John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: Keely again informed the directors of his company in early November 1895 that "before the end of the year" he would "positively be all through with his work to prove conclusively that" he has devised "a practical commercial working engine" operated by his new force.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: On November 14, it was reported that another meeting had been arranged between Keely and Mrs Bloomfield Moore and New York capitalists headed by John Jacob Astor IV, who were interested in the Keely Motor Company. It was reported the following week that Astor had purchased a large interest in the motor from "a person who for some years past has been an enthusiastic advocate of M. Keely".

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: Also in November 1895, Mrs Moore invited Addison B. Burk, president of the Spring Garden Institute to make an inspection. Burk asked if electrical engineer E. Alexander Scott, of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, could accompany him, and this was agreed to. In the event, Scott took charge of the investigation as he was familiar with Keely and had talked to him in 1874.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: Since Lascelles Scott and Alexander Scott disagreed, they were brought together to witness more demonstrations by Keely. Mrs Moore suggested that a definitive test would be to cut the wire that Scott alleged was in fact an air pipe, but Keely flatly refused to do so and Mrs Moore, her faith shaken, reduced Keely's monthly salary.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: On June 18, 1897 Keely demonstrated his new etheric engine to the General Manager of the Manhattan Elevated Railway, the Chief Engineer of Western Union, and a representative of the Metropolitan Traction Company. All were reported as being surprised at the force produced by Keely's new motor, but declined to express any opinion as to its value. The engine was reported as weighing about and being capable of developing 10 hp.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: Keely died at his home in Philadelphia from pneumonia on November 18, 1898. His will was admitted to probate on December 1, and bequeathed his entire estate of about $10,000 to his widow, Anna M. Keely, who was appointed his executor. The will made no reference to his motor.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: On January 19, 1899, "The Philadelphia Press" published an illustrated article detailing an investigation made by the newspaper of Keely's workshop, in which the "Press" contended that the investigation had clearly proven Keely's motor to have been "a delusion and deception" and that its alleged mysterious forces were the result of trickery.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: The investigation, which took a week, was assisted by consulting engineer Professor Carl Hering, Assistant Professor of Physics at the University of Pennsylvania Professor Arthur W. Goodspeed, Professor of Experimental Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania Lightner Witmer, and Doctor M. G. Miller, who superintended digging operations. Electrical engineer Clarence B. Moore, the son of Mrs. Bloomfield Moore, was an observer. The scientists involved substantiated the report with signed statements.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: A model of Keely's engine was in the collection of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, and an "Etheric Force Machine" of his dating from 1878 is in the American Precision Museum in Windsor, Vermont.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


John Ernst Worrell Keely

Context: In 2005, Jeff and Rita Behary found the original glass plate negatives of the Keely Motor taken by Thomas Burton Kinraide in his Jamaica Plain home Ravenscroft. They show the contents of the Keely Motor and are the last known photos of the motor ever taken.

Question: Missä John Ernst Worrell Keely syntyi?


History of astronomy

Context: Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking the day, month and year), and were important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year, and for which the nearly full moon was the only lighting for night-time travel into city markets.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar. Although originally a lunar calendar, it broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the Moon and divided the year into twelve almost-equal months, that mostly alternated between thirty and thirty-one days. Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform in 46 BCE and introduced what is now called the Julian calendar, based upon the 365  day year length originally proposed by the 4th century BCE Greek astronomer Callippus.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout Europe. The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747–733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus "Aryabhatiya" (499), propounded a computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time. The Shunga period is known as the "Golden age of astronomy in India".

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: It saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Bhāskara II (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the "Siddhantasiromani" which consists of two parts: "Goladhyaya" (sphere) and "Grahaganita" (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the Sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive. Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy (see also: history of geodesy).

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The rising of Sirius (Egyptian: Sopdet, Greek: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites:

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a "horologium" (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a "palm" (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the Sun and Moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the Sun and Moon; and one concerns their risings.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The astronomy of East Asia began in China. Solar term was completed in Warring States period. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict eclipses.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar. Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The Maya believed that the Earth was the center of all things, and that the stars, moons, and planets were gods. They believed that their movements were the gods traveling between the Earth and other celestial destinations. Many key events in Maya culture were timed around celestial events, in the belief that certain gods would be present.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Natural philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics) was separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century, and Qushji in the 15th century.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages. Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: In the 7th century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, "On the Reckoning of Time", providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called the "computus". This text remained an important element of the education of clergy from the 7th century until well after the rise of the Universities in the 12th century.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Thus while Kepler explained how the planets moved, Newton accurately managed to explain why the planets moved the way they do. Newton's theoretical developments laid many of the foundations of modern physics.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Edmund Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in England and succeeded in predicting the return in 1758 of the comet that bears his name. Sir William Herschel found the first new planet, Uranus, to be observed in modern times in 1781. The gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter disclosed by the Titius–Bode law was filled by the discovery of the asteroids Ceres and Pallas in 1801 and 1802 with many more following.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: At first, astronomical thought in America was based on Aristotelian philosophy, but interest in the new astronomy began to appear in Almanacs as early as 1659.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Cosmic pluralism is the name given to the idea that the stars are distant suns, perhaps with their own planetary systems.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Ideas in this direction were expressed in antiquity, by Anaxagoras and by Aristarchus of Samos, but did not find mainstream acceptance. The first astronomer of the European Renaissance to suggest that the stars were distant suns was Giordano Bruno in his "De l'infinito universo et mondi" (1584). This idea was among the charges, albeit not in a prominent position, brought against him by the Inquisition.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The idea became mainstream in the later 17th century, especially following the publication of "Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds" by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle (1686), and by the early 18th century it was the default working assumptions in stellar astronomy.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby "fixed" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-Rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to the Sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: A veteran of the Harvard Computers, Annie J. Cannon developed the modern version of the stellar classification scheme in during the early 1900s (O B A F G K M, based on color and temperature), manually classifying more stars in a lifetime than anyone else (around 350,000).

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: In Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: At Princeton University, Henry Norris Russell plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, and found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship. This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 doctoral thesis. The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. The "Great Debate" between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, in the 1920s, concerned the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: The Sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of "the great debate", was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


History of astronomy

Context: Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements.

Question: Millä vuosikymmenellä tähtitiede on kehitetty?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The city is known for its natural landscape; author Anton Chekhov judged Krasnoyarsk to be the most beautiful city in Siberia. The Stolby Nature Sanctuary is located 10 km south of the city. Krasnoyarsk is a major educational centre in Siberia, and hosts the Siberian Federal University. In 2019, Krasnoyarsk was the host city of the 2019 Winter Universiade, the third hosted in Russia.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The river Yenisei flows from west to east through the city. Due to the Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric dam upstream, the Yenisei never freezes in winter and never exceeds in summer through the city. Near the city center, its elevation is above sea level. There are several islands in the river, the largest of which are Tatyshev and Otdyha Isles, used mainly for recreation.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The major rivers in and near Krasnoyarsk are the Yenisei, Mana, Bazaikha, and Kacha Rivers, the latter flowing throughout the historical center of the city. Due to the nature of the terrain, a few natural lakes exist in the vicinity of Krasnoyarsk.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The forests close to the city are mostly pine and birch; further afield, aspen becomes dominant in many areas. The moss-covered fir and Siberian pine replaces other wood in the mountains westward of the Karaulnaya River, in about to the west from the city, the forests to the south are mostly pine, fir and aspen.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: "...The town of trunks (log buildings) we have constructed and around the place of fort, we the servants of thee, our Lord, have embedded posts and fastened them with double bindings and the place of fort have strengthened mightily..."

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The fort was named Krasny Yar () after the Yarin (a dialect of Khakas) name of the place it was built, "Kyzyl Char" ('red steep-riverbank'), which was translated as Krasny Yar. The settlement was granted town status in 1690. An intensive growth of Krasnoyarsk began with the arrival of the Siberian Route (the road "M53" nowadays) in 1735 to 1741 which connected the nearby towns of Achinsk and Kansk with Krasnoyarsk and with the rest of Russia.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: In 1749, a meteorite with a mass of about was found south of Krasnoyarsk. It was excavated by Peter Simon Pallas in 1772 and transported to Krasnoyarsk and subsequently to Saint Petersburg. The Krasnoyarsk meteorite is important because it was the first pallasite ever studied and the first meteorite ever etched.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: In 1822 Krasnoyarsk became the administrative center of Yeniseysk Governorate. By the end of the 19th century, Krasnoyarsk had several manufacturing facilities and railroad workshops and an engine-house. Growth continued with the discovery of gold and the arrival of a railroad in 1895.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: In the Russian Empire, Krasnoyarsk was one of the places to which political exiles were banished. For example, eight Decembrists were deported from St. Petersburg to Krasnoyarsk after the failure of the revolt.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917, during the Russian Civil War, Siberia east of Omsk was controlled by white forces under Alexander Kolchak, who in December 1919 retreated east to Irkutsk and the Bolsheviks took control of the city. On a plateau 7 km outside of town was a prisoner of war camp with 13,000 German and Austrian troops. Elsa Brändström of the Swedish Red Cross spent almost a year there from July 1919 until May 1920.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: During the periods of centralized planning (Five Year Plans) numerous large plants and factories were constructed in Krasnoyarsk: Sibtyazhmash, the dock yard, the paper factory, the hydroelectric power station (now the fifth largest in the world and the second in Russia), and the river port.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: During Stalinist times, Krasnoyarsk was a major center of the gulag system. The most important labor camp was the Kraslag or "Krasnoyarsky ITL" (1938-c.1960) with the two units located in Kansk and Reshyoty. In the city of Krasnoyarsk itself, the Yeniseylag or "Yeniseysky ITL" labor camp was prominent as well during World War II (c. 1940–41).

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: During World War II, dozens of factories were evacuated from Ukraine and Western Russia to Krasnoyarsk and nearby towns, stimulating the industrial growth of the city. After the war additional large plants were constructed: the aluminum plant, the metallurgic plant, the plant of base metals and many others.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and beginning of privatization, many large plants and factories, such as the Krasnoyarsk Aluminum Plant, became owned by alleged criminal authorities and oligarchs, while others were declared bankrupt. The economic transition resulted in a dramatic rise in unemployment and numerous strikes.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The best known financial scandal of the second half of the 1990s happened when ownership of the Krasnoyarsk Aluminum Plant by a known Krasnoyarsk businessman Anatoliy Bykov had been canceled after he was accused of murdering his partner, Vilor Struganov. The accusation eventually turned out to be false. The Krasnoyarsk plant's ownership problems continue through the early 21st century since nearly all of them are owned either by monopolistic financial groups or by oligarchs.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Since the election of Pyotr Pimashkov as the mayor of Krasnoyarsk in 1996, the appearance of the city gradually improved: the old historical buildings were restored, the asphalt walkways were replaced with paving-stone, and numerous squares and recreation areas with fountains were either restored or constructed from scratch. Now the majority of the city keeps only a few traces of its former, drab, post-collapse look.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Krasnoyarsk is the administrative center of the krai. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with one rural locality (the village of Peschanka) incorporated as the "krai city of Krasnoyarsk"an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the krai city of Krasnoyarsk is incorporated as "Krasnoyarsk Urban Okrug".

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Krasnoyarsk experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb" borders on "Dfc"). Krasnoyarsk has high differentials between summer and winter temperatures.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The population of Krasnoyarsk includes a number of peoples, the most numerous are Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Germans, and Belarusians. Lately the number of Tajiks, Uzbeks and other Central Asian and Caucasian peoples has grown extensively because of the vast, often illegal immigration in search for work.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Another populous immigrant group is the Chinese who, unlike other foreign workers, are employed in much more lucrative areas and often form business partnerships with local companies. Many Chinese trade at the bazaars, and a special large Chinese bazaar named "Sodruzhestvo" (Russian for "fellowship"), and the "Chinese Trading Town" (known in Russian as Китайский торговый город) or colloquially "Kitai-gorod" on Strelka.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: There are a number of historical buildings in Krasnoyarsk, the oldest of them being the Intercession Cathedral (, 1785 to 1795, restored in 1977 to 1978). Other locally significant samples of Russian Orthodox architecture are the Annunciation Cathedral (, 1802–12), the Holy Trinity Cathedral (, 1802–12), John the Baptist Church (, 1899, former episcopal residence), and the new Michael the Archangel Church (, 1998 to 2003).

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: On the top of the Karaulnaya Hill, originally a pagan shrine, later occupied by the Krasnoyarsk fort watchtower, the Paraskeva Pyatnitsa Chapel (1804, rebuilt 1854–55) still stands. The chapel, displayed on the 10-ruble note, is one of the iconic images of the city. The chapel was abandoned and fell into disrepair during the Soviet era and only when Perestroyka came was it regained by the Yenisei bishopric.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Another unofficial symbol of Krasnoyarsk is the incomplete 24-story tower located at Strelka. Construction of the tower had been started just before Perestroyka and then frozen due to the administrative crisis. The outline of the tower is clearly seen from many places in the city.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: There are a number of two-story wooden houses in the city built mostly in the middle of the 20th century as temporary habitations. Many urbanized villages located inside the city keep the remnants of the traditional Russian village architecture: wooden houses with backyards, many somewhat dilapidated now but still inhabited.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Krasnoyarsk has a number of local television companies and the highly developed telecommunications, many districts of the city have LAN-based broadband Internet access.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The city is also home to the Krasnoyarsk Children's Choir, a world-renowned choir that tours in many countries as The Little Eagles of Siberia.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Next to Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk is a prominent scientific and educational center of Siberia, with over 30 higher education facilities, many of which are the branches of the Russian Academy of Science, and about 200 high schools. The most notable higher education institutes are:

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Like Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk has a special city district called Akademgorodok ("Academic Town"), where several scientific research institutes are located. Krasnoyarsk's Institute of Biophysics is known for a 1973–1985 experiment on ecological isolation of human beings (the "Bios Experiment"). Sukachev Institute of Forest, founded in 1944 at Moscow and relocated to Krasnoyarsk in 1959.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: There are several museums in Krasnoyarsk. One is the Krasnoyarsk Regional Museum, containing historical items and exhibits of the region, including ancient history, native Siberians, and woolly rhinos.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: An underground system (three lines) has been in planning and construction phases in Krasnoyarsk for decades. Subway construction was terminated in 2008.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Krasnoyarsk lies on the Yenisei River and historically has been an important junction on the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Krasnoyarsk-Passazhirsky (, lit. Krasnoyarsk-Passenger) is the main railway station of Krasnoyarsk. Long-range trains of the Trans-Siberian Railway stop at this station. There are some stations served by Elektrichka and there is Krasnoyarsk-East goods station 26.3 km east of Krasnoyarsk-Passazhirsky.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: The most popular place of attraction for tourists visiting Krasnoyarsk is the huge national nature reserve Stolby ("pillars"), which covers an area of with numerous giant granite rocks formations up to 100 meters high, many of very extraordinary shapes. Stolby is also a major rock climbing location. Many local climbers intentionally do not use any belaying equipment and call their extreme sport "stolbizm", known elsewhere as solo climbing.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Other popular showplaces include the Krasnoyarsk Hydroelectric Power Station dam, the Karaulnaya Gora hill with the Paraskeva Pyatnitsa Chapel, museums, theaters, etc.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Krasnoyarsk

Context: Krasnoyarsk is a center of Siberian sports. Areas, where Krasnoyarsk excels compared to other Russian cities, include rugby union, bandy, and freestyle wrestling.

Question: Missä osavaltiossa Krasnojarsk sijaitsee?


Medieval stone churches in Finland

Context: Medieval stone churches in Finland were built between the 13th and 16th century. The total number of churches was 104, of which 83 have been preserved. Numbers include the sacristies of uncompleted churches. Finnish medieval stone churches are mainly located in the western and southern parts of the country. They were usually fieldstone churches made of grey granite. Some are built of red granite and limestone while two churches are made of brick.

Question: Mihin Suomen ensimmäinen kirkko rakennettiin?


Medieval stone churches in Finland

Context: Christianity gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century. The oldest churches and chapels were built of wood, which remained the most common material until the late 19th century. The oldest preserved wooden churches in Finland date back to the 17th century. The oldest stone church is the St. Olaf's Church in Jomala, Åland. It was completed 1260–1280.

Question: Mihin Suomen ensimmäinen kirkko rakennettiin?


Medieval stone churches in Finland

Context: Dating the churches is difficult, since there are very few reliable sources. During the era of Finnish nationalism in the late 19th century, the stone churches were considered to be from the 12th or 13th century. They were later mainly dated back to the 14th century. In the 1990s, the Finnish archeologist Markus Hiekkanen claimed the churches were much younger, constructed between the 15th and early 16th century.

Question: Mihin Suomen ensimmäinen kirkko rakennettiin?


Medieval stone churches in Finland

Context: The inside walls and vaults were usually painted white and decorated with Fresco-secco mural paintings. They are the oldest examples of Finnish art. The paintings of 47 churches have been preserved. This artwork was often painted over during the Reformation era, but later uncovered. Some churches have notable paintings by foreign masters but others display a rather primitive form of art. Only a few stained glass windows are preserved.

Question: Mihin Suomen ensimmäinen kirkko rakennettiin?


Medieval stone churches in Finland

Context: Finnish stone churches have some 800 wooden sculptures including 130 crucifixes. They were mainly imported from Gotland or Northern Germany but some are the work of local Finnish masters. The pews were made of wood, as were the pulpits. During the winter, the churches were usually very cold since there was no heating. Some of the churches had burial vaults for the local nobility and other devout persons.

Question: Mihin Suomen ensimmäinen kirkko rakennettiin?


Whaling

Context: Early whaling affected the development of widely disparate cultures on different continents. The Basques were the first to catch whales commercially, and dominated the trade for five centuries, spreading to the far corners of the North Atlantic and even reaching the South Atlantic. The development of modern whaling techniques was spurred in the 19th century by the increase in demand for whale oil, sometimes known as "train oil", and in the 20th century by a demand for margarine and later whale meat.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: and pilot whales, which are some of the smallest species of whales. There are also smaller numbers killed of gray whales, sei whales, fin whales, bowhead whales, Bryde's whales, sperm whales and humpback whales.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Recent scientific surveys estimate a population of 103,000 minkes in the northeast Atlantic. With respect to the populations of Antarctic minke whales, as of January 2010, the IWC states that it is "unable to provide reliable estimates at the present time" and that a "major review is underway by the Scientific Committee."

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Whale is used little today and modern whaling is primarily done for food: for pets, fur farms, sled dogs and humans, and for making carvings of tusks, teeth and vertebrae. Both meat and blubber (muktuk) are eaten from narwhals, belugas and bowheads. From commercially hunted minkes, meat is eaten by humans or animals, and blubber is rendered down mostly to cheap industrial products such as animal feed or, in Iceland, as a fuel supplement for whaling ships.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The IWC voted on July 23, 1982, to establish a moratorium on commercial whaling of great whales beginning in the 1985–86 season. Since 1992, the IWC's Scientific Committee has requested that it be allowed to give quota proposals for some whale stocks, but this has so far been refused by the Plenary Committee.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Greenland's and Canada's catches of narwhals (data 1954–2014), belugas from multiple sources shown in the Beluga whale article, Indonesia's catches of sperm whales, and bycatch in Korea.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Key elements of the debate over whaling include sustainability, ownership, national sovereignty, cetacean intelligence, suffering during hunting, health risks, the value of 'lethal sampling' to establish catch quotas, the value of controlling whales' impact on fish stocks and the rapidly approaching extinction of a few whale species.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Whales are long-lived predators, so their tissues build up concentrations of methyl mercury from their prey. Mercury concentrations reach levels that are hazardous to humans who consume too much too often, since mercury also bioaccumulates in humans. High levels have been found in the Caribbean,

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The total annual kill in Beaufort and Quebec areas varies between 300 and 400 belugas per year. Numbers are not available for Nunavut since 2003, when the Arviat area, with about half Nunavut's hunters, killed 200–300 belugas, though the authors say hunters resist giving complete numbers.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The Whale and Dolphin Conservation says: "Canada has pursued a policy of marine mammal management which appears to be more to do with political expediency rather than conservation."

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Canada left the IWC in 1982, and the only IWC-regulated species currently harvested by the Canadian Inuit is the bowhead whale. As of 2004, the limit on bowhead whale hunting allows for the hunt of one whale every two years from the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin population, and one whale every 13 years from the Baffin Bay-Davis Strait population. This is roughly one-fiftieth of the bowhead whale harvest limits in Alaska (see below).

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The Faroe Islands are legally part of the Kingdom of Denmark, but are geographically isolated and culturally distinct. The hunt, known as the Grindadráp, is regulated by Faroese authorities but not by the IWC, which does not claim jurisdiction over small cetaceans.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Around 800 long-finned pilot whales ("Globicephala melaena") are caught each year, mainly during the summer. Other species are not hunted, though occasionally Atlantic white-sided dolphin can be found among the pilot whales.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Most Faroese consider the hunt an important part of their culture and history and arguments about the topic raise strong emotions. Animal-rights groups criticize the hunt as being cruel and unnecessary and economically insignificant. Hunters claim that most journalists lack knowledge of the catch methods used to capture and kill the whales.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: IWC sets limits for large whales. The government of Greenland sets limits for narwhals and belugas. There are no limits on pilot whales and porpoises.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: In 2021 the Sermersooq municipal council banned whaling in Nuup Kangerlua, one of the largest fjords in inhabited areas of Greenland. The council did not want hunting to kill the humpback whales seen by the local tourism industry. Before local humpback hunting resumed in 2010 there had been nine humpbacks in the fjord during summer. When hunting resumed some were killed and others left.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Sermersooq has not banned whaling elsewhere in the municipality, which is the world's largest municipality, at 200,000 square miles on both coasts.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The Inuit already caught whales around Greenland since the years 1200–1300. They mastered the art of whaling around the year 1000 in the Bering Strait. The technique consists of spearing a whale with a spear connected to an inflated seal bladder. The bladder would float and exhaust the whale when diving, and when it surfaces; the Inuit hunters would spear it again, further exhausting the animal until they were able to kill it.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: In the early 1950s, Germany maintained one whaling vessel for testing purpose as it considered re-establishing a German whaling fleet, but abandoned these plans in 1956. The last remaining German whalers worked for Dutch vessels in the 1950s and 1960s.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Iceland is one of a handful of countries that still maintain a whaling fleet. One company concentrates on hunting fin whales, largely for export to Japan, while the only other one hunts minke whales for domestic consumption, as the meat is popular with tourists. Iceland has its own whale watching sector, which exists in uneasy tension with the whaling industry.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Iceland did not object to the 1986 IWC moratorium. Between 1986 and 1989 around 60 animals per year were taken under a scientific permit. However, under strong pressure from anti-whaling countries, who viewed scientific whaling as a circumvention of the moratorium, Iceland ceased whaling in 1989. Following the IWC's 1991 refusal to accept its Scientific Committee's recommendation to allow sustainable commercial whaling, Iceland left the IWC in 1992.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Iceland resumed commercial whaling in 2006. Its annual quota was 30 minke whales (out of an estimated 174,000 animals in the central and north-eastern North Atlantic) and nine fin whales (out of an estimated 30,000 animals in the central and north-eastern North Atlantic). For the 2012 commercial whaling season, starting in April and lasting six months, the quota was set to 216 minke whales, of which 52 were caught.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Iceland did not hunt any whales in 2019 and it is reported that demand for whale meat decreased in that year.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Lamalera, on the south coast of the island of Lembata, and Lamakera on neighbouring Solor, are the two remaining Indonesian whaling communities. The hunters obey religious taboos that ensure that they use every part of the animal. About half of the catch is kept in the village; the rest is bartered in local markets.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The Lamalerans hunt for several species of whales but catching sperm whales are preferable, while other whales, such as baleen whales, are considered taboo to hunt. They caught five sperm whales in 1973; they averaged about 40 per year from the 1960s through the mid 1990s, 13 total from 2002 to 2006, 39 in 2007, an average of 20 per year 2008 through 2014, and caught 3 in 2015.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: In 2019, the Australian Marine Conservation Society and International Fund for Animal Welfare commissioned legal opinion, which concluded that Japan's commercial whaling program within its territorial waters breaks international convention and law and that Japan makes itself vulnerable to potential international legal action.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Currently, the indigenous Chukchi people in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in the Russian Far East are permitted under IWC regulation to take up to 140 gray whales from the North-East Pacific population each year. About 40 beluga whales are caught in the Sea of Okhotsk each year.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: There are no recent data on catches in the Arctic Ocean or Bering Sea, where about 60 belugas per year were caught in the early 1980s.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Their quota allows up to four humpback whales per year using only traditional hunting methods of hand-thrown harpoons in small, open sailboats. The limit is rarely met, with no catch some years.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: Its classification as aboriginal, and therefore permissible, is highly contested. In the 2012 meeting of the IWC, delegates from several anti-whaling countries, and environmental groups, spoke out against it, calling it "artisanal whaling out of control".

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The meat is sold commercially and 82% of Bequia residents consume it at least occasionally, though it is subject to high levels of methyl mercury.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The sale and purchase of whale meat is allowed if an official certificate is issued for bycatch, where whales die when they are caught in nets used to catch other fish. Bycatch of whales and dolphines reached 2,751 in 2012 and 1,849 in 2014. Ulsan Environmental Education Institute director Oh Yeong-ae argued "The policy of allowing sale of whales caught incidentally may be encouraging illegal whaling".

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: monitored by the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee. The annual catch ranges between 250 and 600 per year.

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Whaling

Context: The Makah tribe in Washington state also reinstated whaling in 1999, despite protests from animal rights groups. They are currently seeking to resume whaling of the gray whale, a right recognized in the Treaty of Neah Bay, within limits (Article 4 of the Treaty).

Question: Kuinka valasta pyydetään?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The FISA resulted from extensive investigations by Senate Committees into the legality of domestic intelligence activities. These investigations were led separately by Sam Ervin and Frank Church in 1978 as a response to President Richard Nixon’s usage of federal resources, including law enforcement agencies, to spy on political and activist groups. The law itself was crafted in large part in closed door meetings between legislators and members of the Justice Department.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The act was created to provide judicial and congressional oversight of the government's covert surveillance activities of foreign entities and individuals in the United States, while maintaining the secrecy needed to protect national security.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The Act came into public prominence in December 2005 following publication by "The New York Times" of an article that described a program of warrantless domestic wiretapping ordered by the Bush administration and carried out by the National Security Agency since 2002; a subsequent Bloomberg article suggested that this may have already begun by June 2000.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The code defines "foreign intelligence information" to mean information necessary to protect the United States against actual or potential grave attack, sabotage or international terrorism.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: "Foreign powers" means a foreign government, any faction of a foreign nation not substantially composed of U.S. persons, and any entity directed or controlled by a foreign government. The definition also includes groups engaged in international terrorism and foreign political organizations. The sections of FISA authorizing electronic surveillance and physical searches without a court order specifically exclude their application to groups engaged in international terrorism.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: A "U.S. person" includes citizens, lawfully admitted permanent resident aliens, and corporations incorporated in the United States.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: "Minimization procedures" limit the collection of information concerning United States persons by protecting their identities and requiring a court order to retain the communications for longer than 72 hours. The communications can be retained without court order if there is evidence of a crime. Identification of a US person, known as "unmasking", may also be authorized if an agency believes it is necessary in order to understand the intelligence or believes that the person was committing a crime.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The Attorney General is required to make a certification of these conditions under seal to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, and report on their compliance to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Under 50 U.S.C. § 1811, the President may also authorize warrantless surveillance at the beginning of a war. Specifically, he may authorize such surveillance "for a period not to exceed fifteen calendar days following a declaration of war by the Congress".

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Depending on the type of surveillance, approved orders or extensions of orders may be active for 90 days, 120 days, or a year. FISA warrants require renewal depending on the type of surveillance and type of warrant either every 90 days (if targeting a U.S. person) or 120 days (if targeting a non-U.S. person).

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Denials of FISA applications by the FISC may be appealed to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review. The Court of Review is a three judge panel. Since its creation, the court has come into session twice: in 2002 and 2008.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: In addition to electronic surveillance, FISA permits the "physical search" of the "premises, information, material, or property used exclusively by" a foreign power. The requirements and procedures are nearly identical to those for electronic surveillance.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Both the subchapters covering physical searches and electronic surveillance provide for criminal and civil liability for violations of FISA.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Criminal sanctions follows violations of electronic surveillance by "intentionally" engaging in electronic surveillance under the color of law or through disclosing information known to have been obtained through unauthorized surveillance. The penalties for either act are fines up to US$10,000, up to five years in jail, or both.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: A plurality opinion in "Zweibon v. Mitchell", 516 F.2d 594 (D.C. Cir. 1975), held that a warrant was required for the domestic surveillance of a domestic organization. In this case, the court found that the domestic organization was not a "foreign power or their agent", and "absent exigent circumstances, all warrantless electronic surveillance is unreasonable and therefore unconstitutional."

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: There have been very few cases involving the constitutionality of FISA. Two lower court decisions found FISA constitutional. In "United States v. Duggan", the defendants were members of the Irish Republican Army. 743 F.2d 59 (2d Cir. 1984). They were convicted for various violations regarding the shipment of explosives and firearms. The court held that there were compelling considerations of national security in the distinction between the treatment of U.S. citizens and non-resident aliens.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: In the "United States v. Nicholson", the defendant moved to suppress all evidence gathered under a FISA order. 955 F. Supp. 588 (E.D. Va. 1997). The court affirmed the denial of the motion. There the court flatly rejected claims that FISA violated Due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, Equal protection, Separation of powers, nor the Right to counsel provided by the Sixth Amendment.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: In a 2006 opinion, Judge Richard Posner wrote that FISA "retains value as a framework for monitoring the communications of known terrorists, but it is hopeless as a framework for detecting terrorists. [FISA] requires that surveillance be conducted pursuant to warrants based on probable cause to believe that the target of surveillance is a terrorist, when the desperate need is to find out who is a terrorist."

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The ACLU considers the FISA Act to be unconstitutional for several reasons including: the law was designed to mainly address terrorism threats, but in fact intercepts communications that have nothing to do with terrorism or criminal activity of any kind; and that "the government can create huge databases that contain information about U.S. persons obtained without warrants and then search these databases at a later point."

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The Act was amended in 2001 by the USA PATRIOT Act, primarily to include terrorism on behalf of groups that are not specifically backed by a foreign government.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: All three competing bills were the subject of Judiciary Committee hearings throughout the summer. On September 13, 2006, the Senate Judiciary Committee voted to approve all three mutually exclusive bills, thus, leaving it to the full Senate to resolve.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Under the Protect America Act of 2007, communications that begin or end in a foreign country may be wiretapped by the U.S. government without supervision by the FISA Court. The Act removes from the definition of "electronic surveillance" in FISA any surveillance directed at a person reasonably believed to be located outside the United States. As such, surveillance of these communications no longer requires a government application to, and order issuing from, the FISA Court.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The Act provides procedures for the government to "certify" the legality of an acquisition program, for the government to issue directives to providers to provide data or assistance under a particular program, and for the government and recipient of a directive to seek from the FISA Court, respectively, an order to compel provider compliance or relief from an unlawful directive. Providers receive costs and full immunity from civil suits for compliance with any directives issued pursuant to the Act.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: A summary of key provisions follows. The Act empowers the Attorney General or Director of National Intelligence ("DNI") to authorize, for up to one year, the acquisition of communications concerning "persons reasonably believed to be outside the United States" if the Attorney General and DNI determine that each of five criteria has been met:

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: This determination by the Attorney General and DNI must be certified in writing, under oath, and supported by appropriate affidavit(s). If immediate action by the government is required and time does not permit the preparation of a certification, the Attorney General or DNI can direct the acquisition orally, with a certification to follow within 72 hours. The certification is then filed with the FISA Court.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Once the certification is filed with the FISA Court, the Attorney General or DNI can direct a provider to undertake or assist in the undertaking of the acquisition.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: If a provider fails to comply with a directive issued by the Attorney General or DNI, the Attorney General may seek an order from the FISA Court compelling compliance with the directive. Failure to obey an order of the FISA Court may be punished as a contempt of court.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Likewise, a person receiving a directive may challenge the legality of that directive by filing a petition with the FISA Court. An initial review must be conducted within 48 hours of the filing to determine whether the petition is frivolous, and a final determination concerning any non-frivolous petitions must be made – in writing – within 72 hours of receipt of the petition.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: Determinations of the FISA Court may be appealed to the Foreign Intelligence Court of Appeals, and a petition for a writ of certiorari of a decision from the FICA can be made to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The Act allows providers to be compensated, at the prevailing rate, for providing assistance as directed by the Attorney General or DNI.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The Act provides explicit immunity from civil suit in any federal or state court for providing any information, facilities, or assistance in accordance with a directive under the Act.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: On a semiannual basis, the Attorney General shall inform the Intelligence and Judiciary Committees of the House and Senate of incidents of noncompliance with a directive issued by the Attorney General or the DNI, incidents of noncompliance with FISA Court-approved procedures by the Intelligence Community, and the number of certifications and directives issued during the reporting period.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The amendments to FISA made by the Act expire 180 days after enactment, except that any order in effect on the date of enactment remains in effect until the date of expiration of such order and such orders can be reauthorized by the FISA Court. The Act expired on February 17, 2008.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: In an article appearing in the January/February 2008 issue of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers journal of Security and Privacy, noted technology experts from academia and the computing industry found significant flaws in the technical implementation of the Protect America Act which they said created serious security risks, including the danger that such a surveillance system could be exploited by unauthorized users, criminally misused by trusted insiders, or abused by the government.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: On the same day, the House of Representatives voted 227–189 to approve a Democratic bill that would expand court oversight of government surveillance inside the United States while denying immunity to telecom companies. House Judiciary Committee chairman John Conyers left the door open to an immunity deal in the future, but said that the White House must first give Congress access to classified documents specifying what the companies did that requires legal immunity.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: In February 2008, the Senate passed the version of the new FISA that would allow telecom companies immunity. On March 13, 2008, the U.S. House of Representatives held a secret session to discuss related information. On March 14, the House voted 213–197 to approve a bill that would "not" grant telecom immunity – far short of the 2/3 majority required to override a Presidential veto. The Senate and House bills are compared and contrasted in a June 12, 2008 report from the Congressional Research Service.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: On March 13, 2008, the House of Representatives held a secret, closed door meeting to debate changes to the FISA bill.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The FISA Amendments Act of 2008 passed by the United States Congress on July 9, 2008. The amendments added a new Title VII to the Act, which was stated to expire at the end of 2012, but Congress extended the provisions to December 31, 2017.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: The 2008 amendments gave telecoms immunity, increased the time allotted for warrantless surveillance, and adds provisions for emergency eavesdropping. On June 20, 2008, the House of Representatives passed the amendment with a vote of 293 to 129. It passed in the Senate 69 to 28 on July 9, 2008 after a failed attempt to strike Title II from the bill by Senator Dodd. On July 10, 2008, President Bush signed it into law.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

Context: After months of congressional hearings and some public controversy, following a short-term extension of three weeks, Congress passed a six-year extension of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which was signed into law in January, 2018.

Question: Mikä on FISA:n koko nimi?


Nuremberg

Context: In 1298 the Jews of the town were falsely accused of having desecrated the host, and 698 of them were killed in one of the many Rintfleisch massacres. Behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague pandemic of the mid-14th century.

Question: Mikä on Baijerin toiseksi suurin kaupunki?


Nuremberg

Context: Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory. The Hussite Wars (1419–1434), a recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War (1449–1450) led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. Siding with Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria-Munich, in the Landshut War of Succession of 1503–1505 led the city to gain substantial territory, resulting in lands of , making it one of the largest Imperial cities.

Question: Mikä on Baijerin toiseksi suurin kaupunki?


Nuremberg

Context: Several old villages now belong to the city, for example Grossgründlach, Kraftshof, Thon, and Neunhof in the north-west; Ziegelstein in the northeast, Altenfurt and Fischbach in the south-east; and Katzwang, Kornburg in the south. Langwasser is a modern suburb.

Question: Mikä on Baijerin toiseksi suurin kaupunki?


Nuremberg

Context: Composed of prosperous artisans, the guilds of the Meistersingers flourished here. Richard Wagner made their most famous member, Hans Sachs, the hero of his opera "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg". Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel was born here and was organist of St. Sebaldus Church.

Question: Mikä on Baijerin toiseksi suurin kaupunki?


Nuremberg

Context: The city's location next to numerous highways, railways, and a waterway has contributed to its rising importance for trade with Eastern Europe.

Question: Mikä on Baijerin toiseksi suurin kaupunki?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: In May 1970, the Revolutionary Intellectuals Seminar was held to bring intellectuals in line with the revolution, while that year's Legislative Review and Amendment united secular and religious law codes, introducing "sharia" into the legal system.

Question: Minä vuonna Gaddafi ajettiin vallasta?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: Ruling by decree, the RCC maintained the monarchy's ban on political parties, in May 1970 banned trade unions, and in 1972 outlawed workers' strikes and suspended newspapers. In September 1971, Gaddafi resigned, claiming to be dissatisfied with the pace of reform, but returned to his position within a month. In February 1973, he resigned again, once more returning the following month.

Question: Minä vuonna Gaddafi ajettiin vallasta?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: Seeking vengeance for the killing, Gaddafi supporters severely wounded and tortured one of those who had captured Gaddafi, 22-year-old Omran Shaaban, near Bani Walid in September 2012. They tortured him for days, and he eventually died in France.

Question: Minä vuonna Gaddafi ajettiin vallasta?


Muammar Gaddafi

Context: He was preoccupied with his own security, regularly changing where he slept and sometimes grounding all other planes in Libya when he was flying. He made particular requests when travelling to foreign countries. During his trips to Rome, Paris, Madrid, Moscow, and New York City, he resided in a bulletproof tent, following his Bedouin traditions. Gaddafi was notably confrontational in his approach to foreign powers and generally shunned Western ambassadors and diplomats, believing them to be spies.

Question: Minä vuonna Gaddafi ajettiin vallasta?


Iroquois

Context: The St. Lawrence Iroquoians, Wendat (Huron), Erie, and Susquehannock, all independent peoples known to the European colonists, also spoke Iroquoian languages. They are considered Iroquoian in a larger cultural sense, all being descended from the Proto-Iroquoian people and language. Historically, however, they were competitors and enemies of the Iroquois League nations.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The name Iroquois is purely French, and is formed from the [Iroquoian-language] term "Hiro" or "Hero", which means "I have said"—with which these Indians close all their addresses, as the Latins did of old with their "dixi"—and of "Koué", which is a cry sometimes of sadness, when it is prolonged, and sometimes of joy, when it is pronounced shorter.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The "Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America" attests the origin of Iroquois to "Iroqu," Algonquian for "rattlesnake". The French encountered the Algonquian-speaking tribes first, and would have learned the Algonquian names for their Iroquois competitors.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee is believed to have been founded by the Great Peacemaker at an unknown date estimated between 1450 and 1660, bringing together five distinct nations in the southern Great Lakes area into "The Great League of Peace". Other research, however, suggests the founding occurred in 1142. Each nation within this Iroquoian confederacy had a distinct language, territory, and function in the League.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or "sachems", each representing a clan of a nation.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Other independent Iroquoian-speaking peoples, such as the Erie, Susquehannock, Huron (Wendat) and Wyandot, lived at various times along the St. Lawrence River, and around the Great Lakes. In the American Southeast, the Cherokee were an Iroquoian-language people who had migrated to that area centuries before European contact. None of these were part of the Haudenosaunee League. Those on the borders of Haudenosaunee territory in the Great Lakes region competed and warred with the nations of the League.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: French, Dutch and English colonists, both in New France (Canada) and what became the Thirteen Colonies, recognized a need to gain favor with the Iroquois people, who occupied a significant portion of lands west of the colonial settlements. Their first relations were for fur trading, which became highly lucrative for both sides. The colonists also sought to establish friendly relations to secure their settlement borders.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: After the migration of a majority to Canada, the Iroquois remaining in New York were required to live mostly on reservations. In 1784, a total of 6,000 Iroquois faced 240,000 New Yorkers, with land-hungry New Englanders poised to migrate west. "Oneidas alone, who were only 600 strong, owned six million acres, or about 2.4 million hectares. Iroquoia was a land rush waiting to happen." By the War of 1812, the Iroquois had lost control of considerable territory.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Previous research, containing the discovery of Iroquois tools and artefacts, suggests that the origin of the Iroquois was in Montreal, Canada, near the St. Lawrence River, where they were part of another group known as the Algonquin people. After an unsuccessful rebellion, they were driven out of Quebec to New York.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Knowledge of Iroquois history stem from Haudenosaunee oral tradition, archaeological evidence, accounts from Jesuit missionaries, and subsequent European historians. Historian Scott Stevens credits the early modern European value of written sources over oral tradition as contributing to a racialized, prejudiced perspective about the Iroquois through the 19th century. The historiography of the Iroquois peoples is a topic of much debate, especially regarding the American colonial period.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho was the last converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha. He was offered the position as the titular chair of the League's Council, representing the unity of all nations of the League. This is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near present-day Syracuse, New York. The title "Tadodaho" is still used for the League's chair, the fiftieth chief who sits with the Onondaga in council.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The League's council of fifty ruled on disputes and sought consensus. However, the confederacy did not speak for all five tribes, which continued to act independently and form their own war bands. Around 1678, the council began to exert more power in negotiations with the colonial governments of Pennsylvania and New York, and the Iroquois became very adroit at diplomacy, playing off the French against the British as individual tribes had earlier played the Swedes, Dutch, and English.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Iroquois became well known in the southern colonies in the 17th century by this time. After the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th-century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the "Massawomeck", and to the French as the "Antouhonoron". They were said to come from the north, beyond the Susquehannock territory. Historians have often identified the "Massawomeck / Antouhonoron" as the Haudenosaunee.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: At that time the Iroquois numbered about 10,000, insufficient to offset the European population of 75,000 by 1660, 150,000 by 1680 and 250,000 by 1700. Michael O. Varhola has argued their success in conquering and subduing surrounding nations had paradoxically weakened a Native response to European growth, thereby becoming victims of their own success.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Five Nations of the League established a trading relationship with the Dutch at Fort Orange (modern Albany, New York), trading furs for European goods, an economic relationship that profoundly changed their way of life and led to much over-hunting of beavers.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Between 1665 and 1670, the Iroquois established seven villages on the northern shores of Lake Ontario in present-day Ontario, collectively known as the "Iroquois du Nord" villages. The villages were all abandoned by 1701.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Over the years 1670–1710, the Five Nations achieved political dominance of much of Virginia west of the Fall Line and extending to the Ohio River valley in present-day West Virginia and Kentucky. As a result of the Beaver Wars, they pushed Siouan-speaking tribes out and reserved the territory as a hunting ground by right of conquest. They finally sold to British colonists their remaining claim to the lands south of the Ohio in 1768 at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Recent scholarship has elaborated on this view, arguing that the Beaver Wars were an escalation of the Iroquoian tradition of "Mourning Wars". This view suggests that the Iroquois launched large-scale attacks against neighboring tribes to avenge or replace the many dead from battles and smallpox epidemics.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: From 1658 to 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Susquehannock and their Lenape and Province of Maryland allies. In 1663, a large Iroquois invasion force was defeated at the Susquehannock main fort. In 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Sokoki tribe of the upper Connecticut River. Smallpox struck again, and through the effects of disease, famine, and war, the Iroquois were under threat of extinction. In 1664, an Oneida party struck at allies of the Susquehannock on Chesapeake Bay.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Around 1670, the Iroquois drove the Siouan-speaking Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region, and began to claim ownership of the territory. In 1672, they were defeated by a war party of Susquehannock, and the Iroquois appealed to the French Governor Frontenac for support:

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Some old histories state that the Iroquois defeated the Susquehannock but this is undocumented and doubtful. In 1677, the Iroquois adopted the majority of the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock into their nation.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: In January 1676, the Governor of New York colony, Edmund Andros, sent a letter to the chiefs of the Iroquois asking for their help in King Philip's War, as the English colonists in New England were having much difficulty fighting the Wampanoag led by Metacom. In exchange for precious guns from the English, an Iroquois war party devastated the Wampanoag in February 1676, destroying villages and food stores while taking many prisoners.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: In 1684, the Iroquois again invaded Virginia and Illinois territory and unsuccessfully attacked French outposts in the latter. Trying to reduce warfare in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, later that year the Virginia Colony agreed in a conference at Albany to recognize the Iroquois' right to use the North-South path, known as the Great Warpath, running east of the Blue Ridge, provided they did not intrude on the English settlements east of the Fall Line.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: They finally exhausted and defeated Denonville and his forces. His tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac for the next nine years (1689–1698). Frontenac had arranged a new strategy to weaken the Iroquois. As an act of conciliation, he located the 13 surviving sachems of the 50 originally taken and returned with them to New France in October 1689. In 1690, Frontenac destroyed Schenectady, Kanienkeh and in 1693 burned down three other Mohawk villages and took 300 prisoners.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: In the early 18th century, the Tuscarora gradually migrated northwards towards Pennsylvania and New York after a bloody conflict with white settlers in North and South Carolina. Due to shared linguistic and cultural similarities, the Tuscarora gradually aligned with the Iroquois and entered the confederacy as the sixth Indian nation in 1722 after being sponsored by the Oneida.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: During the French and Indian War (the North American theater of the Seven Years' War), the League Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquian allies, who were traditional enemies. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Few Iroquois warriors joined the campaign. By contrast, the Canadian Iroquois supported the French.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: After the war, to protect their alliance, the British government issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, forbidding white settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains. American colonists largely ignored the order, and the British had insufficient soldiers to enforce it.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: On August 13, 1946 the "Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946", Pub. L. No. 79-726, ch. 959, was passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five-year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the five-year deadline in August 1951.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Beginning in 1978, the Brothertown Indians submitted a petition to regain federal recognition. In 2012 the Department of the Interior, in the final determination on the Brothertown petition, found that Congress had terminated their tribal status when it granted them citizenship in 1838 and therefore only Congress could restore their tribal status. They are still seeking Congressional approval.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: One of the central features of traditional Iroquois life were the "mourning wars", when their warriors would raid neighboring peoples in search of captives to replace those Haudenosaunee who had died. War for the Haudenosaunee was primarily undertaken for captives. They were not concerned with such goals as expansion of territory or glory in battle, as were the Europeans. But they did go to war to control hunting grounds, especially as the fur trade became more lucrative.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Death in battle was accepted only when absolutely necessary, and the Iroquois believed the souls of those who died in battle were destined to spend eternity as angry ghosts haunting the world in search of vengeance. For this reason, those who died in battle were never buried in community cemeteries, as it would bring the presence of unhappy ghosts into the community.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Despite taking thousands of captives, the Five Nations populations continued to fall, as diseases continued to take their toll. French Jesuits, whom the Haudenosaunee were forced to accept after making peace with the French in 1667, encouraged Catholic converts to move to mission villages in the St. Lawrence river valley near Montreal and Quebec. In the 1640s, the Mohawk could field about 800 warriors. By the 1670s, they could field only 300 warriors, indicating population decline.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Iroquois League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through captives taken in "mourning wars", the blood feuds and vendettas that were an essential aspect of Iroquois culture. As a way of expediting the mourning process, raids were conducted to take vengeance and seize captives. Captives were generally adopted directly by the grieving family to replace the member(s) who had been lost.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: This process not only allowed the Iroquois to maintain their own numbers, but also to disperse and assimilate their enemies. The adoption of conquered peoples, especially during the period of the Beaver Wars (1609–1701), meant that the Iroquois League was composed largely of naturalized members of other tribes. Cadwallader Colden wrote,

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: "It has been a constant maxim with the Five Nations, to save children and young men of the people they conquer, to adopt them into their own Nation, and to educate them as their own children, without distinction; These young people soon forget their own country and nation and by this policy the Five Nations make up the losses which their nation suffers by the people they lose in war."

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: By 1668, two-thirds of the Oneida village were assimilated Algonquian and Huron. At Onondaga there were Native Americans of seven different nations, and among the Seneca eleven. They also adopted European captives, as did the Catholic Mohawk in settlements outside Montreal. This tradition of adoption and assimilation was common to native people of the Northeast.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Within the villages the inhabitants lived in longhouses. Longhouses varied in size from 15 to 150 feet long and 15 to 25 feet in breadth. Longhouses were usually built of layers of elm bark on a frame of rafters and standing logs raised upright. In 1653, Dutch official and landowner Adriaen van der Donck described a Mohawk longhouse in his "Description of New Netherland".

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Usually, between 2 and 20 families lived in a single longhouse with sleeping platforms being 2 feet above the ground and food left to dry on the rafters. A castle might contain twenty or thirty longhouses. In addition to the castles the Iroquois also had smaller settlements which might be occupied seasonally by smaller groups, for example for fishing or hunting. Living in the smoke-filled longhouses often caused conjunctivitis.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Total population for the five nations has been estimated at 20,000 before 1634. After 1635 the population dropped to around 6,800, chiefly due to the epidemic of smallpox introduced by contact with European settlers. The Iroquois lived in extended families divided clans headed by clan mothers that grouped into "moieities" ("halves"). The typical clan consisted of about 50 to 200 people. The division of the Iroquois went as follows:

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: "Moiety" (B) clan: Turtle. Government was by the 50 "sachems" representing the various clans who were chosen by the clan mothers. Assisting the "sachems" were the "Pinetree Chiefs" who served as diplomats and the "War Chiefs" who led the war parties; neither the "Pinetree Chiefs" or the "War Chiefs" were allowed to vote at council meetings.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: By the late 1700s The Iroquois were building smaller log cabins resembling those of the colonists, but retaining some native features, such as bark roofs with smoke holes and a central fireplace. The main woods used by the Iroquois to make their utensils were oak, birch, hickory and elm. Bones and antlers were used to make hunting and fishing equipment.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Using these ingredients they prepared meals of boiled corn bread and cornmeal sweetened with maple syrup, known today as Indian pudding. Cornmeal was also used to make samp, a type of porridge with beans and dried meat. Reports from early American settlers mention Iroquois extracting corn syrup that was used as a sweetener for cornmeal dumplings.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: On their feet the Iroquois wore moccasins, "true to nature in its adjustment to the foot, beautiful in its materials and finish, and durable as an article of apparel."

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: By the 1900s most Iroquois were wearing the same clothing as their non-Iroquois neighbors. Today most nations only wear their traditional clothing to ceremonies or special events.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Men wore a cap with a single long feather rotating in a socket called a "gustoweh". Later, feathers in the gustoweh denote the wearer's tribe by their number and positioning. The Mohawk wear three upright feathers, the Oneida two upright and one down. The Onondaga wear one feather pointing upward and another pointing down. The Cayuga have a single feather at a forty-five degree angle. The Seneca wear a single feather pointing up, and the Tuscarora have no distinguishing feathers.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Historically women have held the dwellings, horses and farmed land, and a woman's property before marriage has stayed in her possession without being mixed with that of her husband. The work of a woman's hands is hers to do with as she sees fit.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Historically, at marriage, a young couple lived in the longhouse of the wife's family (matrilocality). A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise unsatisfactory husband is able to ask him to leave the dwelling and take his possessions with him.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Dreams play a significant role in Iroquois spirituality, providing information about a person's desires and prompting individuals to fulfill dreams. To communicate upward, humans can send prayers to spirits by burning tobacco.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Condolence ceremonies are conducted by the Iroquois for both ordinary and important people, but most notably when sachems died. Such ceremonies were still held on Iroquois reservations as late as the 1970s. After death, the soul is thought to embark on a journey, undergo a series of ordeals, and arrive in the sky world. This journey is thought to take one year, during which the Iroquois mourn for the dead. After the mourning period, a feast is held to celebrate the soul's arrival in the skyworld.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: "Keepers of the faith" are part-time specialists who conduct religious ceremonies. Both men and women can be appointed as keepers of the faith by tribe elders.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Haudenosaunee thanksgiving address is a central prayer in Haudenosaunee tradition recited daily in the beginning of school days as well as social, cultural, and political events. The address gives thanks to the parts of nature necessary to ecosystem sustainability and emphasizes the ideology that all animals within an ecosystem are connected and each plays a vital role in it.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The address serves as a pledge of gratitude as well as a “scientific inventory of the natural world.” By describing living and non-living elements of the ecosystem and their functions, uses and benefits, the pledge instills early concepts of traditional ecological knowledge within grade school children and onward.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Iroquois traditionally celebrate six major festivals throughout the year. These usually combine a spiritual component and ceremony, a feast, a chance to celebrate together, sports, entertainment and dancing. These celebrations have historically been oriented to the seasons and celebrated based on the cycle of nature rather than fixed calendar dates.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: For instance, the Mid-winter festival, ("The supreme belief") ushers in the new year. This festival is traditionally held for one week around the end of January to early February, depending on when the new moon occurs that year.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The game sometimes took quite a while to play, depending on the starting number of beans, and games lasting more than a day were common.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The First Nations Lacrosse Association is recognized by the Federation of International Lacrosse as a sovereign state for international lacrosse competitions. It is the only sport in which the Iroquois field national teams and the only indigenous people's organization sanctioned for international competition by any world sporting governing body.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The missionaries Johannes Megapolensis, François-Joseph Bressani, and the fur trader Pierre-Esprit Radisson present first-hand accounts of cannibalism among the Mohawk. A common theme is ritualistic roasting and eating the heart of a captive who has been tortured and killed. "To eat your enemy is to perform an extreme form of physical dominance."

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Iroquois have absorbed many other individuals from various peoples into their tribes as a result of adopting war captives and giving refuge to displaced peoples. When such adoptees become fully assimilated, they are considered full members of their adoptive families, clans, and tribes. Historically, such adoptees have married into the tribes, and some have become chiefs or respected elders.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Unanimity in public acts was essential to the Council. In 1855, Minnie Myrtle observed that no Iroquois treaty was binding unless it was ratified by 75% of the male voters and 75% of the mothers of the nation. In revising Council laws and customs, a consent of two-thirds of the mothers was required. The need for a double supermajority to make major changes made the Confederacy a "de facto" consensus government.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The women traditionally held real power, particularly the power to veto treaties or declarations of war. The members of the Grand Council of Sachems were chosen by the mothers of each clan. If any leader failed to comply with the wishes of the women of his tribe and the Great Law of Peace, the mother of his clan could demote him, a process called "knocking off the horns". The deer antlers, an emblem of leadership, were removed from his headgear, thus returning him to private life.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Councils of the mothers of each tribe were held separately from the men's councils. The women used men as runners to send word of their decisions to concerned parties, or a woman could appear at the men's council as an orator, presenting the view of the women. Women often took the initiative in suggesting legislation.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The term "wampum" refers to beads made from purple and white mollusk shells on threads of elm bark. Species used to make wampum include the highly prized quahog clam ("Mercenaria mercenaria") which produces the famous purple colored beads. For white colored beads the shells from the channeled whelk ("Busycotypus canaliculatus"), knobbed whelk ("Busycon carica"), lightning whelk ("Sinistrofulgur perversum"), and snow whelk ("Sinistrofulgur laeostomum") are used.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Haudenosaunee flag created in the 1980s is based on the Hiawatha Belt ... created from purple and white wampum beads centuries ago to symbolize the union forged when the former enemies buried their weapons under the Great Tree of Peace." It represents the original five nations that were united by the Peacemaker and Hiawatha. The tree symbol in the center represents an Eastern White Pine, the needles of which are clustered in groups of five.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of government influenced the development of the United States's government, although the extent and nature of this influence has been disputed. Bruce Johansen proposes that the Iroquois had a representative form of government.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The anthropologist Dean Snow has stated that although Franklin's Albany Plan may have drawn inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from that source. He argues that "... such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception."

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Grand Council of the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on Germany in 1917 during World War I and again in 1942 in World War II.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Haudenosaunee government has issued passports since 1923, when Haudenosaunee authorities issued a passport to Cayuga statesman Deskaheh (Levi General) to travel to the League of Nations headquarters.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: More recently, passports have been issued since 1997. Before 2001 these were accepted by various nations for international travel, but with increased security concerns across the world since the September 11 attacks, this is no longer the case.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: In 2010, the Iroquois Nationals lacrosse team was allowed by the U.S. to travel on their own passports to the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in England only after the personal intervention of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. However, the British government refused to recognize the Iroquois passports and denied the team members entry into the United Kingdom.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?


Iroquois

Context: The Onondaga Nation spent $1.5 million on a subsequent upgrade to the passports designed to meet 21st-century international security requirements.

Question: Montako kansakuntaa irokeesiliitossa on?