Biodiversity

Context: A variety of objective means exist to empirically measure biodiversity. Each measure relates to a particular use of the data, and is likely to be associated with the variety of genes. Biodiversity is commonly measured in terms of taxonomic richness of a geographic area over a time interval.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: A 2017 study published in "PLOS One" found that the biomass of insect life in Germany had declined by three-quarters in the last 25 years. Dave Goulson of Sussex University stated that their study suggested that humans "appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently on course for ecological Armageddon. If we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse."

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In 2020 the World Wildlife Foundation published a report saying that "biodiversity is being destroyed at a rate unprecedented in human history". The report claims that 68% of the population of the examined species were destroyed in the years 1970 – 2016.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species and secondary extinctions. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population and Over-harvesting.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * housing & urban areas" (urban areas, suburbs, villages, vacation homes, shopping areas, offices, schools, hospitals)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * commercial & industrial areas" (manufacturing plants, shopping centers, office parks, military bases, power plants, train & shipyards, airports)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * aquaculture "(shrimp or finfish aquaculture, fish ponds on farms, hatchery salmon, seeded shellfish beds, artificial algal beds)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * plant destruction or removal "(human consumption, free-range livestock foraging, battling timber disease, orchid collection)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * logging or wood harvesting "(selective or clear-cutting, firewood collection, charcoal production)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: 6. Human intrusions & activities that alter, destroy, simply disturb habitats and species from exhibiting natural behaviors

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * recreational activities "(off-road vehicles, motorboats, jet-skis, snowmobiles, ultralight planes, dive boats, whale watching, mountain bikes, hikers, birdwatchers, skiers, pets in recreational areas, temporary campsites, caving, rock-climbing)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * war, civil unrest, & military exercises "(armed conflict, minefields, tanks & other military vehicles, training exercises & ranges, defoliation, munitions testing)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * fire suppression or creation "(controlled burns, inappropriate fire management, escaped agricultural and campfires, arson)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * water management "(dam construction & operation, wetland filling, surface water diversion, groundwater pumping)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * other modifications "(land reclamation projects, shoreline rip-rap, lawn cultivation, beach construction and maintenance, tree-thinning in parks)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * removing/reducing human maintenance "(mowing meadows, reduction in controlled burns, lack of indigenous management of key ecosystems, ceasing supplemental feeding of condors)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * invasive species "(feral horses & household pets, zebra mussels, Miconia tree, kudzu, introduction for biocontrol)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * problematic native species "(overabundant native deer or kangaroo, overabundant algae due to loss of native grazing fish, locust-type plagues)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * introduced genetic material "(pesticide-resistant crops, genetically modified insects for biocontrol, genetically modified trees or salmon, escaped hatchery salmon, restoration projects using non-local seed stock)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * pathogens & microbes "(plague affecting rodents or rabbits, Dutch elm disease or chestnut blight, Chytrid fungus affecting amphibians outside of Africa)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * sewage "(untreated sewage, discharges from poorly functioning sewage treatment plants, septic tanks, pit latrines, oil or sediment from roads, fertilizers and pesticides from lawns and golf courses, road salt)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * industrial & military effluents "(toxic chemicals from factories, illegal dumping of chemicals, mine tailings, arsenic from gold mining, leakage from fuel tanks, PCBs in river sediments)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * agricultural & forestry effluents "(nutrient loading from fertilizer run-off, herbicide run-off, manure from feedlots, nutrients from aquaculture, soil erosion)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * garbage & solid waste "(municipal waste, litter & dumped possessions, flotsam & jetsam from recreational boats, waste that entangles wildlife, construction debris)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * air-borne pollutants "(acid rain, smog from vehicle emissions, excess nitrogen deposition, radioactive fallout, wind dispersion of pollutants or sediments from farm fields, smoke from forest fires or wood stoves)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * excess energy "(noise from highways or airplanes, sonar from submarines that disturbs whales, heated water from power plants, lamps attracting insects, beach lights disorienting turtles, atmospheric radiation from ozone holes)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * ecosystem encroachment "(inundation of shoreline ecosystems & drowning of coral reefs from sea level rise, dune encroachment from desertification, woody encroachment into grasslands)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * changes in geochemical regimes "(ocean acidification, changes in atmospheric CO2 affecting plant growth, loss of sediment leading to broad-scale subsidence)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * changes in temperature regimes "(heat waves, cold spells, oceanic temperature changes, melting of glaciers/sea ice)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * changes in precipitation & hydrological regimes "(droughts, rain timing, loss of snow cover, increased severity of floods)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: * severe weather events "(thunderstorms, tropical storms, hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes, hailstorms, ice storms or blizzards, dust storms, erosion of beaches during storms)"

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially in relation to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss include: overconsumption, overpopulation, land use change, deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent—that diversity among species requires diversity within a species and "vice versa". "If anyone type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down and the community becomes dominated by a single species."

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: , the most threatened ecosystems occur in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment" organised by the biodiversity platform and the French "Institut de recherche pour le développement" (MNHNP).

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline in one species accompanies similar processes in another, such as in plants and beetles.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: A 2019 report has revealed that bees and other pollinating insects have been wiped out of almost a quarter of their habitats across the United Kingdom. The population crashes have been happening since the 1980s and are affecting biodiversity. The increase in industrial farming and pesticide use, combined with diseases, invasive species, and climate change is threatening the future of these insects and the agriculture they support.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In 2019, research was published showing that insects are destroyed by human activities like habitat destruction, pesticide poisoning, invasive species and climate change at a rate that will cause the collapse of ecological systems in the next 50 years if it cannot be stopped.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. The term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: At present, several countries have already imported so many exotic species, particularly agricultural and ornamental plants, that their indigenous fauna/flora may be outnumbered. For example, the introduction of kudzu from Southeast Asia to Canada and the United States has threatened biodiversity in certain areas. Nature offers effective ways to help mitigate climate change.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade. Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinction. Artificially developed projects can cause damage to the surrounding environment

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: About 25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: The overkill hypothesis, a pattern of large animal extinctions connected with human migration patterns, can be used to explain why megafaunal extinctions can occur within a relatively short time period.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Genetically modified organisms contain genetic material that is altered through genetic engineering. Genetically modified crops have become a common source for genetic pollution in not only wild varieties, but also in domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Genetic erosion and genetic pollution have the potential to destroy unique genotypes, threatening future access to food security. A decrease in genetic diversity weakens the ability of crops and livestock to be hybridized to resist disease and survive changes in climate.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Global warming is a major threat to global biodiversity. For example, coral reefs – which are biodiversity hotspots – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Climate change has proven to affect biodiversity and evidence supporting the altering effects is widespread. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and weather, but, mercifully, the major impacts that have been predicted are still potential futures. We have not documented major extinctions yet, even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In 2004, an international collaborative study on four continents estimated that 10 percent of species would become extinct by 2050 because of global warming. "We need to limit climate change or we wind up with a lot of species in trouble, possibly extinct," said Dr. Lee Hannah, a co-author of the paper and chief climate change biologist at the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation International.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: A recent study predicts that up to 35% of the world terrestrial carnivores and ungulates will be at higher risk of extinction by 2050 because of the joint effects of predicted climate and land-use change under business-as-usual human development scenarios.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Climate change has advanced the time of evening when Brazilian free-tailed bats ("Tadarida brasiliensis") emerge to feed. This change is believed to be related to the drying of regions as temperatures rise. This earlier emergence exposes the bats to greater predation increased competition with other insectivores who feed in the twilight or daylight hours.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: According to a 2020 study by the World Wildlife Fund, the global human population already exceeds planet's biocapacity – it would take the equivalent of 1.56 Earths of biocapacity to meet our current demands. The 2014 report further points that if everyone on the planet had the Footprint of the average resident of Qatar, we would need 4.8 Earths and if we lived the lifestyle of a typical resident of the US, we would need 3.9 Earths.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services, the "Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services", was published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). The main conclusions:

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: 1. Over the last 50 years, the state of nature has deteriorated at an unprecedented and accelerating rate.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: 2. The main drivers of this deterioration have been changes in land and sea use, exploitation of living beings, climate change, pollution, and invasive species. These five drivers, in turn, are caused by societal behaviors, from consumption to governance.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: 3. Damage to ecosystems undermines 35 of 44 selected UN targets, including the UN General Assembly's Sustainable Development Goals for poverty, hunger, health, water, cities' climate, oceans, and land. It can cause problems with food, water and humanity's air supply.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Conservation biology matured in the mid-20th century as ecologists, naturalists and other scientists began to research and address issues pertaining to global biodiversity declines.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: The conservation ethic advocates management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species, ecosystems, the evolutionary process and human culture and society.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans to protect biodiversity. Preserving global biodiversity is a priority in strategic conservation plans that are designed to engage public policy and concerns affecting local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems and cultures. Action plans identify ways of sustaining human well-being, employing natural capital, market capital and ecosystem services.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In the EU Directive 1999/22/EC zoos are described as having a role in the preservation of the biodiversity of wildlife animals by conducting research or participation in breeding programs.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Removal of exotic species will allow the species that they have negatively impacted to recover their ecological niches. Exotic species that have become pests can be identified taxonomically (e.g., with Digital Automated Identification SYstem (DAISY), using the barcode of life). Removal is practical only given large groups of individuals due to the economic cost.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: As sustainable populations of the remaining native species in an area become assured, "missing" species that are candidates for reintroduction can be identified using databases such as the "Encyclopedia of Life" and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. In some cases, a limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are regulated and the exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: There is an estimated 726 million ha of forest in protected areas worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, 31 percent.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In zoological parks or zoos, live animals are kept for public recreation, education and conservation purposes. Modern zoos offer veterinary facilities, provide opportunities for threatened species to breed in captivity and usually build environments that simulate the native habitats of the animals in their care. Zoos play a major role in creating awareness about the need to conserve nature.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In botanical gardens, plants are grown and displayed primarily for scientific and educational purposes. They consist of a collection of living plants, grown outdoors or under glass in greenhouses and conservatories. Also, a botanical garden may include a collection of dried plants or herbarium and such facilities as lecture rooms, laboratories, libraries, museums and experimental or research plantings.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Focusing on limited areas of higher potential biodiversity promises greater immediate return on investment than spreading resources evenly or focusing on areas of little diversity but greater interest in biodiversity.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: A second strategy focuses on areas that retain most of their original diversity, which typically require little or no restoration. These are typically non-urbanized, non-agricultural areas. Tropical areas often fit both criteria, given their natively high diversity and relative lack of development.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity implies informed consent between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In May 2020, the European Union published its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030. The biodiversity strategy is an essential part of the climate change mitigation strategy of the European Union. From the 25% of the European budget that will go to fight climate change, large part will go to restore biodiversity and nature based solutions.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Approximately half of the global GDP depend on nature. In Europe many parts of the economy that generate trillions of euros per year depend on nature. The benefits of Natura 2000 alone in Europe are €200 – €300 billion per year.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. Bosselman argues that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, claiming that the remaining areas of scientific uncertainty cause unacceptable administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: India passed the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 for the conservation of biological diversity in India. The Act also provides mechanisms for equitable sharing of benefits from the use of traditional biological resources and knowledge.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: The number of morphological attributes that can be scored for diversity study is generally limited and prone to environmental influences; thereby reducing the fine resolution required to ascertain the phylogenetic relationships. DNA based markers- microsatellites otherwise known as "simple sequence repeats" (SSR) were therefore used for the diversity studies of certain species and their wild relatives.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Biodiversity

Context: In the case of cowpea, a study conducted to assess the level of genetic diversity in cowpea germplasm and related wide species, where the relatedness among various taxa was compared, primers useful for classification of taxa identified, and the origin and phylogeny of cultivated cowpea classified show that SSR markers are useful in validating with species classification and revealing the center of diversity.

Question: 식물 공동체인 숲은 지구 전체 면적의 몇퍼센트를 차지하나요?


Russia

Context: The first trace of a early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in western Siberia. The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki and Borshchyovo, and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both, respectively in western Russia. Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic. Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk, which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare. In classical antiquity, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe was known as Scythia. In late 8th century BCE, Ancient Greek traders brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies, was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars. The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 10th century.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe ca. 1500 years ago. The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in western Russia, and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finnic peoples.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Kingdom of Poland, while the Novgorod Republic and Vladimir-Suzdal, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation. Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow and helped by the Russian Orthodox Church, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed its parent Vladimir-Suzdal, and then surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists. The reign of his son

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful. Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the failure of the humiliating Russo-Japanese War . The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland, in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. The Soviet Union later invaded Finland, and occupied and annexed the Baltic states, as well as parts of Romania. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of "glasnost" (openness) and "perestroika" (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government. This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Following a diplomatic crisis with neighboring Georgia; the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia imposing two unrecognized states in the territory of Georgia. It was the first European war of the 21st century.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia. It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over . Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some east to west, and north to south. Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents, and has the same surface area as Pluto.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans, has links with a great number of seas. Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just apart; and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely from Hokkaido, Japan.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics. About half of Russia's territory is forested, and it has the world's largest forest reserves, which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia, by constitution, is an asymmetric federal republic, with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops. , the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20 million reserve personnel. It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: The effectiveness of the Russian military has been questioned, in particular due to widespread corruption.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Human rights in Russia have been increasingly criticised by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia has been described as a kleptocracy. It was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2021, ranking 136th out of 180 countries. Russia has a long history of corruption, which is seen as a significant problem. It impacts various aspects of life, including the economy, business, public administration, law enforcement, healthcare, and education.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia is the world's twentieth-largest exporter and importer. The oil and gas sector accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022, and up to 60% of its exports in 2019. In 2019, the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry estimated the value of natural resources to be 60% of the country's GDP. Russia has one of the lowest levels of external debt among major economies, although its inequality of household income and wealth is one of the highest among developed countries.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits. Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018. It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world's tenth-highest budget. It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers. Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace. Russia ranked 45th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, "Sputnik 1", was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6. In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such as the Volga, hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains, and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway. Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated and urbanised countries, with the vast majority of its population concentrated within its western part. It had a population of 142.8 million according to the 2010 census, which rose to roughly 145.5 million as of 2022. Russia is the most populous country in Europe, and the world's ninth most populous country, with a population density of 9 inhabitants per square kilometre (23 per square mile).

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia. It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language. Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional, some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate. An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive: first-degree courses usually take five years. The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University. There are ten highly prestigious across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program. The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019. Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations. Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female, due to its high male mortality rate. In 2019, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 73.2 years (68.2 years for males and 78.0 years for females), and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: The principle cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases. Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; 61.1% of Russian adults were overweight or obese in 2016. However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country, as it remains one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade. Smoking is another health issue in the country. The country's high suicide rate, although on the decline, remains a significant social issue.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russian culture has been formed by the nation's history, its geographical location and its vast expanse, religious and social traditions, and Western influence. Russian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development of European thought. The Russians have also greatly influenced classical music, ballet, sport, painting, and cinema. The nation has also made pioneering contributions to science and technology and space exploration.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Victory Day, which honors Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square; and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event. Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union; and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January. Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday. Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space. Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, pianists Vladimir Horowitz, Sviatoslav Richter, and Emil Gilels, and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass, and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its creation in the nation dates back to the 14th century. The country has the world's highest vodka consumption, while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage. Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century. Tea has also been a historically popular beverage in Russia.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


Russia

Context: Football is the most popular sport in Russia. The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960, and reached the finals of Euro 1988. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008. The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008. Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

Question: 러시아의 옛 이름은 무엇인가?


List of Nobel laureates in Literature

Context: 1Rabindranath Tagore (Nobel Prize in Literature 1913) wrote in Bengali and English, Samuel Beckett (Nobel Prize in Literature 1969) wrote in French and English and Joseph Brodsky (Nobel Prize in Literature 1987) wrote poetry in Russian and prose in English. These three Nobel laureates have been sorted under Bengali, French and Russian, respectively.

Question: 노벨 문학상 첫 시상 연도는 언젠가요?


List of Nobel laureates in Literature

Context: A. The information in the country column is according to nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. This information may not necessarily reflect the recipient's birthplace or citizenship.

Question: 노벨 문학상 첫 시상 연도는 언젠가요?


Louis the Stammerer

Context: He succeeded his younger brother Charles the Child as the ruler of Aquitaine in 866 and his father in West Francia in 877, but he was never crowned emperor.

Question: 루도비쿠스 2세 발부스 생일은 언젠가요?


Louis the Stammerer

Context: During the peace negotiations between his father and Erispoe, duke of Brittany, Louis was betrothed to an unnamed daughter of Erispoe in 856. It is not known if this was the same daughter who later married Gurivant. The contract was broken in 857 after Erispoe's murder.

Question: 루도비쿠스 2세 발부스 생일은 언젠가요?


Louis the Stammerer

Context: Louis was married twice. His first wife Ansgarde of Burgundy had two sons: Louis (born in 863) and Carloman (born in 866), both of whom became kings of West Francia, and three daughters: Hildegarde (born in 864), Gisela (865–884) and Ermentrude (874–914).

Question: 루도비쿠스 2세 발부스 생일은 언젠가요?


Louis the Stammerer

Context: He had a posthumous son, Charles the Simple, by his second wife, Adelaide of Paris, who would become, long after his elder brothers' deaths, king of West Francia.

Question: 루도비쿠스 2세 발부스 생일은 언젠가요?


List of countries by leading trade partners

Context: Some isolated countries depend on a larger neighbour to be their largest trading partner – Venezuela is one of Cuba's key export markets, while doubly-landlocked Uzbekistan exports chiefly to Tajikistan and Afghanistan, its singly-landlocked neighbours.

Question: 세상에서 가장 무역이 발달한 나라는 어디인가?


Context: The largest import and export merchandise trade partners for most countries of the world are listed below. Details for the European Union, Hong Kong and Macau are also included. In most cases the data relates to 2016 rankings. Data was extracted from the World Trade Organization's Trade Profile Database.

Question: 세상에서 가장 무역이 발달한 나라는 어디인가?


Context: The following table shows figures for 30 largest bilateral trade volume in 2013 according to the World Trade Organization.

Question: 세상에서 가장 무역이 발달한 나라는 어디인가?


Samurai

Context: The Taihō Code classified most of the Imperial bureaucrats into 12 ranks, each divided into two sub-ranks, 1st rank being the highest adviser to the emperor. Those of 6th rank and below were referred to as "samurai" and dealt with day-to-day affairs and were initially civilian public servants, in keeping with the original derivation of this word from , a verb meaning 'to serve'. Military men, however, would not be referred to as "samurai" for many more centuries.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Some clans were originally formed by farmers who had taken up arms to protect themselves from the imperial magistrates sent to govern their lands and collect taxes. These clans formed alliances to protect themselves against more powerful clans, and by the mid-Heian period, they had adopted characteristic armor and weapons ("tachi").

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: After the Genpei war, Yoritomo obtained the right to appoint "shugo" and "jitō", and was allowed to organize soldiers and police, and to collect a certain amount of tax. Initially, their responsibility was restricted to arresting rebels and collecting needed army provisions and they were forbidden from interfering with "Kokushi" officials, but their responsibility gradually expanded. Thus, the samurai class became the political ruling power in Japan.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Various samurai clans struggled for power during the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates. Zen Buddhism spread among the samurai in the 13th century and helped to shape their standards of conduct, particularly overcoming the fear of death and killing, but among the general populace Pure Land Buddhism was favored.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In 1274, the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty in China sent a force of some 40,000 men and 900 ships to invade Japan in northern Kyūshū. Japan mustered a mere 10,000 samurai to meet this threat. The invading army was harassed by major thunderstorms throughout the invasion, which aided the defenders by inflicting heavy casualties. The Yuan army was eventually recalled, and the invasion was called off. The Mongol invaders used small bombs, which was likely the first appearance of bombs and gunpowder in Japan.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The Japanese defenders recognized the possibility of a renewed invasion and began construction of a great stone barrier around Hakata Bay in 1276. Completed in 1277, this wall stretched for 20 kilometers around the border of the bay. It would later serve as a strong defensive point against the Mongols. The Mongols attempted to settle matters in a diplomatic way from 1275 to 1279, but every envoy sent to Japan was executed.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In 1281, a Yuan army of 140,000 men with 5,000 ships was mustered for another invasion of Japan. Northern Kyūshū was defended by a Japanese army of 40,000 men. The Mongol army was still on its ships preparing for the landing operation when a typhoon hit north Kyūshū island. The casualties and damage inflicted by the typhoon, followed by the Japanese defense of the Hakata Bay barrier, resulted in the Mongols again being defeated.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The thunderstorms of 1274 and the typhoon of 1281 helped the samurai defenders of Japan repel the Mongol invaders despite being vastly outnumbered. These winds became known as "kami-no-Kaze", which literally translates as "wind of the gods". This is often given a simplified translation as "divine wind". The "kami-no-Kaze" lent credence to the Japanese belief that their lands were indeed divine and under supernatural protection.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Issues of inheritance caused family strife as primogeniture became common, in contrast to the division of succession designated by law before the 14th century. Invasions of neighboring samurai territories became common to avoid infighting, and bickering among samurai was a constant problem for the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The "Sengoku jidai" ("warring states period") was marked by the loosening of samurai culture, with people born into other social strata sometimes making a name for themselves as warriors and thus becoming "de facto" samurai.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Japanese war tactics and technologies improved rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries. Use of large numbers of infantry called ashigaru ("light-foot", because of their light armor), formed of humble warriors or ordinary people with "naga yari" (a long lance) or "naginata", was introduced and combined with cavalry in maneuvers. The number of people mobilized in warfare ranged from thousands to hundreds of thousands.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The arquebus, a matchlock gun, was introduced by the Portuguese via a Chinese pirate ship in 1543, and the Japanese succeeded in assimilating it within a decade. Groups of mercenaries with mass-produced arquebuses began playing a critical role. By the end of the Sengoku period, several hundred thousand firearms existed in Japan, and massive armies numbering over 100,000 clashed in battles.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Oda Nobunaga was the well-known lord of the Nagoya area (once called Owari Province) and an exceptional example of a samurai of the Sengoku period. He came within a few years of, and laid down the path for his successors to follow, the reunification of Japan under a new "bakufu" (shogunate).

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became a grand minister in 1586, created a law that non-samurai were not allowed to carry weapons, which the samurai caste codified as permanent and hereditary, thereby ending the social mobility of Japan, which lasted until the dissolution of the Edo shogunate by the Meiji revolutionaries.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Social mobility was high, as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain a large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence. Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era, declaring themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans: Minamoto, Taira, Fujiwara and Tachibana. In most cases, however, it is difficult to prove these claims.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Theoretical obligations between a samurai and his lord (usually a "daimyō") increased from the Genpei era to the Edo era. They were strongly emphasized by the teachings of Confucius and Mencius, which were required reading for the educated samurai class. The leading figures who introduced Confucianism in Japan in the early Tokugawa period were Fujiwara Seika (1561–1619), Hayashi Razan (1583–1657), and Matsunaga Sekigo (1592–1657).

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The conduct of samurai served as role model behavior for the other social classes. With time on their hands, samurai spent more time in pursuit of other interests such as becoming scholars.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The last showing of the original samurai was in 1867 when samurai from Chōshū and Satsuma provinces defeated the shogunate forces in favor of the rule of the emperor in the Boshin War. The two provinces were the lands of the "daimyōs" that submitted to Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In the 1870s, samurai comprised five percent of the population, or 400,000 families with about 1.9 million members. They came under direct national jurisdiction in 1869, and of all the classes during the Meiji revolution they were the most affected.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Younger samurai often became exchange students because they were ambitious, literate and well-educated. On return, some started private schools for higher education, while many samurai became reporters and writers and set up newspaper companies. Others entered governmental service. In the 1880s, 23 percent of prominent Japanese businessmen were from the samurai class; by the 1920s the number had grown to 35 percent.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Literature on the subject of "bushido" such as "Hagakure" ("Hidden in Leaves") by Yamamoto Tsunetomo and " Gorin no Sho" ("Book of the Five Rings") by Miyamoto Musashi, both written in the Edo period, contributed to the development of "bushidō" and Zen philosophy.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: According to Robert Sharf, "The notion that Zen is somehow related to Japanese culture in general, and bushidō in particular, is familiar to Western students of Zen through the writings of D. T. Suzuki, no doubt the single most important figure in the spread of Zen in the West." In an account of Japan sent to Father Ignatius Loyola at Rome, drawn from the statements of Anger (Han-Siro's western name), Xavier describes the importance of honor to the Japanese (Letter preserved at College of Coimbra):

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In 1412, Imagawa Sadayo wrote a letter of admonishment to his brother stressing the importance of duty to one's master. Imagawa was admired for his balance of military and administrative skills during his lifetime, and his writings became widespread. The letters became central to Tokugawa-era laws and became required study material for traditional Japanese until World War II:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Similarly, the feudal lord Takeda Nobushige (1525–1561) stated: "In matters both great and small, one should not turn his back on his master's commands ... One should not ask for gifts or enfiefments from the master ... No matter how unreasonably the master may treat a man, he should not feel disgruntled ... An underling does not pass judgments on a superior."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Nobushige's brother Takeda Shingen (1521–1573) also made similar observations: "One who was born in the house of a warrior, regardless of his rank or class, first acquaints himself with a man of military feats and achievements in loyalty ... Everyone knows that if a man doesn't hold filial piety toward his own parents he would also neglect his duties toward his lord. Such a neglect means a disloyalty toward humanity. Therefore such a man doesn't deserve to be called 'samurai'."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The feudal lord Asakura Yoshikage (1428–1481) wrote: "In the fief of the Asakura, one should not determine hereditary chief retainers. A man should be assigned according to his ability and loyalty." Asakura also observed that the successes of his father were obtained by the kind treatment of the warriors and common people living in domain. By his civility, "all were willing to sacrifice their lives for him and become his allies."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Nabeshima Naoshige (1538–1618 AD) was another Sengoku "daimyō" who fought alongside Kato Kiyomasa in Korea. He stated that it was shameful for any man to have not risked his life at least once in the line of duty, regardless of his rank. Nabeshima's sayings were passed down to his son and grandson and became the basis for Tsunetomo Yamamoto's "Hagakure". He is best known for his saying, "The way of the samurai is in desperateness. Ten men or more cannot kill such a man."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: "It is not the Way of the Warrior [i.e., "bushidō"] to be shamed and avoid death even under circumstances that are not particularly important. It goes without saying that to sacrifice one's life for the sake of his master is an unchanging principle. That I should be able to go ahead of all the other warriors of this country and lay down my life for the sake of my master's benevolence is an honor to my family and has been my most fervent desire for many years."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: It is said that both men cried when they parted ways, because they knew they would never see each other again. Torii's father and grandfather had served the Tokugawa before him, and his own brother had already been killed in battle. Torii's actions changed the course of Japanese history. Ieyasu Tokugawa successfully raised an army and won at Sekigahara.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The translator of "Hagakure", William Scott Wilson, observed examples of warrior emphasis on death in clans other than Yamamoto's: "he (Takeda Shingen) was a strict disciplinarian as a warrior, and there is an exemplary story in the "Hagakure" relating his execution of two brawlers, not because they had fought, but because they had not fought to the death".

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Families such as the Imagawa were influential in the development of warrior ethics and were widely quoted by other lords during their lifetime. The writings of Imagawa Sadayo were highly respected and sought out by Tokugawa Ieyasu as the source of Japanese feudal law.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: By the 12th century, upper-class samurai were highly literate because of the general introduction of Confucianism from China during the 7th to 9th centuries and in response to their perceived need to deal with the imperial court, who had a monopoly on culture and literacy for most of the Heian period. As a result, they aspired to the more cultured abilities of the nobility.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Examples such as Taira Tadanori (a samurai who appears in the "Heike Monogatari") demonstrate that warriors idealized the arts and aspired to become skilled in them. Tadanori was famous for his skill with the pen and the sword or the "bun and the bu", the harmony of fighting and learning.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Samurai were expected to be cultured and literate and admired the ancient saying "bunbu-ryōdō" (文武両道, literary arts, military arts, both ways) or "The pen and the sword in accord". By the time of the Edo period, Japan had a higher literacy comparable to that in central Europe.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The number of men who actually achieved the ideal and lived their lives by it was high. An early term for warrior, "uruwashii", was written with a kanji that combined the characters for literary study ("bun" 文) and military arts ("bu" 武), and is mentioned in the Heike Monogatari (late 12th century). The Heike Monogatari makes reference to the educated poet-swordsman ideal in its mention of Taira no Tadanori's death:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Plenty of warrior writings document this ideal from the 13th century onward. Most warriors aspired to or followed this ideal otherwise there would have been no cohesion in the samurai armies.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In general, samurai, aristocrats, and priests had a very high literacy rate in kanji. Recent studies have shown that literacy in kanji among other groups in society was somewhat higher than previously understood. For example, court documents, birth and death records and marriage records from the Kamakura period, submitted by farmers, were prepared in Kanji. Both the kanji literacy rate and skills in math improved toward the end of Kamakura period.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Some samurai had "buke bunko", or "warrior library", a personal library that held texts on strategy, the science of warfare, and other documents that would have proved useful during the warring era of feudal Japan. One such library held 20,000 volumes. The upper class had "Kuge bunko", or "family libraries", that held classics, Buddhist sacred texts, and family histories, as well as genealogical records.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Literacy was generally high among the warriors and the common classes as well. The feudal lord Asakura Norikage (1474–1555 AD) noted the great loyalty given to his father, due to his polite letters, not just to fellow samurai, but also to the farmers and townspeople:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: There were to Lord Eirin's character many high points difficult to measure, but according to the elders the foremost of these was the way he governed the province by his civility. It goes without saying that he acted this way toward those in the samurai class, but he was also polite in writing letters to the farmers and townspeople, and even in addressing these letters he was gracious beyond normal practice. In this way, all were willing to sacrifice their lives for him and become his allies.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In a letter dated 29 January 1552, St Francis Xavier observed the ease of which the Japanese understood prayers due to the high level of literacy in Japan at that time:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: There are two kinds of writing in Japan, one used by men and the other by women; and for the most part both men and women, especially of the nobility and the commercial class, have a literary education. The bonzes, or bonzesses, in their monasteries teach letters to the girls and boys, though rich and noble persons entrust the education of their children to private tutors.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Most of them can read, and this is a great help to them for the easy understanding of our usual prayers and the chief points of our holy religion.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In a letter to Father Ignatius Loyola at Rome, Xavier further noted the education of the upper classes:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The Nobles send their sons to monasteries to be educated as soon as they are 8 years old, and they remain there until they are 19 or 20, learning reading, writing and religion; as soon as they come out, they marry and apply themselves to politics.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In a letter dated 11 November 1549, Xavier described a multi-tiered educational system in Japan consisting of "universities", "colleges", "academies" and hundreds of monasteries that served as a principal center for learning by the populace:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: A samurai was usually named by combining one kanji from his father or grandfather and one new kanji. Samurai normally used only a small part of their total name.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Samurai were given the privilege of carrying two swords and using 'samurai surnames' to identify themselves from the common people.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Samurai had arranged marriages, which were arranged by a go-between of the same or higher rank. While for those samurai in the upper ranks this was a necessity (as most had few opportunities to meet women), this was a formality for lower-ranked samurai. Most samurai married women from a samurai family, but for lower-ranked samurai, marriages with commoners were permitted. In these marriages a dowry was brought by the woman and was used to set up the couple's new household.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: After Bunroku and Keichō no eki, many people born in the Joseon dynasty were brought to Japan as prisoners or cooperators. Some of them served "daimyōs" as retainers. One of the most prominent figures among them was Kim Yeocheol, who was granted the Japanese name Wakita Naokata and promoted to Commissioner of Kanazawa city.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Yasuke (弥助) was a retainer of Oda Nobunaga, and possible samurai, originally from Portuguese Mozambique, Africa. Weapon bearer of Nobunaga. He served in the Honnō-ji incident. According to Thomas Lockley's African Samurai in the 'Oda vassal clan, the Maeda [archives]' there was mention of him receiving 'a stipend, a private residence ... and was given a short sword with a decorative sheath.' However, there is no mention of him being allowed to wear a daishō pairing as a samurai.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: During the existence of the samurai, two opposite types of organization reigned. The first type were recruits-based armies: at the beginning, during the Nara period, samurai armies relied on armies of Chinese-type recruits and towards the end in infantry units composed of "ashigaru". The second type of organization was that of a samurai on horseback who fought individually or in small groups.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In the middle of the contest, some samurai decided to get off the horse and seek to cut off the head of a worthy rival. This act was considered an honor. In addition, through it they gained respect among the military class. After the battle, the high-ranking samurai normally celebrated the tea ceremony, and the victorious general reviewed the heads of the most important members of the enemy which had been cut.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Most of the battles were not resolved in the manner so idealist exposed above, but most wars were won through surprise attacks, such as night raids, fires, etc. The renowned samurai Minamoto no Tametomo said:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Cutting off the head of a worthy rival on the battlefield was a source of great pride and recognition. There was a whole ritual to beautify the severed heads: first they were washed and combed, and once this was done, the teeth were blackened by applying a dye called "ohaguro". The reason for blackening the teeth was that white teeth was a sign of distinction, so applying a dye to darken them was a desecration. The heads were carefully arranged on a table for exposure.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: In 1600, Kani Saizō participated in the Battle of Sekigahara as the forerunner of Fukushima Masanori's army. In the outpost battle of Gifu Castle, he took the heads of 17 enemy soldiers, and was greatly praised by Tokugawa Ieyasu. He fought with a bamboo stalk on his back and would mark the heads of his defeated enemies by putting bamboo leaves in their cut necks or mouths, since he couldn't carry every head. Thus he gained the nickname "Bamboo Saizo."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: During Toyotomi Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, the number of severed heads of the enemies to be sent to Japan was such that for logistical reasons only the nose was sent. These were covered with salt and shipped in wooden barrels. These barrels were buried in a burial mound near the "Great Buddha" of Hideyoshi, where they remain today under the wrong name of "mimizuka" or "ear mound."

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: During the Azuchi-Momoyama period and thanks to the introduction of firearms, combat tactics changed dramatically. The military formations adopted had poetic names, among which are:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: originates from the Sengoku period in the 15th century. The samurai developed which was useful in case they were thrown overboard during naval conflicts. The samurai practiced , and to board enemy vessels. Activities included strokes with swords, bows and firearms. Hands were kept dry above the water to write messages with an ink brush on a paper scroll. This skill was useful for muskets which require dry gunpowder. Nihon Eiho is practiced by 28 schools and recognized by the Japan Swimming Federation.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: During the feudal era of Japan, various types of martial arts flourished, known in Japanese under the name of "bujutsu" (武術). The term "jutsu" can be translated as "method", "art" or "technique" and the name that each one has is indicative of the mode or weapon with which they are executed. The combat methods that were developed and perfected are very diverse, among which are:

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Today martial arts are classified in "koryū budō" or classical martial arts, before the 19th century, and to the modernization of Japan. Modern traditional martial arts are called "gendai budō".

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: Samurai figures have been the subject for legends, folk tales, dramatic stories (i.e. "gunki monogatari"), theatre productions in kabuki and noh, in literature, movies, animated and anime films, television shows, manga, video games, and in various musical pieces in genre that range from "enka" to J-Pop songs.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Samurai

Context: The television series "Power Rangers Samurai" (adapted from "Samurai Sentai Shinkenger") is inspired by the way of the samurai.

Question: 일본의 사무라이 문화는 언제 시작되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The Sydney Opera House is a multi-venue performing arts centre in Sydney. Located on the banks of Sydney Harbour, it is widely regarded as one of the world's most famous and distinctive buildings and a masterpiece of 20th century architecture.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The building and its surrounds occupy the whole of Bennelong Point on Sydney Harbour, between Sydney Cove and Farm Cove, adjacent to the Sydney central business district and the Royal Botanic Gardens, and near to the Sydney Harbour Bridge.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: On 28 June 2007, the Sydney Opera House became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, having been listed on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate since 1980, the National Trust of Australia register since 1983, the City of Sydney Heritage Inventory since 2000, the New South Wales State Heritage Register since 2003, and the Australian National Heritage List since 2005. The Opera House was also a finalist in the "New7Wonders of the World" campaign list.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Apart from the tile of the shells and the glass curtain walls of the foyer spaces, the building's exterior is largely clad with aggregate panels composed of pink granite quarried at Tarana. Significant interior surface treatments also include off-form concrete, Australian white birch plywood supplied from Wauchope in northern New South Wales, and brush box glulam.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Other areas (for example the northern and western foyers) are also used for performances on an occasional basis. Venues are also used for conferences, ceremonies and social functions.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The building also houses a recording studio, retail shops, cafes, restaurants, bars including the Opera Bar and Opera Kitchen. Guided tours are available, including a frequent tour of the front-of-house spaces, and a daily backstage tour that takes visitors backstage to see areas normally reserved for performers and crew members.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: An international design competition was launched by Cahill on 13 September 1955 and received 233 entries, representing architects from 32 countries. The criteria specified a large hall seating 3,000 and a small hall for 1,200 people, each to be designed for different uses, including full-scale operas, orchestral and choral concerts, mass meetings, lectures, ballet performances, and other presentations.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Utzon received the Pritzker Architecture Prize, architecture's highest honour, in 2003. The Pritzker Prize citation read:

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The design of the roof was tested on scale models in wind tunnels at University of Southampton and later NPL in order to establish the wind-pressure distribution around the roof shape in very high winds, which helped in the design of the roof tiles and their fixtures.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The tiles themselves were manufactured by the Swedish company Höganäs Keramik. It took three years of development to produce the effect Utzon wanted in what became known as the Sydney Tile, 120mm square. It is made from clay with a small percentage of crushed stone.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Ove Arup and Partners' site engineer supervised the construction of the shells, which used an innovative adjustable steel-trussed "erection arch" (developed by Hornibrook's engineer Joe Bertony) to support the different roofs before completion. On 6 April 1962, it was estimated that the Opera House would be completed between August 1964 and March 1965.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Stage III, the interiors, started with Utzon moving his entire office to Sydney in February 1963. However, there was a change of government in 1965, and the new Robert Askin government declared the project under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Works. Due to the Ministry's criticism of the project's costs and time, along with their impression of Utzon's designs being impractical, this ultimately led to his resignation in 1966 (see below).

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The cost of the project so far, even in October 1966, was still only A$22.9 million, less than a quarter of the final $102 million cost. However, the projected costs for the design were at this stage much more significant.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The second stage of construction was progressing toward completion when Utzon resigned. His position was principally taken over by Peter Hall, who became largely responsible for the interior design. Other persons appointed that same year to replace Utzon were E. H. Farmer as government architect, D. S. Littlemore and Lionel Todd.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The original cost and scheduling estimates in 1957 projected a cost of £3,500,000 ($7 million) and completion date of 26 January 1963 (Australia Day). In reality, the project was completed ten years late and 1,357% over budget in real terms.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Before the Sydney Opera House competition, Jørn Utzon had won seven of the 18 competitions he had entered but had never seen any of his designs built. Utzon's submitted concept for the Sydney Opera House was almost universally admired and considered groundbreaking. The Assessors Report of January 1957, stated:

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: After the 1965 election of the Liberal Party, with Robert Askin becoming Premier of New South Wales, the relationship of client, architect, engineers and contractors became increasingly tense. Askin had been a "vocal critic of the project prior to gaining office." His new Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, was even less sympathetic. Elizabeth Farrelly, an Australian architecture critic, wrote that:

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Utzon was highly reluctant to respond to questions or criticism from the client's Sydney Opera House Executive Committee (SOHEC). However, he was greatly supported throughout by a member of the committee and one of the original competition judges, Harry Ingham Ashworth. Utzon was unwilling to compromise on some aspects of his designs that the clients wanted to change.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Utzon's ability was never in doubt, despite questions raised by Davis Hughes, who attempted to portray Utzon as an impractical dreamer. Ove Arup actually stated that Utzon was "probably the best of any I have come across in my long experience of working with architects" and: "The Opera House could become the world's foremost contemporary masterpiece if Utzon is given his head."

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Utzon left the project on 28 February 1966. He said that Hughes's refusal to pay him any fees and the lack of collaboration caused his resignation and later described the situation as "Malice in Blunderland". In March 1966, Hughes offered him a subordinate role as "design architect" under a panel of executive architects, without any supervisory powers over the House's construction, but Utzon rejected this. Utzon left the country never to return.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: It was also a first in mechanical engineering. Another Danish firm, Steensen Varming, was responsible for designing the new air-conditioning plant, the largest in Australia at the time, supplying over of air per minute, using the innovative idea of harnessing the harbour water to create a water-cooled heat pump system that is still in operation today.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: In the late 1990s, the Sydney Opera House Trust resumed communication with Utzon in an attempt to effect a reconciliation and to secure his involvement in future changes to the building. In 1999, he was appointed by the trust as a design consultant for future work.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: In 2004, the first interior space rebuilt to an Utzon design was opened and renamed "The Utzon Room" in his honour. It contains an original Utzon tapestry (14.00 x 3.70 metres) called "Homage to Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach". In April 2007, he proposed a major reconstruction of the Opera Theatre, as it was then known. Utzon died on 29 November 2008.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: A state memorial service, attended by Utzon's son Jan and daughter Lin, was held in the Concert Hall on 25 March 2009 featuring performances, readings and recollections from prominent figures in the Australian performing arts scene.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: On 29 March 2016, an original 1959 tapestry by Le Corbusier (2.18 x 3.55 metres), commissioned by Utzon to be hung in the Sydney Opera House and called "Les Dés Sont Jetés" (The Dice Are Cast), was finally unveiled "in situ" after being owned by the Utzon family and held at their home in Denmark for over 50 years. The tapestry was bought at auction by the Sydney Opera House in June 2015. It now hangs in the building's Western Foyer and is accessible to the public.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: In the second half of 2017, the Joan Sutherland Theatre was closed to replace the stage machinery and for other works.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: After the resignation of Utzon, the Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, and the Government Architect, Ted Farmer, organised a team to bring the Sydney Opera House to completion. The architectural work was divided between three appointees who became the Hall, Todd, Littlemore partnership. David Littlemore would manage construction supervision, Lionel Todd contract documentation, while the crucial role of design became the responsibility of Peter Hall.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: Hall agreed to accept the role on the condition there was no possibility of Utzon returning. Even so, his appointment did not go down well with many of his fellow architects who considered that no one but Utzon should complete the Sydney Opera House. Upon Utzon's dismissal, a rally of protest had marched to Bennelong Point. A petition was also circulated, including in the Government Architects office. Peter Hall was one of the many who had signed the petition that called for Utzon's reinstatement.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: A former Government Architect, Peter Webber, in his book "Peter Hall: the Phantom of the Opera House", concludes: when Utzon resigned no one was better qualified (than Hall) to rise to the challenge of completing the design of the Opera House.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: During the construction phase, lunchtime performances were often arranged for the workers, with American vocalist Paul Robeson the first artist to perform, in 1960.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: In 1993, Constantine Koukias was commissioned by the Sydney Opera House Trust in association with REM Theatre to compose "Icon", a large-scale music theatre piece for the 20th anniversary of the Sydney Opera House.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: During the 2000 Summer Olympics, the venue served as the focal point for the triathlon events. The event had a swimming loop at Farm Cove, along with competitions in the neighbouring Royal Botanical Gardens for the cycling and running portions of the event.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The Sydney Opera House sails formed a graphic projection-screen in a lightshow mounted in connection with the International Fleet Review in Sydney Harbour on 5 October 2013.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: On 31 December 2013, the venue's 40th anniversary year, a New Year firework display was mounted for the first time in a decade. The Sydney Opera House hosted an event, 'the biggest blind date' on Friday 21 February 2014 that won an historic Guinness World Record. The longest continuous serving employee was commemorated on 27 June 2018, for 50 years of service.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: On 14 June 2019, a state memorial service for former Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke was held at the Sydney Opera House.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: The Opera House (often along with the nearby Sydney Harbour Bridge), is frequently used in establishing shots for films and television to identify the setting as Sydney and/or Australia.

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


Sydney Opera House

Context: This Wikipedia article contains material from "Sydney Opera House", listed on the "New South Wales State Heritage Register" published by the Government of New South Wales under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 3 September 2017).

Question: 호주 오페라 하우스는 언제 완공되었는가?


History of anthropology

Context: The Renaissance origin of the name of anthropology does not exclude the possibility that ancient authors presented anthropogical material under another name (see below). Such an identification is speculative, depending on the theorist's view of anthropology; nevertheless, speculations have been formulated by credible anthropologists, especially those that consider themselves functionalists and others in history so classified now.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Eriksen and Nielsen use the term proto-anthropology to refer to near-anthropological writings, which contain some of the criteria for being anthropology, but not all. They classify proto-anthropology as being "travel writing or social philosophy", going on to assert "It is only when these aspects ... are fused, that is, when data and theory are brought together, that anthropology appears." This process began to occur in the 18th century of the Age of Enlightenment.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Many anthropological writers find anthropological-quality theorizing in the works of Classical Greece and Classical Rome; for example, John Myres in "Herodotus and Anthropology" (1908); E. E. Sikes in "The Anthropology of the Greeks" (1914); Clyde Kluckhohn in "Anthropology and the Classics" (1961), and many others. An equally long list may be found in French and German as well as other languages.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Herodotus was a 5th-century BC Greek historian who set about to chronicle and explain the Greco-Persian Wars that transpired early in that century. He did so in a surviving work conventionally termed "the History" or "the Histories". His first line begins: "These are the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus ..."

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: The Roman historian, Tacitus, wrote many of our only surviving contemporary accounts of several ancient Celtic and Germanic peoples.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Medieval scholars may be considered forerunners of modern anthropology as well, insofar as they conducted or wrote detailed studies of the customs of peoples considered "different" from themselves in terms of geography. John of Plano Carpini reported of his stay among the Mongols. His report was unusual in its detailed depiction of a non-European culture.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Marco Polo's systematic observations of nature, anthropology, and geography are another example of studying human variation across space. Polo's travels took him across such a diverse human landscape and his accounts of the peoples he met as he journeyed were so detailed that they earned for Polo the name "the father of modern anthropology".

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humanity was apparently in Richard Harvey's 1593 "Philadelphus, a defense of the legend of Brutus in British history", which, includes the passage: "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology."

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: It took Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 25 years to write one of the first major treatises on anthropology, "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View" (1798), which treats it as a branch of philosophy. Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, as he never left his region of Germany, nor did he study any cultures besides his own. He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of Classics and Egyptology informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures. At the same time, the Romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept", which is central to the discipline.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of natural history (expounded by authors such as Buffon) that occurred during the European colonization of the seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: There was a tendency in late eighteenth century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved according to certain principles and that could be observed empirically. In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Early anthropology was divided between proponents of unilinealism, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced, and various forms of non-lineal theorists, who tended to subscribe to ideas such as diffusionism. Most nineteenth-century social theorists, including anthropologists, viewed non-European societies as windows onto the pre-industrial human past.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Marxist anthropologist Eric Wolf once characterized anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the social sciences". Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Scholarly traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the Romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: These intellectual movements in part grappled with one of the greatest paradoxes of modernity: as the world is becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world is increasingly atomized and dispersed. As Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels observed in the 1840s:

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Ironically, this universal interdependence, rather than leading to greater human solidarity, has coincided with increasing racial, ethnic, religious, and class divisions, and new—and to some confusing or disturbing—cultural expressions. These are the conditions of life with which people today must contend, but they have their origins in processes that began in the 16th century and accelerated in the 19th century.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: As academic disciplines began to differentiate over the course of the nineteenth century, anthropology grew increasingly distinct from the biological approach of natural history, on the one hand, and from purely historical or literary fields such as Classics, on the other. A common criticism was that many social sciences (such as economists, sociologists, and psychologists) in Western countries focused disproportionately on Western subjects, while anthropology focused disproportionately on the "other".

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind". Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of cultural diffusionism, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race to another".

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: A decade and a half later, Polish anthropology student Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of fieldwork in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in New Guinea. As a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire resident on a British colonial possession, he was effectively confined to New Guinea for several years.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: He made use of the time by undertaking far more intensive fieldwork than had been done by "British" anthropologists, and his classic ethnography, "Argonauts of the Western Pacific" (1922) advocated an approach to fieldwork that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through participant observation. Theoretically, he advocated a functionalist interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: British social anthropology had an expansive moment in the Interwar period, with key contributions coming from the Polish-British Bronisław Malinowski and Meyer Fortes

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Max Gluckman, together with many of his colleagues at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and students at Manchester University, collectively known as the Manchester School, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of Christianity, the growth of cultural relativism, an awareness of the survival of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of diachronic modes of analysis with synchronic, all of which are central to modern culture."

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Anthropology has been used in Britain to provide an alternative explanation for the Financial crisis of 2007–2010 to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory. Dr. Gillian Tett, a Cambridge University trained anthropologist who went on to become a senior editor at the Financial Times is one of the leaders in this use of anthropology.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: True anthropology began with a Government department: the Geological Survey of Canada, and George Mercer Dawson (director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who established a Division of Anthropology within the Geological Survey in 1910.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Anthropologists were recruited from England and the USA, setting the foundation for the unique Canadian style of anthropology. Scholars include the linguist and Boasian Edward Sapir.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Most commentators consider Marcel Mauss (1872–1950), nephew of the influential sociologist Émile Durkheim, to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's "Année Sociologique" group. While Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as Henri Hubert and Robert Hertz) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies that were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: "Essay on the Gift," a seminal analysis of exchange and reciprocity, and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as surrealism and primitivism, which drew on ethnography for inspiration. Marcel Griaule and Michel Leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as "ethnologie" was restricted to museums, such as the Musée de l'Homme founded by Paul Rivet, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Cultural anthropology in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, men such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Franz Boas established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct "cultures," rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Though such works as "Coming of Age in Samoa" and "The Chrysanthemum and the Sword" remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by Ralph Linton, and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: In the successor states of continental Europe, on the other hand, anthropologists often joined with folklorists and linguists in building cultural perspectives on nationalism. Ethnologists in these countries tended to focus on differentiating among local ethnolinguistic groups, documenting local folk culture, and representing the prehistory of what has become a nation through various forms of public education (e.g., museums of several kinds).

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: In Greece, there was since the 19th century a science of the folklore called "laographia" (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside".

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: In Italy, the development of ethnology and related studies did not receive as much attention as other branches of learning, but nonetheless included important researchers and thinkers like Ernesto De Martino.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?


History of anthropology

Context: Some German and Austrian scholars have increased cultural anthropology as both legal anthropology regarding "other" societies and anthropology of Western civilization.

Question: 인류학이 가장 발전한 시대는 언제인가?