Atmosphere of Earth

Context: This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between . It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the earth are present.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about to the mesopause at above sea level.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around .

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about .

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about , although this altitude varies from about at the geographic poles to at the Equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is isothermal with height.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1.2 kg per m3) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of .

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every or by a factor of 1/e (0.368) every , (this is called the scale height) -- for altitudes out to around . However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: commercial airliners typically cruise between where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy; weather balloons reach and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached .

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm3). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 kg."

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are and H2O.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth's surface.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: "Atmospheric circulation" is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. A major part of carbon-dioxide emissions dissolved in water and reacted with metals such as calcium and magnesium during weathering of crustal rocks to form carbonates that were deposited as sediments. Water-related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". The influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of early life-forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox".

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2.15 and 2.08 billion years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances.

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Atmosphere of Earth

Context: Since 1750, human activity has increased the concentrations various greenhouse gases, most importantly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. This increase has caused an observed rise in global temperatures. Global average surface temperatures were higher in the 2011-2020 decade than they were in 1850.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


Atmosphere of Earth

Context: On October 19, 2015, NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth at https://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.

Question: كم يبلغ عدد طبقات الارض؟


American frontier

Context: The archetypical Old West period is generally accepted by historians to have occurred between the end of the American Civil War in 1865 until the closing of the Frontier by the Census Bureau in 1890.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Enormous popular attention was focused on the Western United States (especially the Southwest) in the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, from the 1850s to the 1910s. Such media typically exaggerated the romance, anarchy, and chaotic violence of the period for greater dramatic effect. This inspired the Western genre of film, along with television shows, novels, comic books, video games, children's toys and costumes.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took a firm hold in the imaginations of Americans and foreigners alike. In David Murdoch's view, America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image: "No other nation has taken a time and place from its past and produced a construct of the imagination equal to America's creation of the West."

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Areas in the north that were in the frontier stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities, so the opportunity for commercial agriculture was low. These areas remained primarily in subsistence agriculture, and as a result, by the 1760s these societies were highly egalitarian, as explained by historian Jackson Turner Main:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The nation was at peace after 1783. The states gave Congress control of the western lands and an effective system for population expansion was developed. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abolished slavery in the area north of the Ohio River and promised statehood when a territory reached a threshold population, as Ohio did in 1803.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The first major movement west of the Appalachian mountains originated in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina as soon as the Revolutionary War ended in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant game.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In a few years, the pioneer added hogs, sheep, and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or a hundred miles (80 or 160 km) further west.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: After winning the Revolutionary War (1783), American settlers in large numbers poured into the west. In 1788, American pioneers to the Northwest Territory established Marietta, Ohio, as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: To end the war, American diplomats negotiated the Treaty of Ghent, signed towards the end of 1814, with Britain. They rejected the British plan to set up a Native state in U.S. territory south of the Great Lakes. They explained the American policy toward the acquisition of Native lands:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: As settlers poured in, the frontier districts first became territories, with an elected legislature and a governor appointed by the president. Then when the population reached 100,000 the territory applied for statehood. Frontiersmen typically dropped the legalistic formalities and restrictive franchise favored by eastern upper classes and adopting more democracy and more egalitarianism.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In 1810 the western frontier had reached the Mississippi River. St. Louis, Missouri, was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for Mississippi River traffic and inland commerce but remained under Spanish control until 1803.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The army early on assumed the mission of protecting settlers along with the Westward Expansion Trails, a policy that was described by Secretary of War John B. Floyd in 1857:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: A line of posts running parallel without frontier, but near to the Indians' usual habitations, placed at convenient distances and suitable positions, and occupied by infantry, would exercise a salutary restraint upon the tribes, who would feel that any foray by their warriors upon the white settlements would meet with prompt retaliation upon their own homes.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: There was a debate at the time about the best size for the forts with Jefferson Davis, Winfield Scott, and Thomas Jesup supporting forts that were larger but fewer in number than Floyd. Floyd's plan was more expensive but had the support of settlers and the general public who preferred that the military remain as close as possible. The frontier area was vast and even Davis conceded that "concentration would have exposed portions of the frontier to Native hostilities without any protection."

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In 1811, naturalists Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) and John Bradbury (1768–1823) traveled up the Missouri River documenting and drawing plant and animal life. Artist George Catlin (1796–1872) painted accurate paintings of Native American culture. Swiss artist Karl Bodmer made compelling landscapes and portraits. John James Audubon (1785–1851) is famous for classifying and painting in minute details 500 species of birds, published in "Birds of America".

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: While colleges were springing up across the Northeast, there was little competition on the western frontier for Transylvania University, founded in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1780. It boasted of a law school in addition to its undergraduate and medical programs. Transylvania attracted politically ambitious young men from across the Southwest, including 50 who became United States senators, 101 representatives, 36 governors, and 34 ambassadors, as well as Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The local Baptists set up small independent churches—Baptists abjured centralized authority; each local church was founded on the principle of independence of the local congregation. On the other hand, bishops of the well-organized, centralized Methodists assigned circuit riders to specific areas for several years at a time, then moved them to fresh territory. Several new denominations were formed, of which the largest was the Disciples of Christ.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Historian Mark Wyman calls Wisconsin a "palimpsest" of layer upon layer of peoples and forces, each imprinting permanent influences. He identified these layers as multiple "frontiers" over three centuries: Native American frontier, French frontier, English frontier, fur-trade frontier, mining frontier, and the logging frontier. Finally, the coming of the railroad brought the end of the frontier.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: From the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Historian Louis Hacker shows how wasteful the first generation of pioneers was; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker describes that in Kentucky about 1812:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Hacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced more sustainable agriculture. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner explored the individualistic worldview and values of the first generation:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Helping settlers move westward were the emigrant "guide books" of the 1840s featuring route information supplied by the fur traders and the Frémont expeditions, and promising fertile farmland beyond the Rockies.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Mexico refused to recognize the independence of Texas in 1836, but the U.S. and European powers did so. Mexico threatened war if Texas joined the U.S., which it did in 1845. American negotiators were turned away by a Mexican government in turmoil. When the Mexican army killed 16 American soldiers in disputed territory war was at hand. Whigs, such as Congressman Abraham Lincoln denounced the war, but it was quite popular outside New England.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The new state grew rapidly as migrants poured into the fertile cotton lands of east Texas. German immigrants started to arrive in the early 1840s because of negative economic, social and political pressures in Germany. With their investments in cotton lands and slaves, planters established cotton plantations in the eastern districts. The central area of the state was developed more by subsistence farmers who seldom owned slaves.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Texas in its Wild West days attracted men who could shoot straight and possessed the zest for adventure, "for masculine renown, patriotic service, martial glory, and meaningful deaths".

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In 1846 about 10,000 Californios (Hispanics) lived in California, primarily on cattle ranches in what is now the Los Angeles area. A few hundred foreigners were scattered in the northern districts, including some Americans. With the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846 the U.S. sent in Frémont and a U.S. Army unit, as well as naval forces, and quickly took control. As the war was ending, gold was discovered in the north, and the word soon spread worldwide.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Thousands of "Forty-Niners" reached California, by sailing around South America (or taking a short-cut through disease-ridden Panama), or walked the California trail. The population soared to over 200,000 in 1852, mostly in the gold districts that stretched into the mountains east of San Francisco.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The discovery of the Comstock Lode, containing vast amounts of silver, resulted in the Nevada boomtowns of Virginia City, Carson City, and Silver City. The wealth from silver, more than from gold, fueled the maturation of San Francisco in the 1860s and helped the rise of some of its wealthiest families, such as that of George Hearst.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: William Russell, hoping to get a government contract for more rapid mail delivery service, started the Pony Express in 1860, cutting delivery time to ten days. He set up over 150 stations about apart.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Despite its large territory, the trans-Mississippi West had a small population and its wartime story has to a large extent been underplayed in the historiography of the American Civil War.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The Confederacy engaged in several important campaigns in the West. However, Kansas, a major area of conflict building up to the war, was the scene of only one battle, at Mine Creek. But its proximity to Confederate lines enabled pro-Confederate guerrillas, such as Quantrill's Raiders, to attack Union strongholds and massacre the residents.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Missouri, a Union state where slavery was legal, became a battleground when the pro-secession governor, against the vote of the legislature, led troops to the federal arsenal at St. Louis; he was aided by Confederate forces from Arkansas and Louisiana. However, Union General Samuel Curtis regained St. Louis and all of Missouri for the Union. The state was the scene of numerous raids and guerrilla warfare in the west.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The U.S. Army after 1850 established a series of military posts across the frontier, designed to stop warfare among Native tribes or between Natives and settlers. Throughout the 19th century, Army officers typically built their careers in peacekeeper roles moving from fort to fort until retirement. Actual combat experience was uncommon for any one soldier.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The decreased presence of Union troops in the West left behind untrained militias; hostile tribes used the opportunity to attack settlers. The militia struck back hard, most notably by attacking the winter quarters of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes, filled with women and children, at the Sand Creek massacre in eastern Colorado in late 1864.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Kit Carson and the U.S. Army in 1864 trapped the entire Navajo tribe in New Mexico, where they had been raiding settlers and put them on a reservation. Within the Indian Territory, now Oklahoma, conflicts arose among the Five Civilized Tribes, most of which sided with the South being slaveholders themselves.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In 1862, Congress enacted two major laws to facilitate settlement of the West: the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railroad Act. The result by 1890 was millions of new farms in the Plains states, many operated by new immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: With the war over and slavery abolished, the federal government focused on improving the governance of the territories. It subdivided several territories, preparing them for statehood, following the precedents set by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. It standardized procedures and the supervision of territorial governments, taking away some local powers, and imposing much "red tape", growing the federal bureaucracy significantly.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Federal involvement in the territories was considerable. In addition to direct subsidies, the federal government maintained military posts, provided safety from Native attacks, bankrolled treaty obligations, conducted surveys and land sales, built roads, staffed land offices, made harbor improvements, and subsidized overland mail delivery. Territorial citizens came to both decry federal power and local corruption, and at the same time, lament that more federal dollars were not sent their way.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Territorial governors were political appointees and beholden to Washington so they usually governed with a light hand, allowing the legislatures to deal with the local issues. In addition to his role as civil governor, a territorial governor was also a militia commander, a local superintendent of Native affairs, and the state liaison with federal agencies. The legislatures, on the other hand, spoke for the local citizens and they were given considerable leeway by the federal government to make local law.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In 1862, Congress passed three important bills that transformed the land system. The Homestead Act granted free to each settler who improved the land for five years; citizens and non-citizens including squatters and women were all eligible. The only cost was a modest filing fee. The law was especially important in the settling of the Plains states. Many took a free homestead and others purchased their land from railroads at low rates.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The Morrill Act of 1862 provided land grants to states to begin colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts (engineering). Black colleges became eligible for these land grants in 1890. The Act succeeded in its goals to open new universities and make farming more scientific and profitable.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Indian wars have occurred throughout the United States though the conflicts are generally separated into two categories; the Indian wars east of the Mississippi River and the Indian wars west of the Mississippi. The U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894) provided an estimate of deaths:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: After the Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. According to Robert M. Utley:

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Westerners were proud of their leadership in the movement for democracy and equality, a major theme for Frederick Jackson Turner. The new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Ohio were more democratic than the parent states back East in terms of politics and society. The Western states were the first to give women the right to vote. By 1900 the West, especially California and Oregon, led the Progressive movement.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Scholars have examined the social history of the west in search of the American character. The history of Kansas, argued historian Carl L. Becker a century ago, reflects American ideals. He wrote: "The Kansas spirit is the American spirit double distilled. It is a new grafted product of American individualism, American idealism, American intolerance. Kansas is America in microcosm."

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: European immigrants often built communities of similar religious and ethnic backgrounds. For example, many Finns went to Minnesota and Michigan, Swedes and Norwegians to Minnesota and the Dakotas, Irish to railroad centers along the transcontinental lines, Volga Germans to North Dakota, and German Jews to Portland, Oregon.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: African Americans moved West as soldiers, as well as cowboys, farmhands, saloon workers, cooks, and outlaws. The Buffalo Soldiers were soldiers in the all-black 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments, and 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments of the U.S. Army. They had white officers and served in numerous western forts.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: About 4,000 black people came to California in Gold Rush days. In 1879, after the end of Reconstruction in the South, several thousand Freedmen moved from Southern states to Kansas. Known as the Exodusters, they were lured by the prospect of good, cheap Homestead Law land and better treatment. The all-black town of Nicodemus, Kansas, which was founded in 1877, was an organized settlement that predates the Exodusters but is often associated with them.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: By 1920, Japanese American farmers produced US$67 million worth of crops, more than ten percent of California's total crop value. There were 111,000 Japanese Americans in the U.S., of which 82,000 were immigrants and 29,000 were U.S. born. Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1924 effectively ending all Japanese immigration to the U.S. The U.S.-born children of the Issei were citizens, in accordance to the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, in reality, rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as barn raisings, corn huskings, quilting bees, Grange meetings, church activities, and school functions. The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Feuds involving families and bloodlines also occurred much in the frontier. Since private agencies and vigilance committees were the substitute for proper courts, many families initially depended on themselves and their communities for their security and justice. These wars include the Lincoln County War, Tutt–Everett War, Flynn–Doran feud, Early–Hasley feud, Brooks-Baxter War, Sutton–Taylor feud, Horrell Brothers feud, Brooks–McFarland Feud, Reese–Townsend feud and the Earp Vendetta Ride.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: On a much smaller scale, sheep grazing was locally popular; sheep were easier to feed and needed less water. However, Americans did not eat mutton. As farmers moved in open range cattle ranching came to an end and was replaced by barbed wire spreads where water, breeding, feeding, and grazing could be controlled. This led to "fence wars" which erupted over disputes about water rights.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The concern with the protection of the environment became a new issue in the late 19th century, pitting different interests. On the one side were the lumber and coal companies who called for maximum exploitation of natural resources to maximize jobs, economic growth, and their own profit.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Following the 1890 U.S. Census, the superintendent announced that there was no longer a clear line of advancing settlement, and hence no longer a contiguous frontier in the continental United States. When examining the later 1900 U.S. Census results though, the contiguous frontier line does remain. But by the 1910 U.S. Census, only pockets of the frontier remain without a clear westward line, allowing travel across the continent without ever crossing a frontier line.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The Mexican Revolution also lead to significant conflict reaching across the US-Mexico border which was still mostly within frontier territory, known as the Mexican Border War (1910-1919). Flashpoints included the Battle of Columbus (1916) and the Punitive Expedition (1916–17). The Bandit War (1915-1919) involved attacks targeted against Texan settlers. Also, a few minor fights involving Natives happened as late as the Bluff War (1914–1915) and the Posey War (1923).

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Alaska was not admitted as a state until 1959. The ethos and storyline of the "American frontier" had passed.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The women of the Wild West were treated very poorly. Women were seen as the helpers for the children, so most of the occupations that were available to them involved handling children. One of these jobs was a teacher, which requires tertiary education. Women were allowed to attend universities to study teaching. Some women also worked in predominantly male positions; there were cowgirls, female business owners, female gunslingers and female bounty hunters.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Women had less lawful protection compared to men. They also were not allowed in saloons, and their husbands were able to control almost every corner of their lives.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The soldiers were very helpful; but most people do not even know about the existence of Wild Western soldiers. They built shelter, helped the emigrants, and guarded government and private property. They were usually peaceful, but a force to be reckoned with. They had access to most rifles in the country. There were not a lot of soldiers, because the Civil War was devastating the amount of soldiers, going from an army of 54,000 men, down to only 25,000 men.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The railroaders were responsible for the construction of railroads. Most of the railroad workers were Irish immigrants who needed a job. They were obligated to work; they were living off a dollar a day, but their job is what kept them fed.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: A logger was a labor-intensive occupation. The job was a fairly common occupation to have in this era, similarly to miners and railroad workers, many people pursued these careers, but was ultimately very dangerous. Loggers were paid more than both miners and railroaders combined, making $3.20 every day.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: To cut down trees, lumberjacks had many tools to help them in the process. To cut down trees, they would send multiple loggers depending on the size of the tree. From there, they would use double-sided axes to chop the base of the tree. After the tree collapsed, if the tree was too big to chop with the double-sided axes, they would use a gigantic saw called a crosscut. These saws could be over 12 feet in length.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: And for transportation, they would either float the logs down a river (a profession known as log driving), or use a high-wheel loader to lift the massive logs that were strapped together using rope. Another rope was tied to oxen, then the oxen would pull the logs to wherever they needed to be.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Indigenous peoples lived in North America before the arrival of European settlers. Norse explorer Leif Erikson is thought to have been the first European to set foot on continental North America and encountered Indigenous American in 1001CE.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The settlers of the Wild West era were even harsher to the Native Americans than past generations. The Native population declined during this period from epidemics, violence, and war. Some historians have described their treatment as genocide.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The chiefs were the leaders of the Native American tribes, the chieftains were responsible for emboldening the other tribe members, and the creation of welfare programs for everyone. However, the formation of the first Indian reservations significantly reduced the power of chieftains, as they were now having to work with lifelong enemies in order to survive.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: In 1848, When America won the Mexican–American War, America gained 7 new territories: California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado, Nevada and Utah. This was the biggest cause of the Wild West era. When lots of people relocated to the underdeveloped Badlands; a pure culture was developed within Western America. Also, the Mexican State of Sonora's culture was acculturated to the Wild West.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: On June 13, 1898, the Yukon Territory act made the Yukon Territory its own territory. Trails to its capital, Dawson City; which gave prospectors access to Gold mines. causing the Klondike Gold Rush. The Klondike Trail was a dangerous place; many wild animals attacked the Alpinists, and contagious diseases spread throughout the trail. In total, over 1,000 died on the trail from various causes.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Religious themes have inspired many environmentalists as they contemplate the pristine West before the frontiersmen violated its spirituality. Actually, as a historian William Cronon has demonstrated, the concept of "wilderness" was highly negative and the antithesis of religiosity before the romantic movement of the 19th century.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The Frontier Thesis of historian Frederick Jackson Turner, proclaimed in 1893, established the main lines of historiography which fashioned scholarship for three or four generations and appeared in the textbooks used by practically all American students.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Buffalo Bill Cody was the most effective popularizer of the Old West in the U.S. and Europe. He presented the first "Wild West" show in 1883, featuring a recreation of famous battles (especially Custer's Last Stand), expert marksmanship, and dramatic demonstrations of horsemanship by cowboys and Natives, as well as sure-shooting Annie Oakley.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The cowboy has for over a century been an iconic American image both in the country and abroad; recognized worldwide and revered by Americans.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: The most famous popularizers of the image included part-time cowboy and "Rough Rider" President Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), a Republican who made "cowboy" internationally synonymous with the brash aggressive American He was followed by trick roper Will Rogers (1879–1935), the leading humorist of the 1920s.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Roosevelt had conceptualized the herder (cowboy) as a stage of civilization distinct from the sedentary farmer—a theme well expressed in the 1944 Hollywood hit "Oklahoma!" that highlights the enduring conflict between cowboys and farmers. Roosevelt argued that the manhood typified by the cowboy—and outdoor activity and sports generally—was essential if American men were to avoid the softness and rot produced by an easy life in the city.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Will Rogers, the son of a Cherokee judge in Oklahoma, started with rope tricks and fancy riding, but by 1919 discovered his audiences were even more enchanted with his wit in his representation of the wisdom of the common man.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: However, by 2005, Aron argues, the two sides had "reached an equilibrium in their rhetorical arguments and critiques".

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


American frontier

Context: Since the 1960s an active center is the history department at the University of New Mexico, along with the University of New Mexico Press. Leading historians there include Gerald D. Nash, Donald C. Cutter, Richard N. Ellis, Richard Etulain, Margaret Connell-Szasz, Paul Hutton, Virginia Scharff, and Samuel Truett. The department has collaborated with other departments and emphasizes Southwestern regionalism, minorities in the Southwest, and historiography.

Question: لماذا سمي الغرب الأمريكي القديم بالغرب المتوحش ؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens described himself as an anti-theist, who saw all religions as false, harmful and authoritarian. He argued for free expression and scientific discovery, and asserted that they were superior to religion as an ethical code of conduct for human civilisation. He also advocated separation of church and state. The dictum "What can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence" has become known as Hitchens's razor.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Born and educated in England, Hitchens worked as a journalist with the New Statesman magazine in London in the 1970s after leaving Oxford. In the early 1980s he emigrated to America and wrote for "The Nation" and "Vanity Fair." A heavy smoker and drinker since his teenage years, Hitchens died from complications related to esophageal cancer in December 2011.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens was bisexual during his younger days, and joked that as he aged, his appearance "declined to the point where only women would go to bed with [him]." He said he had sexual relations with two male students at Oxford who would later become Tory ministers during the prime ministership of Margaret Thatcher, although he would not reveal their names publicly.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Early in his career Hitchens began working as a correspondent for the magazine "International Socialism", published by the International Socialists, the forerunners of today's British Socialist Workers Party. This group was broadly Trotskyist, but differed from more orthodox Trotskyist groups in its refusal to defend communist states as "workers' states". Their slogan was "Neither Washington nor Moscow but International Socialism".

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In 1971, after spending a year travelling the United States on a scholarship, Hitchens went to work at the "Times Higher Education Supplement" where he served as a social science correspondent. Hitchens was fired after six months in the job. Next he was a researcher for ITV's "Weekend World".

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens went to the United States in 1981 as part of an editor exchange programme between the "New Statesman" and "The Nation". After joining "The Nation", he penned vociferous critiques of Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and American foreign policy in South and Central America.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens became a contributing editor of "Vanity Fair" in 1992, writing ten columns a year. He left "The Nation" in 2002 after profoundly disagreeing with other contributors over the Iraq War.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: There is speculation that Hitchens was the inspiration for Tom Wolfe's character Peter Fallow in the 1987 novel "The Bonfire of the Vanities", but others—including Hitchens—believe it to be "Spy Magazine"s "Ironman Nightlife Decathlete", Anthony Haden-Guest. In 1987, Hitchens's father died from cancer of the oesophagus, the same disease that would later claim his own life. In April 2007, Hitchens became a US citizen; he later stated that he saw himself as Anglo-American.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: He became a media fellow at the Hoover Institution in September 2008. At "Slate", he usually wrote under the news-and-politics column "Fighting Words".

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In 2007, Hitchens's work for "Vanity Fair" won the National Magazine Award in the category "Columns and Commentary".

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: During a three-hour "In Depth" interview on Book TV, he named authors who influenced his views, including Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, Evelyn Waugh, Kingsley Amis, P. G. Wodehouse and Conor Cruise O'Brien. When asked what the difference between an autobiography and a memoir was, he replied “Look, everyone has a book inside of them ... which is exactly where I think it should, in most cases, remain”.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Christopher's only sibling was the journalist and author Peter Hitchens, who is two years younger. Christopher said in 2005 the main difference between the two is belief in the existence of God. Peter became a member of the International Socialists (forerunners of the modern Socialist Workers' Party) from 1968 to 1975 (beginning at age 17) after Christopher introduced him to them.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: The brothers fell out after Peter wrote a 2001 article in "The Spectator" which allegedly characterised Christopher as a Stalinist. After the birth of Peter's third child, the brothers were reconciled. Peter's review of "God Is Not Great" led to a public argument between the brothers but no renewed estrangement.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In 2007, the brothers appeared as panellists on BBC TV's "Question Time", where they clashed on a number of issues. In 2008, in the US, they debated the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the existence of God. In 2010 at the Pew Forum, the pair debated the nature of God in civilisation. At the memorial service held for Christopher in New York, Peter read a passage from St Paul's Epistle to the Philippians which Christopher himself had read at their father's funeral.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In terms of abortion, Hitchens agreed that an unborn child was a human life. However he opposed overturning Roe v. Wade instead he hoped that science would create new ways to handle unwanted pregnancies. He supported same-sex marriage.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens wrote book-length biographical essays on Thomas Jefferson ('), Thomas Paine (') and George Orwell ("Why Orwell Matters").

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens was raised nominally Christian and attended Christian boarding schools, but from an early age he declined to participate in communal prayers. Later in life, Hitchens discovered that he was of Jewish descent on his mother's side and that his Jewish ancestors were immigrants from Eastern Europe (including Poland). Hitchens was married twice, first to Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, in 1981; the couple had a son Alexander and a daughter Sophia.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In 1991, Hitchens married his second wife, Carol Blue, an American screenwriter, in a ceremony held at the apartment of Victor Navasky, editor of "The Nation." They had a daughter together, Antonia. Hitchens considered reading, writing and public speaking not as a job or career but as "what I am, who I am, [and] what I love."

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In November 1973, Hitchens's mother committed suicide in Athens in a pact with her lover, a defrocked clergyman named Timothy Bryan. The pair overdosed on sleeping pills in adjoining hotel rooms and Bryan slashed his wrists in the bathtub. Hitchens flew alone to Athens to recover his mother's body, initially under the impression that she had been murdered.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In 2007, after living in the US for 25 years, he became an American citizen (while retaining his UK citizenship).

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: On June 8, 2010, Hitchens was on tour in New York promoting his memoirs "Hitch-22" when he was taken into emergency care suffering from a severe pericardial effusion. Soon after, he announced he was postponing his tour to undergo treatment for oesophageal cancer.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: According to Christopher Buckley, before Hitchens died, his estranged friend Sidney Blumenthal wrote to Hitchens. Buckley said the letter contained words of "tenderness and comfort and implicit forgiveness."

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Hitchens died of pneumonia on 15 December 2011 in the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, aged 62. In accordance with his wishes, his body was donated to medical research. "Mortality", a collection of seven of Hitchens's "Vanity Fair" essays about his illness, was published posthumously in September 2012.

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Former British prime minister Tony Blair said, "Christopher Hitchens was a complete one-off, an amazing mixture of writer, journalist, polemicist and unique character. He was fearless in the pursuit of truth and any cause in which he believed. And there was no belief he held that he did not advocate with passion, commitment and brilliance. He was an extraordinary, compelling and colourful human being whom it was a privilege to know."

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: Richard Dawkins said of Hitchens, "He was a polymath, a wit, immensely knowledgeable, and a valiant fighter against all tyrants, including imaginary supernatural ones." Dawkins later described Hitchens as "probably the best orator I've ever heard", and called his death "an enormous loss".

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Christopher Hitchens

Context: In 2015, an annual prize of $50,000 was established in his honour by The Dennis and Victoria Ross Foundation for "an author or journalist whose work reflects a commitment to free expression and inquiry, a range and depth of intellect, and a willingness to pursue the truth without regard to personal or professional consequence".

Question: متى عاش المؤلف كريستوفر إيريك هيتشنز؟


Helicopter

Context: A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of STOL (Short TakeOff and Landing) or STOVL (Short TakeOff and Vertical Landing) aircraft cannot perform without runway.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by one or more horizontally-spinning rotors. By contrast the autogyro (or gyroplane) and gyrodyne have a free-spinning rotor for all or part of the flight envelope, relying on a separate thrust system to propel the craft forwards, so that the airflow sets the rotor spinning to provide lift. The compound helicopter also has a separate thrust system, but continues to supply power to the rotor throughout normal flight.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: The rotor system, or more simply "rotor", is the rotating part of a helicopter that generates lift. A rotor system may be mounted horizontally, as main rotors are, providing lift vertically, or it may be mounted vertically, such as a tail rotor, to provide horizontal thrust to counteract torque from the main rotors. The rotor consists of a mast, hub and rotor blades.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upwards from the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the rotor blades are attached and move relative to the hub. There are three basic types: hingeless, fully articulated, and teetering; although some modern rotor systems use a combination of these.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: Most helicopters have a single main rotor, but torque created by its aerodynamic drag must be countered by an opposed torque. The design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300 was a smaller tail rotor. The tail rotor pushes or pulls against the tail to counter the torque effect, and this has become the most common configuration for helicopter design, usually at the end of a "tail boom".

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: Some helicopters use other anti-torque controls instead of the tail rotor, such as the ducted fan (called "Fenestron" or "FANTAIL") and NOTAR. NOTAR provides anti-torque similar to the way a wing develops lift through the use of the Coandă effect on the tail boom.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: The use of two or more horizontal rotors turning in opposite directions is another configuration used to counteract the effects of torque on the aircraft without relying on an anti-torque tail rotor. This allows the power normally required to be diverted for the tail rotor to be applied fully to the main rotors, increasing the aircraft's power efficiency and lifting capacity. There are several common configurations that use the counter-rotating effect to benefit the rotorcraft:

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: Special jet engines developed to drive the rotor from the rotor tips are referred to as tip jets. Tip jets powered by a remote compressor are referred to as cold tip jets, while those powered by combustion exhaust are referred to as hot tip jets. An example of a cold jet helicopter is the Sud-Ouest Djinn, and an example of the hot tip jet helicopter is the YH-32 Hornet.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: Some radio-controlled helicopters and smaller, helicopter-type unmanned aerial vehicles, use electric motors or motorcycle engines. Radio-controlled helicopters may also have piston engines that use fuels other than gasoline, such as nitromethane. Some turbine engines commonly used in helicopters can also use biodiesel instead of jet fuel.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: A helicopter has four flight control inputs. These are the cyclic, the collective, the anti-torque pedals, and the throttle. The cyclic control is usually located between the pilot's legs and is commonly called the "cyclic stick" or just "cyclic". On most helicopters, the cyclic is similar to a joystick. However, the Robinson R22 and Robinson R44 have a unique teetering bar cyclic control system and a few helicopters have a cyclic control that descends into the cockpit from overhead.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: The control is called the cyclic because it changes cyclic pitch of the main blades. The result is to tilt the rotor disk in a particular direction, resulting in the helicopter moving in that direction. If the pilot pushes the cyclic forward, the rotor disk tilts forward, and the rotor produces a thrust in the forward direction. If the pilot pushes the cyclic to the side, the rotor disk tilts to that side and produces thrust in that direction, causing the helicopter to hover sideways.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: The collective pitch control or "collective" is located on the left side of the pilot's seat with a settable friction control to prevent inadvertent movement. The collective changes the pitch angle of all the main rotor blades collectively (i.e. all at the same time) and independently of their position. Therefore, if a collective input is made, all the blades change equally, and the result is the helicopter increasing or decreasing in altitude.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: A swashplate controls the collective and cyclic pitch of the main blades. The swashplate moves up and down, along the main shaft, to change the pitch of both blades. This causes the helicopter to push air downward or upward, depending on the angle of attack. The swashplate can also change its angle to move the blades angle forwards or backwards, or left and right, to make the helicopter move in those directions.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: A compound helicopter has an additional system for thrust and, typically, small stub fixed wings. This offloads the rotor in cruise, which allows its rotation to be slowed down, thus increasing the maximum speed of the aircraft. The Lockheed AH-56A Cheyenne diverted up to 90% of its engine power to a pusher propeller during forward flight.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: There are three basic flight conditions for a helicopter: hover, forward flight and the transition between the two.

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Helicopter

Context: As a helicopter moves from hover to forward flight it enters a state called translational lift which provides extra lift without increasing power. This state, most typically, occurs when the airspeed reaches approximately , and may be necessary for a helicopter to obtain flight.

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Helicopter

Context: The largest single non-combat helicopter operation in history was the disaster management operation following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Hundreds of pilots were involved in airdrop and observation missions, making dozens of sorties a day for several months.

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Helicopter

Context: Police departments and other law enforcement agencies use helicopters to pursue suspects. Since helicopters can achieve a unique aerial view, they are often used in conjunction with police on the ground to report on suspects' locations and movements. They are often mounted with lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night pursuits.

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Helicopter

Context: Oil companies charter helicopters to move workers and parts quickly to remote drilling sites located at sea or in remote locations. The speed advantage over boats makes the high operating cost of helicopters cost-effective in ensuring that oil platforms continue to operate. Various companies specialize in this type of operation.

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Helicopter

Context: NASA is developing the Mars Helicopter, a helicopter to be launched to survey Mars (along with a rover) in 2020. Given that the Martian atmosphere is 100 times thinner than that of Earth's, its two blades will spin at close to 3,000 revolutions a minute, approximately 10 times faster than that of a terrestrial helicopter.

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Helicopter

Context: In electronic news-gathering, helicopters have provided aerial views of some major news stories, and have been doing so, from the late 1960s. Helicopters have also been used in films, both in front and behind the camera.

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Helicopter

Context: In 2017, 926 civil helicopters were shipped for $3.68 Billion, led by Airbus Helicopters with $1.87 Billion for 369 rotorcraft, Leonardo Helicopters with $806 Million for 102 (first three-quarters only), Bell Helicopter with $696 Million for 132, then Robinson Helicopter with $161 Million for 305.

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Helicopter

Context: By October 2018, the in-service and stored helicopter fleet of 38,570 with civil or government operators was led Robinson Helicopter with 24.7% followed by Airbus Helicopters with 24.4%, then Bell with 20.5 and Leonardo with 8.4%, Russian Helicopters with 7.7%, Sikorsky Aircraft with 7.2%, MD Helicopters with 3.4% and other with 2.2%.

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Helicopter

Context: The most widespread model is the piston Robinson R44 with 5,600, then the H125/AS350 with 3,600 units, followed by the Bell 206 with 3,400.

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Helicopter

Context: Most were in North America with 34.3% then in Europe with 28.0% followed by Asia-Pacific with 18.6%, Latin America with 11.6%, Africa with 5.3% and Middle East with 1.7%.

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Helicopter

Context: The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys (or Chinese top). This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book "Baopuzi" by Ge Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft.

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Helicopter

Context: Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in some Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy.

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Helicopter

Context: It was not until the early 1480s, when Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight.

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Helicopter

Context: The Danish inventor Jacob Ellehammer built the Ellehammer helicopter in 1912. It consisted of a frame equipped with two counter-rotating discs, each of which was fitted with six vanes around its circumference. After indoor tests, the aircraft was demonstrated outdoors and made several free take-offs. Experiments with the helicopter continued until September 1916, when it tipped over during take-off, destroying its rotors.

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Helicopter

Context: During World War I, Austria-Hungary developed the PKZ, an experimental helicopter prototype, with two aircraft built.

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Helicopter

Context: In March 1923 Time Magazine reported Thomas Edison sent Dr. George de Bothezaat a congratulations for a successful helicopter test flight. Edison wrote, "So far as I know, you have produced the first successful helicopter." The helicopter was tested at McCook's Field and remained airborne for 2 minutes and 45 seconds at a height of 15 feet.

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Helicopter

Context: On 14 April 1924, Frenchman Étienne Oehmichen set the first helicopter world record recognized by the "Fédération Aéronautique Internationale" (FAI), flying his quadrotor helicopter . On 18April 1924, Pescara beat Oemichen's record, flying for a distance of (nearly ) in 4 minutes and 11 seconds (about ), maintaining a height of . On 4May, Oehmichen completed the first closed-circuit helicopter flight in 7 minutes 40 seconds with his No. 2 machine.

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Helicopter

Context: In the US, George de Bothezat built the quadrotor helicopter de Bothezat helicopter for the United States Army Air Service but the Army cancelled the program in 1924, and the aircraft was scrapped.

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Helicopter

Context: In 1927, Engelbert Zaschka from Germany built a helicopter, equipped with two rotors, in which a gyroscope was used to increase stability and serves as an energy accumulator for a gliding flight to make a landing. Zaschka's plane, the first helicopter, which ever worked so successfully in miniature, not only rises and descends vertically, but is able to remain stationary at any height.

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Helicopter

Context: In 1928, Hungarian aviation engineer Oszkár Asbóth constructed a helicopter prototype that took off and landed at least 182 times, with a maximum single flight duration of 53 minutes.

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Helicopter

Context: During World War II, Nazi Germany used helicopters in small numbers for observation, transport, and medical evacuation. The Flettner Fl 282 "Kolibri" synchropter—using the same basic configuration as Anton Flettner's own pioneering Fl 265—was used in the Mediterranean, while the Focke Achgelis Fa 223 "Drache" twin-rotor helicopter was used in Europe. Extensive bombing by the Allied forces prevented Germany from producing any helicopters in large quantities during the war.

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Helicopter

Context: During the closing years of the 20th century designers began working on helicopter noise reduction. Urban communities have often expressed great dislike of noisy aviation or noisy aircraft, and police and passenger helicopters can be unpopular because of the sound. The redesigns followed the closure of some city heliports and government action to constrain flight paths in national parks and other places of natural beauty.

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Helicopter

Context: For a standard helicopter with a single main rotor, the tips of the main rotor blades produce a vortex ring in the air, which is a spiraling and circularly rotating airflow. As the craft moves forward, these vortices trail off behind the craft.

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Helicopter

Context: When hovering with a forward diagonal crosswind, or moving in a forward diagonal direction, the spinning vortices trailing off the main rotor blades will align with the rotation of the tail rotor and cause an instability in flight control.

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Helicopter

Context: When the trailing vortices colliding with the tail rotor are rotating in the same direction, this causes a loss of thrust from the tail rotor. When the trailing vortices rotate in the opposite direction of the tail rotor, thrust is increased. Use of the foot pedals is required to adjust the tail rotor's angle of attack, to compensate for these instabilities.

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Helicopter

Context: These issues are due to the exposed tail rotor cutting through open air around rear of the vehicle. This issue disappears when the tail is instead ducted, using an internal impeller enclosed in the tail and a jet of high pressure air sideways out of the tail, as the main rotor vortices can not impact the operation of an internal impeller.

Question: من قام بأول رحلة على متن الهليكوبتر؟


Helicopter

Context: For a standard helicopter with a single main rotor, maintaining steady flight with a crosswind presents an additional flight control problem, where strong crosswinds from certain angles will increase or decrease lift from the main rotors. This effect is also triggered in a no-wind condition when moving the craft diagonally in various directions, depending on the direction of main rotor rotation.

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Helicopter

Context: This can lead to a loss of control and a crash or hard landing when operating at low altitudes, due to the sudden unexpected loss of lift, and insufficient time and distance available to recover.

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Helicopter

Context: As with any moving vehicle, unsafe operation could result in loss of control, structural damage, or loss of life. The following is a list of some of the potential hazards for helicopters:

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History of Hungary

Context: Hungary in its modern (post-1946) borders roughly corresponds to the Great Hungarian Plain (the Pannonian Basin).

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History of Hungary

Context: During the Iron Age, it was located at the crossroads between the cultural spheres of the Celtic Tribes (such as the Scordisci, Boii and Veneti), Dalmatian Tribes (such as the Dalmatae, Histri and Liburni) and the Germanic Tribes (such as the Lugii and Marcomanni).

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History of Hungary

Context: The name "Pannonian" comes from Pannonia, a province of the Roman Empire. Only the western part of the territory (the so-called Transdanubia) of modern Hungary formed part of the ancient Roman Province of Pannonia. The Roman control collapsed with the Hunnic invasions of 370–410 and Pannonia was part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom during the late 5th to mid 6th century, succeeded by the Avar Khaganate (6th to 9th centuries) civil. The Magyar invasion took place during the 9th century.

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History of Hungary

Context: The Magyars were Christianized at the end of the 10th century, and the Christian Kingdom of Hungary was established in AD 1000, ruled by the Árpád dynasty for the following three centuries.

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History of Hungary

Context: In the high medieval period, the kingdom expanded beyond Pannonia, to the Adriatic coast. In 1241 during the reign of Béla IV, Hungary was invaded by the Mongols under Batu Khan. The outnumbered Hungarians were decisively defeated at the Battle of Mohi by the Mongol army. King Béla fled to the Holy Roman Empire and left the Hungarian population at the mercy of the Mongols. In this invasion more than 500,000 Hungarian people were massacred and the whole kingdom reduced to ashes.

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History of Hungary

Context: Defense against Ottoman expansion shifted to Habsburg Austria, and the remainder of the Hungarian kingdom came under the rule of the Habsburg emperors.

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History of Hungary

Context: Middle Paleolithic presence of "Homo heidelbergensis" is evidenced by the discovery of the "Samu" fossil, dated to c. 300,000 years ago, with traces of habitation as old as 500,000 years ago. Presence of anatomically modern humans dates to c. 33,000 years ago (Aurignacian). Neolithization began with the Starčevo–Kőrös–Criș culture, c. 6000 BC. The Bronze Age began with the Vučedol culture (Makó culture), c. 3000 BC.

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History of Hungary

Context: An armed conflict between Bulgaria and the nomadic Hungarians forced the latter to depart from the Pontic steppes and began the conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895.

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History of Hungary

Context: The Magyars (Hungarians) had destroyed Great Moravia and firmly established themselves in the Pannonian Basin by 907.

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History of Hungary

Context: The name "Hungary" derives from the designation Οὔγγροι for the Magyars, first recorded in Byzantine sources of the 9th century (in the 10th century as Latin "Ungarii").

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History of Hungary

Context: The initial "H-" is a non-phonemic addition made in Middle Latin, first used in the late 12th century. The name is thought to ultimately reflect a Byzantine loan of the Old Bulgarian "ągrinŭ", itself from the Old Turkic name of the "On-Oğur" ("ten tribes") confederation. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine sources also referred to the Magyar state as "Tourkía (Turkey)" ().

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History of Hungary

Context: Árpád was the leader who unified the Magyar tribes via the Covenant of Blood (), forging what was thereafter known as the Hungarian nation.

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History of Hungary

Context: He led the new nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. Between 895 and 902 the whole area of the Carpathian Basin was conquered by the Hungarians.

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History of Hungary

Context: After the Great Schism between Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity was formalized in 1054, Hungary viewed itself as the easternmost bastion of Western civilisation, a judgment affirmed in the fifteenth century by Pope Pius II, who expressed himself to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III in these terms: "Hungary is the shield of Christianity and the protector of Western civilization".

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History of Hungary

Context: As a consequence of the Mongol invasions, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications to help defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The Mongols did indeed return to Hungary in 1286, but the newly built stone-castle systems and new military tactics involving a higher proportion of heavily armed knights stopped them. The invading Mongol force was defeated near Pest by the royal army of King Ladislaus IV. Later invasions were also repelled handily.

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History of Hungary

Context: The castles built by Béla IV proved to be very useful at a later time in the long struggle against the Ottoman Empire. However, the cost of building them indebted the Hungarian king to the major feudal landlords, so that the royal power reclaimed by Béla IV after his father Andrew II significantly weakened it was once again dispersed among the lesser nobility.

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History of Hungary

Context: After a destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king of Hungary, Charles I ("Charles the Great") successfully restored royal power and defeated oligarchic rivals known as the "little kings". A descendant of the Árpád dynasty in the female line, he reigned between 1308 and 1342. His new fiscal, customs and monetary policies proved successful.

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History of Hungary

Context: Some Balkan states (such as Wallachia, Moldova, Serbia, and Bosnia) became his vassals while the Ottoman Turks confronted them ever more often. In 1366 and 1377, Louis led successful campaigns against the Ottomans (such as the Battle of Nicapoli in 1366). From the time of the death of Casimir the Great in 1370, he was also king of Poland. In cultural affairs, he is notable for establishing a university in Pécs in 1367.

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History of Hungary

Context: In 1404, Sigismund introduced the "Placetum Regnum". According to this decree, Papal bulls and messages could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. Sigismund summoned the Council of Constance that met between 1414 and 1418 to abolish the Avignon Papacy and end the Western Schism of the Catholic Church, which was resolved by the election of Pope Martin V. During his long reign, the royal castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages.

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History of Hungary

Context: After the death of Sigismund in 1437, his son-in-law, Albert II of Germany, assumed the title King of Hungary. He died, however, in 1439. The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439 just before. For a half-year in 1437, there was an anti-feudal and anti-clerical peasant revolt in Transylvania which was strongly influenced by Hussite ideas. (See: Budai Nagy Antal Revolt)

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History of Hungary

Context: From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's most powerful lords, thanks to his outstanding capabilities as a mercenary commander.

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History of Hungary

Context: The last strong Hungarian king was Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–90), the son of John Hunyadi. His accession represented the first time in the history of the medieval Hungarian kingdom that a member of the nobility without dynastic ancestry mounted the royal throne. Although very prominent in the governing of the kingdom of Hungary, Matthias's father John Hunyadi was never crowned king or contracted a dynastic marriage.

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History of Hungary

Context: Matthias was a true Renaissance prince: a successful military leader and administrator, an outstanding linguist, a learned astrologer, and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. Although he regularly convened the Diet and expanded the lesser nobles' powers in the counties, he exercised absolute rule over Hungary by means of a huge secular bureaucracy.

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History of Hungary

Context: Matthias's standing mercenary army was called the Black Army of Hungary (). It was an unusually large army for its time, and it secured a series of victories in the Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488) by capturing parts of Austria (including Vienna) in 1485, as well as parts of Bohemia in the Bohemian War of 1477–88. In 1467, Mathias and his Black Army fought against Moldavia. In this case, the attempt to expand Hungarian territories was unsuccessful when Matthias lost the Battle of Baia.

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History of Hungary

Context: In 1479, however, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield under the leadership of general Pál Kinizsi.

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History of Hungary

Context: Matthias's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles and works of philosophy and science in the 15th century, and second in size only to the Vatican Library in Rome, which mainly contained religious materials. The library, which has been destroyed in 1526 after Hungarian forces at Mohács were defeated by the Ottomans, is registered as a UNESCO Memory of the World site.

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History of Hungary

Context: Mattias died without a legal successor, a circumstance that engendered a serious political crisis in the Hungarian kingdom.

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History of Hungary

Context: The country's defenses declined as border guards and castle garrisons went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled. Hungary's international role was neutralized, its political stability shaken, and social progress was deadlocked.

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History of Hungary

Context: As a consequence of the constant warfare between Hungarians and Ottoman Turks, population growth was stunted and the network of medieval settlements with their urbanized bourgeois inhabitants perished. The 150 years of Turkish wars fundamentally changed the ethnic composition of Hungary. As a result of demographic losses, including deportations and massacres, the number of ethnic Hungarians at the end of the Turkish period was substantially diminished.

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History of Hungary

Context: There was a series of anti-Habsburg uprisings between 1604 and 1711, rebelling against Austrian rule and restrictions on non-Catholic Christian denominations. With the exception of the last, all took place within the territories of Royal Hungary, but were usually organized from Transylvania. The last uprising was led by Francis II Rákóczi, who took power as the "Ruling Prince" of Hungary after the declared dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónod.

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History of Hungary

Context: Hungarian nationalism emerged among intellectuals influenced by the Enlightenment and Romanticism. It grew rapidly, providing the foundation for the revolution of 1848–49. There was a special focus on the Magyar language, which replaced Latin as the language of the state and the schools.

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History of Hungary

Context: In the 1820s, Emperor Francis I was forced to convene the Hungarian Diet, which inaugurated a Reform Period. Nevertheless, progress was slowed by the nobles who clung to their privileges (exemption from taxes, exclusive voting rights, etc.). Therefore, the achievements were mostly of a symbolic character, such as the progress of the Magyar language.

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History of Hungary

Context: Count István Széchenyi, the nation's most prominent statesman, recognized the urgent need for modernization, and his message was taken to heart by other Hungarian political leaders. The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged focusing on the peasantry and proclaiming an understanding of the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament.

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History of Hungary

Context: Habsburg monarchs, desiring an agrarian, traditional Hungary, tried to hinder the industrialization of the country. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated on modernization despite Habsburg obstruction of all important liberal laws concerning civil and political rights and economic reforms. Many reformers (such as Lajos Kossuth and Mihály Táncsics) were imprisoned by the authorities.

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History of Hungary

Context: Many members of the non-Hungarian nationalities secured high positions in the Hungarian Army, for example General János Damjanich, an ethnic Serb who became a Hungarian national hero through his command of the 3rd Hungarian Army Corps.

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History of Hungary

Context: The Russian and Austrian forces overwhelmed the Hungarian army, and General Artúr Görgey surrendered in August 1849. The Austrian marshall Julius Freiherr von Haynau then became governor of Hungary for a few months and, on 6 October ordered the execution of 13 leaders of the Hungarian army (The 13 Martyrs of Arad) as well as Prime Minister Batthyány. Lajos Kossuth escaped into exile.

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History of Hungary

Context: Following the war of 1848–1849, the country sank into "passive resistance". Archduke Albrecht von Habsburg was appointed governor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and this time was remembered for Germanization pursued with the help of Czech officers.

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History of Hungary

Context: Vienna realized that political reform was unavoidable to secure the integrity of the Habsburg Empire. Major military defeats, such as the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866, forced Emperor Franz Joseph to accept internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatists, the emperor made an equitable deal with Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 negotiated by Ferenc Deák, by which the dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary came into existence.

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History of Hungary

Context: The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capitals, with a common monarch and common foreign and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first Prime Minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned King of Hungary.

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History of Hungary

Context: In 1868, Hungarian and Croatian assemblies concluded the Croatian–Hungarian Agreement by which Croatia was recognised as an autonomous region.

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History of Hungary

Context: The new nation of Austria-Hungary was geographically the second largest country in Europe after Russia. Its territories were appraised at in 1905. After the Russia and the German Empire, it was the third most populous country in Europe.

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History of Hungary

Context: The era witnessed significant economic development in the rural areas. The formerly backwards Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialized by the turn of the 20th century, although agriculture remained dominant in the GDP until 1880. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda (Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into the country's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub.

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History of Hungary

Context: The census of the Hungarian state in 1910 (excluding Croatia), recorded the following population distribution: Hungarian 54.5%, Romanian 16.1%, Slovak 10.7%, and German 10.4%. The religious denomination with the greatest number of adherents was Roman Catholicism (49.3%), followed by the Calvinism (14.3%), Greek Orthodoxy (12.8%), Greek Catholicism (11.0%), Lutheranism (7.1%), and Judaism (5.0%)

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History of Hungary

Context: After the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, a series of crises escalated quickly. A general war began on 28 July with a declaration of war on Serbia by Austria-Hungary.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: In the east, the Central Powers repelled attacks from the Russian Empire. The Eastern front of the so-called Entente Powers allied with Russia completely collapsed. Austria-Hungary withdrew from the defeated countries.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: On the Italian front, the Austro-Hungarian army could not make more successful progress against Italy after January 1918. Despite successes on the Eastern front, Germany suffered stalemate and eventual defeat on the more determinant Western front.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: In the Aftermath of World War I, while ally Germany was defeated in 1918 on the Western front, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy politically collapsed.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: French Entente troops landed in Greece to re-arm the defeated countries of Romania and Serbia and provide military assistance to the newly formed country of Czechoslovakia. Despite a general armistice agreement, the Balkan French army organized new campaigns against Hungary with the help of the Czechoslovak, Romanian and Serbian governments.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: By February 1919, the new pacifist Hungarian government had lost all popular support in view of its failures on both domestic and military fronts. On 21 March 1919, after the Entente military representative demanded more and more territorial concessions from Hungary, Károlyi signed all the concessions presented to him and resigned.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: The Communist Party of Hungary, led by Béla Kun, allied itself with the Hungarian Social Democratic Party, came to power and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Social Democrat Sándor Garbai was the official head of government, but the Soviet Republic was dominated de facto by Béla Kun, who was in charge of foreign affairs.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: The Communists – "The Reds" – came to power largely thanks to its organized fighting force (no other major political entity had one of its own), and they promised that Hungary would defend its territory without conscription, possibly with the help of the Soviet Red Army.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: The new fighting force in Hungary were the Conservative Royalists counter-revolutionaries – the "Whites". These, who had been organizing in Vienna and established a counter-government in Szeged, assumed power, led by István Bethlen, a Transylvanian aristocrat, and Miklós Horthy, the former commander in chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The conservatives determined the Károlyi government and Communists as capital treason.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: Irredentism—the demand for return of lost territories—became a central "Maimed Hungary" theme in national politics.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counter-revolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: The worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929 induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further towards the right. In 1932, Horthy appointed a new prime minister, Gyula Gömbös, who changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany and started an effort to Magyarize the few remaining ethnic minorities in Hungary.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: In 1938, Béla Imrédy became prime minister. Imrédy's attempts to improve Hungary's diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom initially made him very unpopular in Germany and Italy. In light of Germany's Anschluss with Austria in March, he realized that he could not afford to alienate Germany and Italy for long. In the autumn of 1938, his foreign policy became very much pro-German and pro-Italian.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: The era was characterized by growing anti-Semitism, which was also supported at the level of state politics, leading to the violent deaths of more than 400,000 Jews from 1941 to 1945. From 1944 to 1945, the Soviets were driven out, and the Germans occupied Hungary. The war took many lives among the population, the most devastating was the siege of Budapest.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: Hungary ended World War II as a loser. Following the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, Hungary ended the war with an area smaller than the Trianon borders, and the Czechoslovak delegation succeeded in removing the Bratislava bridgehead (62 km 2 ) from the country. The country, plagued by looting and inflation, was then ordered to pay $300 million in damages.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: Worried about Hungary's increasing reliance on Germany, Admiral Horthy forced Bárdossy to resign and replaced him with Miklós Kállay, a veteran conservative of Bethlen's government. Kállay continued Bárdossy's policy of supporting Germany against the Red Army, while he also surreptitiously entered into negotiations with the Western Powers.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: During the Battle of Stalingrad, the Hungarian Second Army suffered terrible losses. Shortly after the fall of Stalingrad in January 1943, the Hungarian Second Army effectively ceased to exist as a functioning military unit.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: Secret negotiations with the British and Americans continued. Aware of Kállay's deceit and fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace, Hitler ordered Nazi troops to launch Operation Margarethe and occupy Hungary in March 1944. Döme Sztójay, an avid supporter of the Nazis, become the new prime minister with the aid of a Nazi military governor, Edmund Veesenmayer.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: SS Colonel Adolf Eichmann went to Hungary to oversee the large-scale deportations of Jews to German death camps in occupied Poland. Between 15 May and 9 July 1944, the Hungarians deported 437,402 Jews to the Auschwitz concentration camp.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: In August 1944, Horthy replaced Sztójay with the anti-Fascist General Géza Lakatos. Under the Lakatos regime, the acting Interior Minister Béla Horváth ordered Hungarian gendarmes to prevent any Hungarian citizens from being deported.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: In cooperation with the Nazis, Szálasi restarted the deportations of Jews, particularly in Budapest. Thousands more Jews were killed by Hungarian Arrow Cross members. The retreating German army demolished the rail, road, and communications systems.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: On 20 January 1945, representatives of the Hungarian provisional government signed an armistice in Moscow. Szálasi's government fled the country by the end of March. Officially, Soviet operations in Hungary ended on 4 April 1945, when the last German troops were expelled. On 7 May 1945 General Alfred Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, signed the unconditional surrender of all German forces.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: Ultimately, all "democratic" parties were organized into a so-called People's Front in February 1949, thereby losing even the vestiges of their autonomy. The leader of the People's Front was Rákosi himself. Opposition parties were simply declared illegal and their leaders arrested or forced into exile.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: On 18 August 1949, the parliament passed the Hungarian Constitution of 1949, which was modeled after the 1936 constitution of the Soviet Union. The name of the country changed to the People's Republic of Hungary, "the country of the workers and peasants" where "every authority is held by the working people". Socialism was declared to be the main goal of the nation. A new coat-of-arms was adopted with Communist symbols such the red star, hammer and sickle.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟


History of Hungary

Context: The Hungarian churches were systematically intimidated. Cardinal József Mindszenty, who had bravely opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, was arrested in December 1948 and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest (which included torture), he confessed to the charges against him and he was sentenced to life imprisonment. The Protestant churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government.

Question: متى حصلت هنغاريا على استقلالها من النمسا ؟