the "jizya" poll tax.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: In 2007, Metropolitan Alfeyev expressed the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity in Russia, as the two religions have never had religious wars in Russia.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The various autocephalous and autonomous synods of the Eastern Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another. In addition, some schismatic churches not in any communion exist, with all three groups identifying as Eastern Orthodox.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Another group of non-mainstream Eastern Orthodox Christians are referred True Orthodoxy or Old Calendarists; they are those who, without authority from their parent churches, have continued to use the old Julian calendar, and split from their parent church.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) has united in 2007 with the Moscow Patriarchate; these two churches had separated from each other in the 1920s due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile Soviet regime.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Another group called the Old Believers, separated in 1666 from the official Russian Orthodox Church as a protest against church rite reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Each church has defined geographical boundaries of its jurisdiction and is ruled by its council of bishops or synod presided by a senior bishop–its primate (or first hierarch). The primate may carry the honorary title of patriarch, metropolitan (in the Slavic tradition) or archbishop (in the Greek tradition).

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Each regional church consists of constituent eparchies (or dioceses) ruled by a bishop. Some churches have given an eparchy or group of eparchies varying degrees of autonomy (self-government). Such autonomous churches maintain varying levels of dependence on their mother church, usually defined in a "tomos" or other document of autonomy.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Below is a list of the 14 autocephalous Orthodox churches forming the main body of Orthodox Christianity, all of which are titled equal to each other, but the Ecumenical Patriarchate is titled the "first among equals". Based on the definitions, the list is in the order of precedence and alphabetical order where necessary, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. The liturgical title of the primate is in italics.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Within the main body of Eastern Orthodoxy there are unresolved internal issues as to the autonomous or autocephalous status or legitimacy of the following Orthodox churches, particularly between those stemming from the Russian Orthodox or Constantinopolitan churches:

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Eastern Orthodox Church

Context: Churches with irregular or unresolved canonical status are entities that have carried out episcopal consecrations outside of the norms of canon law or whose bishops have been excommunicated by one of the 14 autocephalous churches. These include nationalist and other schismatic bodies such as the Abkhazian Orthodox Church.

Question: متى وقع الانشقاق بين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Rashidun Caliphate () was the first caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE (11 AH). During its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in West Asia.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the Ansar (), the natives of Medina, took place in the "Saqifah" (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the companions of Muhammad were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar-like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to Medina.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz. He appointed Suhayb ibn Sinan to lead the prayers.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraish tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraish. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the Rashiduns, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the Iberian peninsula, as well as the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus. Also, coastal Sicily was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin Ali () was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of Medina. He transferred the capital to Kufa, a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as Malik al-Ashtar and Salman the Persian.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: In 661, Ali was assassinated by Ibn Muljam as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia, the Levant, parts of Anatolia, and most of the Sasanian Empire.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Unlike the Sasanian Persians, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the Byzantine Empire to recover.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's mobile guard defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a skirmish.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and Jerusalem surrendered in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the Battle of Hazir and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against Aleppo, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the Battle of Aleppo the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack Constantinople, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Taurus Mountains in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of Cyrus, prefect of Egypt and Patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local Coptic Christians. He was one of the authors of monothelism, a seventh-century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the Exarchate of Africa declared its independence. Under its exarch, Gregory the Patrician, its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to Morocco. Abdullah ibn Sa'ad sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians—in conquered lands were called "dhimmis" (the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: "Dhimmis" were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule. "Dhimmis" were also required to pay the "jizya".

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the "dhimmis", which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, "dhimmis" were given important positions in the government.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong", and at that instance, a Muslim man stood up and said, "O Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!". Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers."

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: In his testament Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising North Africa. He also consolidated Syria, previously divided into two provinces, into one.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under Muawiyah I's control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of Amr ibn Al-A'as), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The provinces were further divided into districts. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a governor ("Wāli"). Other officers at the provincial level were:

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of Uthman the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to the principles of Islam.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Accordingly, "Qadis" (judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The "Qadis" were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The "Qadis" also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the Quraysh called (, ).

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟