Sigmund Freud

Context: The departure from Vienna began in stages throughout April and May 1938. Freud's grandson, Ernst Halberstadt, and Freud's son Martin's wife and children left for Paris in April. Freud's sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, left for London on 5 May, Martin Freud the following week and Freud's daughter Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on 24 May.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In the Freuds' new home, 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead, North London, Freud's Vienna consulting room was recreated in faithful detail. He continued to see patients there until the terminal stages of his illness. He also worked on his last books, "Moses and Monotheism", published in German in 1938 and in English the following year and the uncompleted "An Outline of Psychoanalysis", which was published posthumously.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis". He published several medical papers on the topic and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William John Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished. After the "Cocaine Episode" Freud ceased to publicly recommend the use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before discontinuing its use in 1896.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud's account of the mind. Freud believed that while poets and thinkers had long known of the existence of the unconscious, he had ensured that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In his account of the development and modification of his theory of unconscious mental processes he sets out in his 1915 paper 'The Unconscious' ("Standard Edition" XIV), Freud identifies the three perspectives he employs: the dynamic, the economic and the topographical.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: The dynamic perspective concerns firstly the constitution of the unconscious by repression and secondly the process of "censorship" which maintains unwanted, anxiety-inducing thoughts as such. Here Freud is drawing on observations from his earliest clinical work in the treatment of hysteria.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In the economic perspective the focus is upon the trajectories of the repressed contents "the vicissitudes of sexual impulses" as they undergo complex transformations in the process of both symptom formation and normal unconscious thought such as dreams and slips of the tongue. These were topics Freud explored in detail in "The Interpretation of Dreams" and "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life".

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Whereas both these former perspectives focus on the unconscious as it is about to enter consciousness, the topographical perspective represents a shift in which the systemic properties of the unconscious, its characteristic processes, and modes of operation such as condensation and displacement, are placed in the foreground.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud believed the function of dreams is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awaken the dreamer.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material arguing that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud compared the relationship between the ego and the id to that between a charioteer and his horses: the horses provide the energy and drive, while the charioteer provides direction.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud believed that the human psyche is subject to two conflicting drives: the life drive or libido and the death drive. The life drive was also termed "Eros" and the death drive "Thanatos", although Freud did not use the latter term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul Federn. Freud hypothesized that libido is a form of mental energy with which processes, structures, and object-representations are invested.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Throughout his deliberations on what he described as the “dark continent” of female sexuality and the "riddle" of femininity, Freud was careful to emphasise the “average validity” and provisional nature of his findings. He did, however, in response to his critics, maintain a steadfast objection "to all of you ... to the extent that you do not distinguish more clearly between what is psychic and what is biological..."

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In a footnote of his 1909 work, "Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy", Freud theorized that the universal fear of castration was provoked in the uncircumcised when they perceived circumcision and that this was "the deepest unconscious root of anti-Semitism".

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud's legacy, though a highly contested area of controversy, has been assessed as "one of the strongest influences on twentieth-century thought, its impact comparable only to that of Darwinism and Marxism," with its range of influence permeating "all the fields of culture ... so far as to change our way of life and concept of man."

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: I.B. Cohen regards Freud's "Interpretation of Dreams" as a revolutionary work of science, the last such work to be published in book form.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In contrast Allan Hobson believes that Freud, by rhetorically discrediting 19th century investigators of dreams such as Alfred Maury and the Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis at a time when study of the physiology of the brain was only beginning, interrupted the development of scientific dream theory for half a century. The dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of Freudian dream theory being validated.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: The poem "In Memory of Sigmund Freud" was published by British poet W. H. Auden in his 1940 collection "Another Time". Auden describes Freud as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives."

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Literary critic Harold Bloom has been influenced by Freud. Camille Paglia has also been influenced by Freud, whom she calls "Nietzsche's heir" and one of the greatest sexual psychologists in literature, but has rejected the scientific status of his work in her "Sexual Personae" (1990), writing, "Freud has no rivals among his successors because they think he wrote science, when in fact he wrote art."

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Some French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva and Luce Irigaray, have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Lacan. Irigaray has produced a theoretical challenge to Freud and Lacan, using their theories against them to put forward a "psychoanalytic explanation for theoretical bias". Irigaray, who claims that "the cultural unconscious only recognizes the male sex", describes how this affects "accounts of the psychology of women".

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Sigmund Freud is the subject of three major films or TV series, the first of which was 1962's" " starring Montgomery Clift as Freud, directed by John Huston from a revision of a script by an uncredited Jean-Paul Sartre. The film is focused on Freud's early life from 1885 to 1890 and combines multiple case studies of Freud into single ones, and multiple friends of his into single characters.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In 1984, the BBC produced the six-episode mini-series "Freud: the Life of a Dream" starring David Suchet in the lead role.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: The stage play "The Talking Cure" and subsequent film "A Dangerous Method" focus on the conflict between Freud and Carl Jung. Both are written by Christopher Hampton and are partly based on the non-fiction book "A Most Dangerous Method" by John Kerr. Viggo Mortensen plays Freud and Michael Fassbender plays Jung. The play is a reworking of an earlier unfilmed screenplay.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud is employed to more comic effect in the 1983 film "Lovesick" in which Alec Guinness plays Freud's ghost who gives love advice to a modern psychiatrist played by Dudley Moore. Freud is also presented in a comedic light in the 1989 film, "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure". Portrayed by Rod Loomis, Freud is one of several historical figures recruited by the film's time traveling lead characters to assist them in passing their high school history class presentation.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Canadian author Kim Morrissey's stage play about the Dora case, "Dora: A Case of Hysteria", attempts to thoroughly debunk Freud's approach to the case. French playwright Hélène Cixous' 1976 "Portrait of Dora" is also critical of Freud's approach, though less acerbically.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: The narrator of Bob Dylan's darkly humorous 2020 song "My Own Version of You" calls "Mr. Freud with his dreams" one of the "best-known enemies of mankind" and refers to him as burning in hell.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: In the online, superhero-themed, animated series "Super Science Friends", Freud appears as a main character alongside other famous historical science figures.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: Freud was portrayed in a 2019 episode of the online YouTube series "Epic Rap Battles of History", rapping against Mother Teresa. He is portrayed by series co-creator Nice Peter.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Sigmund Freud

Context: "The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud". Translated from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey, in collaboration with Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey, Alan Tyson, and Angela Richards. 24 volumes, London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953–1974.

Question: Minkä maalainen oli Sigmund Freud?


Lola Montez

Context: At the age of ten, Eliza was moved again – this time to Sunderland, England, where her stepfather's older sister, Catherine Rae, set up a boarding school in Monkwearmouth with her husband. Eliza continued her education there. Eliza's determination and temper were to become her trademarks. Her stay in Sunderland lasted only a year, as she was then transferred to a school in Camden Place (now Camden Crescent), Bath, for a more sophisticated education.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: In 1837, 16-year-old Eliza eloped with Lieutenant Thomas James, and they married. The couple separated five years later, in Calcutta, India, and she became a professional dancer under a stage name.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: When she had her London debut as "Lola Montez, the Spanish dancer" in June 1843, she was recognized as "Mrs. James." The resulting notoriety hampered her career in England, so she departed for the continent, where she had success in Paris and Warsaw. At this time, she was almost certainly accepting favours from a few wealthy men, and was regarded by many as a courtesan.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: In March 1848, under pressure from a growing revolutionary movement, the university was re-opened, Ludwig abdicated in favor of his son, King Maximilian II, and Montez fled Bavaria. Her career as a power behind the throne was permanently at an end. It seems likely that Ludwig's relationship with Montez contributed greatly to his forced abdication despite his previous popularity.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: Lola remained in Grass Valley at her little house for nearly two years. The restored property went on to become California Historical Landmark No. 292. Lola served as an inspiration to another aspiring young entertainer, Lotta Crabtree, whose parents ran a boarding house in Grass Valley. Lola, a neighbor, provided dancing lessons and encouraged Lotta's enthusiasm for performance.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: In June 1855, Lola departed the U.S. to tour Australia and resume her career by entertaining miners at the gold diggings during the gold-rush of the 1850s. She arrived in Sydney on 16 August 1855.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: Historian Michael Cannon claims that "in September 1855 she performed her erotic Spider Dance at the Theatre Royal in Melbourne, raising her skirts so high that the audience could see she wore no underclothing at all. Next day, the "Argus" thundered that her performance was 'utterly subversive to all ideas of public morality'. Respectable families ceased to attend the theatre, which began to show heavy losses."

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: She departed for San Francisco on 22 May 1856. On the return voyage her manager was lost at sea after going overboard.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: Lola failed in her attempts at a theatrical comeback in various American cities. She arranged in 1857 to deliver a series of moral lectures in Britain and America written by Rev. Charles Chauncey Burr. She spent her last days in rescue work among women. In November 1859, the "Philadelphia Press" reported that Lola Montez was:

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: living very quietly up town, and doesn't have much to do with the world's people. Some of her old friends, the Bohemians, now and then drop in to have a little chat with her, and though she talks beautifully of her present feelings and way of life, she generally, by way of parenthesis, takes out her little tobacco pouch and makes a cigarette or two for self and friend, and then falls back upon old times with decided gusto and effect. But she doesn't tell anybody what she's going to do.

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Lola Montez

Context: By 1860, Lola was showing the tertiary effects of syphilis, and her body began to waste away. She died at the age of 39 on 17 January 1861. She is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, where her tombstone states: "Mrs. Eliza Gilbert | Died 17 January 1861 | Æ. 42". (“Æ.” abbreviates "aetate", Latin for “at the age of.”)

Question: Miksi Lola Montez pakeni USA:han


Linear A

Context: The term "linear" refers to the fact that the script was written using a stylus to cut "lines" into a tablet of clay, as opposed to cuneiform, which was written by using a stylus to press "wedges" into the clay.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Linear A has hundreds of signs, believed to represent syllabic, ideographic, and semantic values in a manner similar to Linear B. While many of those assumed to be syllabic signs are similar to ones in Linear B, approximately 80% of Linear A's logograms are unique; the difference in sound values between Linear A and Linear B signs ranges from 9% to 13%. It primarily appears in the left-to-right direction, but occasionally appears as a right-to-left or boustrophedon script.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Numbers follow a decimal system, units are represented by vertical dashes, tens by horizontal dashes, hundreds by circles, and thousands by circles with rays. Specific signs that coincide with numerals are regarded as fractions. These sign combinations are known as klasmatograms.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: An interesting feature is the recording of numbers in the script: The highest number recorded in known Linear A texts is 3000, but there are special symbols to indicate fractions and weights.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Integers can be read and the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are quite straightforward, similarly to Roman Numerals.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: There is a lack of scholarly agreement on fractions. Corazza et al. (2020) proposed the following values, most of which had been previously proposed:

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Other fractions are composed by addition: the common 𐝕 JE and 𐝓 DD are and (), 𐝒 BB = , EF = , etc. (and indeed B looks like it might derive from KK ). They propose that the hapax legomenon, glyph L 𐝈, is spurious.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Several of these values are supported by Linear B. Although Linear B used a different numbering system, several of the Linear A fractions were adopted as fractional units of measurement. For example, Linear B 𐝓 DD and 𐝎 (presumably AA) are and of a "lana", while 𐝇 K is of the main unit for dry weight.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: The main discoveries of Linear A tablets, many fragmentary, have been at Hagia Triada, Zakros, and Khania on Crete:

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Until 1973, only one Linear A tablet had been found outside Crete (on Kea). Since then, other locations have yielded inscriptions.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Most—if not all—inscriptions found outside Crete appear to have been made locally, as indicated by the composition of the substrate and other indications. Also, close analysis of the inscriptions found outside Crete indicates the use of a script that is somewhere between Linear A and Linear B, combining elements from both.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: A Linear A inscription was said to have been found in southeast Bulgaria. Another, somewhat more solid, find was at Tel Lachish A Minoan graffito found at Tel Haror on a vessel fragment is either Linear A or Cretan hieroglyphs.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Linear A became prominent during the Middle Minoan Period, specifically from 1625 to 1450 BC. It was contemporary with and possibly derived from Cretan hieroglyphs, and may be an ancestor of Linear B. The sequence and the geographical spread of Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B, the three overlapping but distinct writing systems on Bronze Age Crete and the Greek mainland, can be summarized as follows:

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Archaeologist Arthur Evans named the script "Linear" because its characters consisted simply of lines inscribed in clay, in contrast to the more pictographic characters in Cretan hieroglyphs that were used during the same period.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Several tablets inscribed in signs similar to Linear A were found in the Troad in northwestern Anatolia. While their status is disputed, they may be imports, as there is no evidence of Minoan presence in the Troad. Classification of these signs as a unique Trojan script (proposed by contemporary Russian linguist Nikolai Kazansky) is not accepted by other linguists.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: It is difficult to evaluate a given analysis of Linear A as there is little point of reference for reading its inscriptions. The simplest approach to decipherment may be to presume that the values of Linear A match more or less the values given to the deciphered Linear B script, used for Mycenaean Greek.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Since the late 1950s, some scholars have suggested that the Linear A language could be an Anatolian language.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Palmer (1958) put forward a theory, based on Linear B phonetic values, suggesting that Linear A language could be related closely to Luwian. The theory, however, failed to gain universal support for the following reasons:

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: There are recent works focused on the Luwian connection, not in terms of the Minoan language being Anatolian, but rather in terms of possible borrowings from Luwian, including the origin of the writing system itself.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: In an article from 2001, Margalit Finkelberg, Professor of Classics emerita at Tel Aviv University, suggested a "high degree of correspondence between the phonological and morphological system of Minoan and that of Lycian" and proposed that "the language of Linear A is either the direct ancestor of Lycian or a closely related idiom."

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: In 2001, the journal "Ugarit-Forschungen" published the article "The First Inscription in Punic—Vowel Differences in Linear A and B" by Jan Best, claiming to demonstrate how and why Linear A notates an archaic form of Phoenician. This was a continuation of attempts by Cyrus Gordon in finding connections between Minoan and West Semitic languages.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Italian scholar Giulio M. Facchetti attempted to link Linear A to the Tyrrhenian language family comprising Etruscan, Rhaetic, and Lemnian. This family is reasoned to be a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean substratum of the 2nd millennium BC, sometimes referred to as Pre-Greek. Facchetti proposed some possible similarities between the Etruscan language and ancient Lemnian, and other Aegean languages like Minoan.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Michael Ventris, who (with John Chadwick) successfully deciphered Linear B, also believed in a link between Minoan and Etruscan. The same perspective is supported by S. Yatsemirsky in Russia and Raymond A. Brown.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: Monti put forward a Hurrian-Urartean hypothesis based on morphematic elements. A Indo-European hypothesis was proposed by Witczak and Zawiasa based on an analysis of the combinatory data, mostly in libation formulas.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Linear A

Context: The Linear A alphabet (U+10600–U+1077F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2014 with the release of version 7.0.

Question: Kuka on kehittänyt lineaari-a-kirjoituksen?


Jessica Jung

Context: Jessica Jung was born in San Francisco. While on vacation in South Korea, she and her sister, Krystal, were spotted in a shopping mall by a member of SM Entertainment; she later joined the company in 2000. She spent seven years as a trainee before debuting as part of the Korean girl group Girls' Generation. Jessica attended Korea Kent Foreign School during her teenage years.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Jessica Jung

Context: In 2014, Jessica released "Say Yes"' for the "Make Your Move" soundtrack, featuring her sister, Krystal, and Exo's former member, Kris. In August, Jung launched her own fashion line, Blanc, which was later renamed Blanc & Eclare. There are now sixty stores located around the world. Jessica and her sister Krystal starred in their own reality television show "Jessica & Krystal". It premiered on June 3 and consisted of ten episodes.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Jessica Jung

Context: In May 2018, it was revealed that Jessica had signed with United Talent Agency. The agency will represent her in North America for music, film, television and endorsements. In October, Jung held a second mini-concert in Taiwan titled "Golden Night". On December 14, Jessica released a Christmas single titled "One More Christmas" in collaboration with South Korean makeup brand Amuse Cosmetics.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Jessica Jung

Context: "Shine", released on September 30, 2020, debuted at number five on "The New York Times" Best Seller list for Young Adult Hardcover in the issue dated October 18.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Jessica Jung

Context: Jessica has also endorsed a number of brands of various products. Besides her endorsements with Girls' Generation, she also became a model for Chinese sports brand Li-Ning and South Korean bag brand Lapalette with her sister Krystal in 2014. On April 30, 2020, Jung was announced as the new global ambassador for multinational cosmetics, skin care, fragrance, and personal care company Revlon.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Jessica Jung

Context: Jessica's first restaurant named "Clareau" opened on January 19, 2021, at Blanc & Eclare flagship store building in Cheongdam-dong, Seoul.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Jessica Jung

Context: During a mini concert at Taiwan in July 2017, Jung revealed that her birth name, as on her passport, is "Jessica Jung", whereas her Korean name "Soo-yeon" was only obtained on a later date due to necessity. She describes herself as "Christian curious" and goes to church.

Question: Miksi Girls’ Generationin yhdeksäs jäsen on lähtenyt bändistä?


Mirror

Context: The first mirrors used by humans were most likely pools of dark, still water, or water collected in a primitive vessel of some sort. The requirements for making a good mirror are a surface with a very high degree of flatness (preferably but not necessarily with high reflectivity), and a surface roughness smaller than the wavelength of the light.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The earliest manufactured mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass. Examples of obsidian mirrors found in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) have been dated to around 6000 BC. Mirrors of polished copper were crafted in Mesopotamia from 4000 BC, and in ancient Egypt from around 3000 BC. Polished stone mirrors from Central and South America date from around 2000 BC onwards.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: By the Bronze Age most cultures were using mirrors made from polished discs of bronze, copper, silver, or other metals. The people of Kerma in Nubia were skilled in the manufacturing of mirrors. Remains of their bronze kilns have been found within the temple of Kerma.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: In China, bronze mirrors were manufactured from around 2000 BC, some of the earliest bronze and copper examples being produced by the Qijia culture. Such metal mirrors remained the norm through to Greco-Roman Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages in Europe. During the Roman Empire silver mirrors were in wide use even by maidservants.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Speculum metal is a highly reflective alloy of copper and tin that was used for mirrors until a couple of centuries ago. Such mirrors may have originated in China and India. Mirrors of speculum metal or any precious metal were hard to produce and were only owned by the wealthy.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Common metal mirrors tarnished and required frequent polishing. Bronze mirrors had low reflectivity and poor color rendering, and stone mirrors were much worse in this regard. These defects explain the New Testament reference in 1 Corinthians 13 to seeing "as in a mirror, darkly."

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The Greek philosopher Socrates, of "know thyself" fame, urged young people to look at themselves in mirrors so that, if they were beautiful, they would become worthy of their beauty, and if they were ugly, they would know how to hide their disgrace through learning.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Glass began to be used for mirrors in the 1st century CE, with the development of soda-lime glass and glass blowing. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder claims that artisans in Sidon (modern-day Lebanon) were producing glass mirrors coated with lead or gold leaf in the back. The metal provided good reflectivity, and the glass provided a smooth surface and protected the metal from scratches and tarnishing. However, there is no archeological evidence of glass mirrors before the third century.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: These early glass mirrors were made by blowing a glass bubble, and then cutting off a small circular section from 10 to 20 cm in diameter. Their surface was either concave or convex, and imperfections tended to distort the image. Lead-coated mirrors were very thin to prevent cracking by the heat of the molten metal. Due to their poor quality, high cost, and small size, solid-metal mirrors, primarily of steel, remained in common use until the late nineteenth century.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Silver-coated metal mirrors were developed in China as early as 500 CE. The bare metal was coated with an amalgam, then heated until the mercury boiled away.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The invention of the ribbon machine in the late Industrial Revolution allowed modern glass panes to be produced in bulk. The Saint-Gobain factory, founded by royal initiative in France, was an important manufacturer, and Bohemian and German glass, often rather cheaper, was also important.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Currently mirrors are often produced by the wet deposition of silver, or sometimes nickel or chromium (the latter used most often in automotive mirrors) via electroplating directly onto the glass substrate.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Glass mirrors for optical instruments are usually produced by vacuum deposition methods. These techniques can be traced to observations in the 1920s and 1930s that metal was being ejected from electrodes in gas discharge lamps and condensed on the glass walls forming a mirror-like coating. The phenomenon, called sputtering, was developed into an industrial metal-coating method with the development of semiconductor technology in the 1970s.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A similar phenomenon had been observed with incandescent light bulbs: the metal in the hot filament would slowly sublimate and condense on the bulb's walls. This phenomenon was developed into the method of evaporation coating by Pohl and Pringsheim in 1912. John D. Strong used evaporation coating to make the first aluminum-coated telescope mirrors in the 1930s. The first dielectric mirror was created in 1937 by Auwarter using evaporated rhodium.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The Greek in Classical Antiquity were familiar with the use of mirrors to concentrate light. Parabolic mirrors were described and studied by the mathematician Diocles in his work "On Burning Mirrors". Ptolemy conducted a number of experiments with curved polished iron mirrors, and discussed plane, convex spherical, and concave spherical mirrors in his "Optics".

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Parabolic mirrors were also described by the Caliphate mathematician Ibn Sahl in the tenth century. The scholar Ibn al-Haytham discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, carried out a number of experiments with mirrors, and solved the problem of finding the point on a convex mirror at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors can be classified in many ways; including by shape, support, reflective materials, manufacturing methods, and intended application.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The surface of curved mirrors is often a part of a sphere. Mirrors that are meant to precisely concentrate parallel rays of light into a point are usually made in the shape of a paraboloid of revolution instead; they are used in telescopes (from radio waves to X-rays), in antennas to communicate with broadcast satellites, and in solar furnaces. A segmented mirror, consisting of multiple flat or curved mirrors, properly placed and oriented, may be used instead.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors that are intended to concentrate sunlight onto a long pipe may be a circular cylinder or of a parabolic cylinder.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The most common structural material for mirrors is glass, due to its transparency, ease of fabrication, rigidity, hardness, and ability to take a smooth finish.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The most common mirrors consist of a plate of transparent glass, with a thin reflective layer on the back (the side opposite to the incident and reflected light) backed by a coating that protects that layer against abrasion, tarnishing, and corrosion. The glass is usually soda-lime glass, but lead glass may be used for decorative effects, and other transparent materials may be used for specific applications.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A plate of transparent plastic may be used instead of glass, for lighter weight or impact resistance. Alternatively, a flexible transparent plastic film may be bonded to the front and/or back surface of the mirror, to prevent injuries in case the mirror is broken. Lettering or decorative designs may be printed on the front face of the glass, or formed on the reflective layer. The front surface may have an anti-reflection coating.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors which are reflective on the front surface (the same side of the incident and reflected light) may be made of any rigid material. The supporting material does not necessarily need to be transparent, but telescope mirrors often use glass anyway. Often a protective transparent coating is added on top of the reflecting layer, to protect it against abrasion, tarnishing, and corrosion, or to absorb certain wavelengths.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Thin flexible plastic mirrors are sometimes used for safety, since they cannot shatter or produce sharp flakes. Their flatness is achieved by stretching them on a rigid frame. These usually consist of a layer of evaporated aluminum between two thin layers of transparent plastic.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: In common mirrors, the reflective layer is usually some metal like silver, tin, nickel, or chromium, deposited by a wet process; or aluminum, deposited by sputtering or evaporation in vacuum. The reflective layer may also be made of one or more layers of transparent materials with suitable indices of refraction.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The structural material may be a metal, in which case the reflecting layer may be just the surface of the same. Metal concave dishes are often used to reflect infrared light (such as in space heaters) or microwaves (as in satellite TV antennas). Liquid metal telescopes use a surface of liquid metal such as mercury.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: In X-ray telescopes, the X-rays reflect off a highly precise metal surface at almost grazing angles, and only a small fraction of the rays are reflected. In flying relativistic mirrors conceived for X-ray lasers, the reflecting surface is a spherical shockwave (wake wave) created in a low-density plasma by a very intense laser-pulse, and moving at an extremely high velocity.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A phase-conjugating mirror uses nonlinear optics to reverse the phase difference between incident beams. Such mirrors may be used, for example, for coherent beam combination. The useful applications are self-guiding of laser beams and correction of atmospheric distortions in imaging systems.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: This property can be explained by the physics of an electromagnetic plane wave that is incident to a flat surface that is electrically conductive or where the speed of light changes abruptly, as between two materials with different indices of refraction.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: More specifically, a concave parabolic mirror (whose surface is a part of a paraboloid of revolution) will reflect rays that are parallel to its axis into rays that pass through its focus. Conversely, a parabolic concave mirror will reflect any ray that comes from its focus towards a direction parallel to its axis. If a concave mirror surface is a part of a prolate ellipsoid, it will reflect any ray coming from one focus toward the other focus.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A convex parabolic mirror, on the other hand, will reflect rays that are parallel to its axis into rays that seem to emanate from the focus of the surface, behind the mirror. Conversely, it will reflect incoming rays that converge toward that point into rays that are parallel to the axis. A convex mirror that is part of a prolate ellipsoid will reflect rays that converge towards one focus into divergent rays that seem to emanate from the other focus.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Spherical mirrors do not reflect parallel rays to rays that converge to or diverge from a single point, or vice versa, due to spherical aberration. However, a spherical mirror whose diameter is sufficiently small compared to the sphere's radius will behave very similarly to a parabolic mirror whose axis goes through the mirror's center and the center of that sphere; so that spherical mirrors can substitute for parabolic ones in many applications.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A similar aberration occurs with parabolic mirrors when the incident rays are parallel among themselves but not parallel to the mirror's axis, or are divergent from a point that is not the focus – as when trying to form an image of an objet that is near the mirror or spans a wide angle as seen from it. However, this aberration can be sufficiently small if the object image is sufficiently far from the mirror and spans a sufficiently small angle around its axis.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Surface roughness describes the texture of the surface, often in terms of the depth of the microscopic scratches left by the polishing operations. Surface roughness determines how much of the reflection is specular and how much diffuses, controlling how sharp or blurry the image will be.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Surface roughness is typically measured in microns, wavelength, or grit size, with ~80,000–100,000 grit or ~½λ–¼λ being "optical quality".

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors are usually manufactured by either polishing a naturally reflective material, such as speculum metal, or by applying a reflective coating to a suitable polished substrate.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: In some applications, generally those that are cost-sensitive or that require great durability, such as for mounting in a prison cell, mirrors may be made from a single, bulk material such as polished metal. However, metals consist of small crystals (grains) separated by grain boundaries that may prevent the surface from attaining optical smoothness and uniform reflectivity.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The coating of glass with a reflective layer of a metal is generally called "silvering", even though the metal may not be silver. Currently the main processes are electroplating, "wet" chemical deposition, and vacuum deposition Front-coated metal mirrors achieve reflectivities of 90–95% when new.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors are commonly used as aids to personal grooming. They may range from small sizes (portable), to full body sized; they may be handheld, mobile, fixed or adjustable. A classic example of an adjustable mirror is the cheval glass, which the user can tilt.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Dentists use mouth mirrors or "dental mirrors" to allow indirect vision and lighting within the mouth. Their reflective surfaces may be either flat or curved. Mouth mirrors are also commonly used by mechanics to allow vision in tight spaces and around corners in equipment.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Rear-view mirrors are widely used in and on vehicles (such as automobiles, or bicycles), to allow drivers to see other vehicles coming up behind them. On rear-view sunglasses, the left end of the left glass and the right end of the right glass work as mirrors.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: One-way mirrors (also called two-way mirrors) work by overwhelming dim transmitted light with bright reflected light. A true one-way mirror that actually allows light to be transmitted in one direction only without requiring external energy is not possible as it violates the second law of thermodynamics.:

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: One-way windows can be made to work with polarized light in the laboratory without violating the second law. This is an apparent paradox that stumped some great physicists, although it does not allow a practical one-way mirror for use in the real world. Optical isolators are one-way devices that are commonly used with lasers.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: With the sun as light source, a mirror can be used to signal by variations in the orientation of the mirror. The signal can be used over long distances, possibly up to on a clear day. Native American tribes and numerous militaries used this technique to transmit information between distant outposts.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors can also be used to attract the attention of search-and-rescue parties. Specialized types of mirrors are available and are often included in military survival kits.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Microscopic mirrors are a core element of many of the largest high-definition televisions and video projectors. A common technology of this type is Texas Instruments' DLP. A DLP chip is a postage stamp-sized microchip whose surface is an array of millions of microscopic mirrors. The picture is created as the individual mirrors move to either reflect light toward the projection surface (pixel on), or toward a light-absorbing surface (pixel off).

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Other projection technologies involving mirrors include LCoS. Like a DLP chip, LCoS is a microchip of similar size, but rather than millions of individual mirrors, there is a single mirror that is actively shielded by a liquid crystal matrix with up to millions of pixels. The picture, formed as light, is either reflected toward the projection surface (pixel on), or absorbed by the activated LCD pixels (pixel off). LCoS-based televisions and projectors often use 3 chips, one for each primary color.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Large mirrors are used in rear-projection televisions. Light (for example from a DLP as discussed above) is "folded" by one or more mirrors so that the television set is compact.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors are integral parts of a solar power plant. The one shown in the adjacent picture uses concentrated solar power from an array of parabolic troughs.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Telescopes and other precision instruments use "front silvered" or first surface mirrors, where the reflecting surface is placed on the front (or first) surface of the glass (this eliminates reflection from glass surface ordinary back mirrors have). Some of them use silver, but most are aluminium, which is more reflective at short wavelengths than silver.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A protective overcoat is usually applied before the mirror is removed from the vacuum, because the coating otherwise begins to corrode as soon as it is exposed to oxygen and humidity in air. "Front silvered" mirrors have to be resurfaced occasionally to maintain their quality. There are optical mirrors such as mangin mirrors that are "second surface mirrors" (reflective coating on the rear surface) as part of their optical designs, usually to correct optical aberrations.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: The reflectivity of the mirror coating can be measured using a reflectometer and for a particular metal it will be different for different wavelengths of light. This is exploited in some optical work to make cold mirrors and hot mirrors. A cold mirror is made by using a transparent substrate and choosing a coating material that is more reflective to visible light and more transmissive to infrared light.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: A hot mirror is the opposite, the coating preferentially reflects infrared. Mirror surfaces are sometimes given thin film overcoatings both to retard degradation of the surface and to increase their reflectivity in parts of the spectrum where they will be used. For instance, aluminum mirrors are commonly coated with silicon dioxide or magnesium fluoride. The reflectivity as a function of wavelength depends on both the thickness of the coating and on how it is applied.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: In astronomy, adaptive optics is a technique to measure variable image distortions and adapt a deformable mirror accordingly on a timescale of milliseconds, to compensate for the distortions.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Although most mirrors are designed to reflect visible light, surfaces reflecting other forms of electromagnetic radiation are also called "mirrors". The mirrors for other ranges of electromagnetic waves are used in

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: optics and astronomy. Mirrors for radio waves (sometimes known as reflectors) are important elements of radio telescopes.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Two or more mirrors aligned exactly parallel and facing each other can give an infinite regress of reflections, called an infinity mirror effect. Some devices use this to generate multiple reflections:

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Mirrors are a popular design-theme in architecture, particularly with late modern and post-modernist high-rise buildings in major cities. Early examples include the Campbell Center in Dallas, which opened in 1972, and the John Hancock Tower (completed in 1976) in Boston.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Contemporary anamorphic artist Jonty Hurwitz uses cylindrical mirrors to project distorted sculptures.

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Mirror

Context: Only a few animal species have been shown to have the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror, most of them mammals. Experiments have found that the following animals can pass the mirror test:

Question: Milloin peili keksittiin?


Gnosticism

Context: Some scholars prefer to speak of "gnosis" when referring to first-century ideas that later developed into Gnosticism, and to reserve the term "Gnosticism" for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the second century. According to James M. Robinson, no gnostic texts clearly pre-date Christianity, and "pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all."

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God. Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as "the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism". Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism. Recent research into the origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Within early Christianity, the teachings of Paul and John may have been a starting point for Gnostic ideas, with a growing emphasis on the opposition between flesh and spirit, the value of charisma, and the disqualification of the Jewish law. The mortal body belonged to the world of inferior, worldly powers (the "archons"), and only the spirit or soul could be saved. The term "gnostikos" may have acquired a deeper significance here.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Alexandria was of central importance for the birth of Gnosticism. The Christian "ecclesia" (i. e. congregation, church) was of Jewish–Christian origin, but also attracted Greek members, and various strands of thought were available, such as "Judaic apocalypticism, speculation on divine wisdom, Greek philosophy, and Hellenistic mystery religions."

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Shepherd of Hermas is a Christian literary work considered as canonical scripture by some of the early Church fathers such as Irenaeus. Jesus is identified with angel Christology in parable 5, when the author mentions a Son of God, as a virtuous man filled with a Holy "pre-existent spirit".

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Early research into the origins of Gnosticism proposed Persian origins or influences, spreading to Europe and incorporating Jewish elements. According to Wilhelm Bousset (1865–1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism, and Richard August Reitzenstein (1861–1931) situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Carsten Colpe (b. 1929) has analyzed and criticised the Iranian hypothesis of Reitzenstein, showing that many of his hypotheses are untenable. Nevertheless, Geo Widengren (1907–1996) argued for the origin of Mandaean Gnosticism in Mazdean (Zoroastrianism) Zurvanism, in conjunction with ideas from the Aramaic Mesopotamian world.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In 1966, at the Congress of Median, Buddhologist Edward Conze noted phenomenological commonalities between Mahayana Buddhism and Gnosticism, in his paper "Buddhism and Gnosis", following an early suggestion put forward by Isaac Jacob Schmidt. The influence of Buddhism in any sense on either the "gnostikos" Valentinus (c.170) or the Nag Hammadi texts (3rd century) is not supported by modern scholarship, although Elaine Pagels (1979) called it a "possibility".

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Syrian–Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons. The Demiurge, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements "fall" into the material realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the divine realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within, is obtained.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In many Gnostic systems, God is known as the "Monad", the One. God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of light. The various emanations of God are called æons. According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the "Monad", which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language, and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form, since the word appears in the Epistle to the Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels, view the reference in Colossians as a term that has to be interpreted in a gnostic sense.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Supreme Light or Consciousness descends through a series of stages, gradations, worlds, or hypostases, becoming progressively more material and embodied. In time it will turn around to return to the One (epistrophe), retracing its steps through spiritual knowledge and contemplation.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Two of the most commonly paired æons were Christ and "Sophia" (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers to Christ as her "consort" in "A Valentinian Exposition".

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The term "demiurge" derives from the Latinized form of the Greek term "dēmiourgos", δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker". This figure is also called "Yaldabaoth", Samael (Aramaic: "sæmʻa-ʼel", "blind god"), or "Saklas" (Syriac: "sækla", "the foolish one"), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent. Other names or identifications are Ahriman, El, Satan, and Yahweh.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of Gnosticism, viewing materiality as being inherently evil, or as merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Origen's "Contra Celsum", a sect called the Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that follow: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos, and Horaios. Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Christian heresiologists, most notably Irenaeus, regarded Gnosticism as a Christian heresy. Modern scholarship notes that early Christianity was diverse, and Christian orthodoxy only settled in the 4thcentury, when the Roman Empire declined and Gnosticism lost its influence. Gnostics and proto-orthodox Christians shared some terminology. Initially, they were hard to distinguish from each other.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Walter Bauer, "heresies" may well have been the original form of Christianity in many regions. This theme was further developed by Elaine Pagels, who argues that "the proto-orthodox church found itself in debates with gnostic Christians that helped them to stabilize their own beliefs." According to Gilles Quispel, Catholicism arose in response to Gnosticism, establishing safeguards in the form of the monarchic episcopate, the creed, and the canon of holy books.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Tertullian calls Paul "the apostle of the heretics", because Paul's writings were attractive to gnostics, and interpreted in a gnostic way, while Jewish Christians found him to stray from the Jewish roots of Christianity. In I Corinthians Paul refers to some church members as "having knowledge" (, "ton echonta gnosin"). James Dunn claims that in some cases, Paul affirmed views that were closer to gnosticism than to proto-orthodox Christianity.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Although Elkesaites and Mandaeans were found mainly in Mesopotamia in the first few centuries of the common era, their origins appear be to Judean / Israelite in the Jordan valley.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Elkesaites were a Judeo-Christian baptismal sect that originated in the Transjordan and were active between 100 to 400 CE. The members of this sect performed frequent baptisms for purification and had a Gnostic disposition. The sect is named after its leader "Elkesai".

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Joseph Lightfoot, the Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the 4th century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: "Of those that came before his [Elxai (Elkesai), an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans."

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by "Nhura" (Light) and "Maia Hayyi" (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by "Hshuka" (Darkness) and "Maia Tahmi" (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called "Alma d-Nhura" (World of Light).

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos. A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha. The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to John D. Turner, German and American scholarship views Sethianism as "a distinctly inner-Jewish, albeit syncretistic and heterodox, phenomenon", while British and French scholarship tends to see Sethianism as "a form of heterodox Christian speculation". Roelof vandenBroek notes that "Sethianism" may never have been a separate religious movement, and that the term refers rather to a set of mythological themes which occur in various texts.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Smith, Sethianism may have begun as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a syncretic cult that incorporated elements of Christianity and Platonism as it grew. According to Temporini, Vogt, and Haase, early Sethians may be identical to or related to the Nazarenes (sect), the Ophites, or the sectarian group called heretics by Philo.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The "Thomasine Traditions" refers to a group of texts which are attributed to the apostle Thomas. Karen L. King notes that "Thomasine Gnosticism" as a separate category is being criticised, and may "not stand the test of scholarly scrutiny".

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, because the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Gershom Scholem, a historian of Jewish philosophy, claimed that several core Gnostic ideas reappear in medieval Kabbalah, where they are used to reinterpret earlier Jewish sources. In these cases, according to Scholem, texts such as the Zohar adapted Gnostic precepts for the interpretation of the Torah, while not utilizing the language of Gnosticism. Scholem further postulated that there was originally a "Jewish Gnosticism", which influenced the early origins of Christian Gnosticism.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Given that some of the earliest dated Kabbalistic texts emerged in medieval Provence, at which time Cathar movements were also supposed to have been active, Scholem and other mid-20th century scholars argued that there was mutual influence between the two groups. According to Dan Joseph, this claim has not been substantiated by any extant texts.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In the 1880s, Gnosticism was placed within Greek philosophy, especially neo-Platonism. Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), who belonged to the "School of the History of Dogma" and proposed a "Kirchengeschichtliches Ursprungsmodell", saw Gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy. According to Harnack, Gnosticism was the "acute Hellenization of Christianity."

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Hans Jonas (1903–1993) took an intermediate approach, using both the comparative approach of the "Religionsgeschichtliche Schule" and the existentialist hermeneutics of Bultmann. Jonas emphasized the duality between God and the world, and concluded that Gnosticism cannot be derived from Platonism. Contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish or Judeo-Christian origins; this theses is most notably put forward by Gershom G. Scholem (1897–1982) and Gilles Quispel (1916–2006).

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: This definition has now been abandoned. It created a religion, "Gnosticism", from the "gnosis" which was a widespread element of ancient religions, suggesting a homogeneous conception of gnosis by these Gnostic religions, which did not exist at the time.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Dillon, the texts from Nag Hammadi made clear that this definition was limited, and that they are "better classified by movements (such as Valentinian), mythological similarity (Sethian), or similar tropes (presence of a Demiurge)." Dillon further notes that the Messian-definition "also excluded pre-Christian Gnosticism and later developments, such as the Mandaeans and the Manichaeans."

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Gilles Quispel divided Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism further into Jewish Gnosticism (the "Apocryphon of John") and Christian Gnosis (Marcion, Basilides, Valentinus). This "Christian Gnosticism" was Christocentric, and influenced by Christian writings such as the Gospel of John and the Pauline epistles. Other authors speak rather of "Gnostic Christians", noting that Gnostics were a prominent substream in the early church.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: The best known example of this approach is Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), who stated that "Gnosticism is the acute Hellenization of Christianity." According to Dillon, "many scholars today continue in the vein of Harnack in reading gnosticism as a late and contaminated version of Christianity", notably Darrell Block, who criticises Elaine Pagels for her view that early Christianity was wildly diverse.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Hans Jonas (1903–1993) took an existential phenomenological approach to Gnosticism. According to Jonas, alienation is a distinguishing characteristic of Gnosticism, making it different from contemporary religions. Jonas compares this alienation with the existentialist notion of "geworfenheit", Martin Heidegger's "thrownness," as in being thrown into a hostile world.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In the late 1980s scholars voiced concerns about the broadness of "Gnosticism" as a meaningful category. Bentley Layton proposed to categorize Gnosticism by delineating which groups were marked as gnostic in ancient texts. According to Layton, this term was mainly applied by heresiologists to the myth described in the "Apocryphon of John", and was used mainly by the Sethians and the Ophites. According to Layton, texts which refer to this myth can be called "classical Gnostic".

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: In addition, Alastair Logan uses social theory to identify Gnosticism. He uses Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge's sociological theory on traditional religion, sects and cults. According to Logan, the Gnostics were a cult, at odds with the society at large.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Karen King, scholars have "unwittingly continued the project of ancient heresiologists", searching for non-Christian influences, thereby continuing to portray a pure, original Christianity.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: Carl Jung approached Gnosticism from a psychological perspective, which was followed by Gilles Quispel. According to this approach, Gnosticism is a map for the human development in which an undivided person, centered on the Self, develops out of the fragmentary personhood of young age. According to Quispel, gnosis is a third force in western culture, alongside faith and reason, which offers an experiential awareness of this Self.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Gnosticism

Context: According to Ioan Culianu, gnosis is made possible through universal operations of the mind, which can be arrived at "anytime, anywhere". A similar suggestion has been made by Edward Conze, who suggested that the similarities between "prajñā" and "sophia" may be due to "the actual modalities of the human mind", which in certain conditions result in similar experiences.

Question: Miltä vuosikymmeneltä gnostilaisuus on peräisin?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Participants in a Finnish survey taken 53 years after his death voted Mannerheim the greatest Finn of all time. During his own lifetime he became, alongside Jean Sibelius, the best-known Finnish personage at home and abroad. Given the broad recognition in Finland and elsewhere of his unparalleled role in establishing and later preserving Finland's independence from the Soviet Union, Mannerheim has long been referred to as the father of modern Finland,

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was born in the Louhisaari Manor of the Askainen parish (current Masku) on June 4, 1867. After Mannerheim's father left the family for his mistress in 1880, his mother and her seven children went to live with her aunt Louise, but she died the following year. Mannerheim's maternal uncle, Albert von Julin (1846–1906), then became his legal guardian and financier of his later schooling. The third child of the family, Mannerheim inherited the title of Baron.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Mannerheim's mother tongue was Swedish. He spoke fluent German, French, and Russian, the latter of which he learned in the forces of the Russian Imperial Army. He also spoke some English, Polish, Portuguese, Latin, and Chinese. He didn't start learning Finnish properly until after Finland's independence.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: At the beginning of World War I, Mannerheim served as commander of the Guards Cavalry Brigade, and fought on the Austro-Hungarian and Romanian fronts. In December 1914, after distinguishing himself in combat against the Austro-Hungarian forces, Mannerheim was awarded the Order of St. George, 4th class. In March 1915, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 12th Cavalry Division.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: After the Whites' victory in the bitterly fought civil war, during which both sides employed ruthless terror tactics, Mannerheim resigned as commander-in-chief. He left Finland in June 1918 to visit relatives in Sweden.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Mannerheim secured recognition of Finnish independence from Britain and the United States. In July 1919, after he had confirmed a new, republican constitution, Mannerheim stood as a candidate in the first presidential election, with parliament as the electors. He was supported by the National Coalition Party and the Swedish People's Party. He finished second to Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, and withdrew from public life.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: He kept busy heading the Finnish Red Cross (Chairman 1919–1951), was a member of the board of the International Red Cross, and founded the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare ("Mannerheimin Lastensuojeluliitto"). He was also the chairman of the supervisory board of a commercial bank, the Liittopankki-Unionsbanken, and after its merger with the Bank of Helsinki, the chairman of the supervisory board of that bank until 1934, and was a member of the board of Nokia Corporation.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: In the 1920s and 1930s, Mannerheim returned to Asia, where he travelled and hunted extensively. On his first trip in 1927, to avoid going through the Soviet Union, he travelled through the British Empire, going by ship from London to Bombay. From there he travelled to Lucknow, Delhi and Calcutta in the British India. From there he travelled overland to Burma, where he spent a month at Rangoon and Mandalay. He then went on to Sikkim and returned to Finland by car and aeroplane.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: In his second voyage, in 1936, he went by ship from Aden (a British territory in Southern Arabia) to Bombay. During his travels and hunting expeditions, he visited Madras, Delhi and Nepal, where he was invited by the Rana Prime Minister Tin Maharaja Sir Joodha Shumser Jung Bahadur Rana to join a tiger hunt.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: The men of the group gathered on April 3 at the Park Café in Hämeenkatu and at this stage Karl Salo, who belonged to the group, was assigned as a shooter and gave him a Colt pistol. However, the assassination attempt failed due to Salo's hesitation, and during the crowd, Salo's securities Aleksander Weckman and Aleksanteri Suokas, equipped with Walther and Colt pistols, lost sight of him and never had time to shoot Mannerheim.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Talvisoda marski-2.jpg|thumb|[[Field Marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] [[Baron]] Mannerheim in 1940]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: He addressed the first of his often controversial orders of the day to the Defence Forces on the day the war began:

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[Field Marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] Mannerheim quickly organised his headquarters in [[Mikkeli]]. His chief of staff was Lieutenant General [[Aksel Airo]], while his close friend, General [[Rudolf Walden]], was sent as a representative of the headquarters to the cabinet from 3 December 1939 until 27 March 1940, after which he became defence minister.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Mannerheim spent most of the [[Winter War]] and [[Continuation War]] in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he remained commander-in-chief. Although Mannerheim's main task was to lead the war, he also knew how to strengthen and maintain the will of the soldiers to fight. He was famed for this quote:

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Hitler Mannerheim Ryti.jpg|thumb|right|Discussion with Hitler, [[Field Marshal (Finland)|Marshal]] Mannerheim and President [[Risto Ryti|Ryti]]. Hitler visited Mannerheim on his 75th birthday.]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Shortly thereafter, Mannerheim returned the visit, traveling to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Mannerheimin valinta 1944.jpg|thumb|Mannerheim was elected president by an emergency law passed by parliament in early August 1944]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Mannerheim ja Paasikivi.jpg|thumb|Mannerheim with his presidential successor [[J. K. Paasikivi]] ("right") and his wife Alli Paasikivi in March 1946.]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Mannerheim Leaving Presidents Residence.png|thumb|right|[[Marshal of Finland|Marshal]] [[Baron]] Mannerheim leaves the [[Presidential Palace, Helsinki|Presidential Palace]] in [[Helsinki]] on 4 March 1946 after his short presidency]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Mannerheim was troubled by recurring health problems during 1945, and was absent on medical leave from his duties as president from November until February 1946. He spent six weeks in Portugal to restore his health. After the announcement of the verdicts in the war crimes trials in February, Mannerheim decided to resign. He believed that he had accomplished the duties he had been elected to carry out: The war was ended, the armistice obligations carried out, and war responsibility trials finished.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Mannerheim resigned as president on 11 March 1946, giving as his reason his declining health and his view that the tasks he had been selected to carry out had been accomplished. He was succeeded as president by the conservative Prime Minister [[J. K. Paasikivi]].

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Mannerheims funeral parade Helsinki.png|thumb|Mannerheim's funeral parade in [[Helsinki Senate Square]] on 4 February 1951.]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: Mannerheim died on 27 January 1951 (28 January Finland time), in the Cantonal Hospital in [[Lausanne]] (; modern [[Lausanne University Hospital]]), Switzerland. He was buried on 4 February 1951 in the [[Hietaniemi Cemetery]] in [[Helsinki]] in a [[state funeral]] with full military honours.

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Mannerheim-50p-1941.jpg|thumb|upright|The 1941 Finnish postal stamp portraying Marshal Mannerheim]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: [[File:Mannerheim Memorial in Montreux dedication.jpg|thumb|upright|Mannerheim Memorial in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], next to [[Lake Geneva]]]]

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Context: From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or stamp series were issued in honour of Mannerheim; and in 1960 the United States honoured Mannerheim as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class envelope domestic and international stamps (at the time four cents and eight cents respectively) as part of its Champions of Liberty series that included other notable figures such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Simon Bolivar]].

Question: Kuka toimi suomen puollustusvoimien päällikkönä sota aikana?


Maiden (guillotine)

Context: Manufactured in Edinburgh, the Maiden is built of oak, with a lead weight and iron blade. It is displayed at the National Museum of Scotland.

Question: Milloin giljotiiniä aloitettiin käyttämään?


Maiden (guillotine)

Context: Beheading machines were not a new idea: a European example is shown in a 1539 illustration by Lucas Cranach the Elder.

Question: Milloin giljotiiniä aloitettiin käyttämään?


Maiden (guillotine)

Context: during the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the records of the construction of the Maiden survive. The accounts reveal that it was made by the carpenters Adam and Patrick Shang and George Tod. Andrew Gotterson added the lead weight to the blade. Patrick Shang was paid two pounds for his 'whole labours and devising of the timber work'. Shang also made furniture in Edinburgh, including an oak bed for Queen Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray.

Question: Milloin giljotiiniä aloitettiin käyttämään?


Maiden (guillotine)

Context: The Maiden was stored away, and when rediscovered was put on display at the Museum of Antiquities, now the National Museum of Scotland.

Question: Milloin giljotiiniä aloitettiin käyttämään?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Double Data Rate 2 Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DDR2 SDRAM) is a double data rate (DDR) synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) interface. It superseded the original DDR SDRAM specification, and was itself superseded by DDR3 SDRAM (launched in 2007). DDR2 DIMMs are neither forward compatible with DDR3 nor backward compatible with DDR.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: In addition to double pumping the data bus as in DDR SDRAM (transferring data on the rising and falling edges of the bus clock signal), DDR2 allows higher bus speed and requires lower power by running the internal clock at half the speed of the data bus. The two factors combine to produce a total of four data transfers per internal clock cycle.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Since the DDR2 internal clock runs at half the DDR external clock rate, DDR2 memory operating at the same external data bus clock rate as DDR results in DDR2 being able to provide the same bandwidth but with better latency. Alternatively, DDR2 memory operating at twice the external data bus clock rate as DDR may provide twice the bandwidth with the same latency. The best-rated DDR2 memory modules are at least twice as fast as the best-rated DDR memory modules.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: The maximum capacity on commercially available DDR2 DIMMs is 8GB, but chipset support and availability for those DIMMs is sparse and more common 2GB per DIMM are used.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: DDR2 SDRAM was first produced by Samsung in 2001. In 2003, the JEDEC standards organization presented Samsung with its Technical Recognition Award for the company's efforts in developing and standardizing DDR2.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Another cost of the increased bandwidth is the requirement that the chips are packaged in a more expensive and difficult to assemble BGA package as compared to the TSSOP package of the previous memory generations such as DDR SDRAM and SDR SDRAM. This packaging change was necessary to maintain signal integrity at higher bus speeds.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Power savings are achieved primarily due to an improved manufacturing process through die shrinkage, resulting in a drop in operating voltage (1.8 V compared to DDR's 2.5 V). The lower memory clock frequency may also enable power reductions in applications that do not require the highest available data rates.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: According to JEDEC the maximum recommended voltage is 1.9 volts and should be considered the absolute maximum when memory stability is an issue (such as in servers or other mission critical devices). In addition, JEDEC states that memory modules must withstand up to 2.3 volts before incurring permanent damage (although they may not actually function correctly at that level).

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: For use in computers, DDR2 SDRAM is supplied in DIMMs with 240 pins and a single locating notch. Laptop DDR2 SO-DIMMs have 200 pins and often come identified by an additional S in their designation. DIMMs are identified by their peak transfer capacity (often called bandwidth).

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Note: DDR2-xxx denotes data transfer rate, and describes raw DDR chips, whereas PC2-xxxx denotes theoretical bandwidth (with the last two digits truncated), and is used to describe assembled DIMMs. Bandwidth is calculated by taking transfers per second and multiplying by eight. This is because DDR2 memory modules transfer data on a bus that is 64 data bits wide, and since a byte comprises 8 bits, this equates to 8 bytes of data per transfer.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: DDR2 DIMMs are not backward compatible with DDR DIMMs. The notch on DDR2 DIMMs is in a different position from DDR DIMMs, and the pin density is higher than DDR DIMMs in desktops. DDR2 is a 240-pin module, DDR is a 184-pin module. Notebooks have 200-pin SO-DIMMs for DDR and DDR2; however, the notch on DDR2 modules is in a slightly different position than on DDR modules.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Higher-speed DDR2 DIMMs can be mixed with lower-speed DDR2 DIMMs, although the memory controller will operate all DIMMs at same speed as the lowest-speed DIMM present.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: GDDR3 and GDDR5 is now commonly used in modern graphics cards and some tablet PCs. However, further confusion has been added to the mix with the appearance of budget and mid-range graphics cards which claim to use "GDDR2". These cards actually use standard DDR2 chips designed for use as main system memory although operating with higher latencies to achieve higher clockrates. These chips cannot achieve the clock rates of GDDR3 but are inexpensive and fast enough to be used as memory on mid-range cards.

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


DDR2 SDRAM

Context: Note**: JEDEC website requires registration ($2,500 membership) for viewing or downloading of these documents: http://www.jedec.org/standards-documents

Question: Milloin DDR2 muisti tuli markkinoille?


Hitler birthplace memorial stone

Context: At the time of Hitler's birth, the building was a modest guest house, where Hitler's parents rented rooms in connection with his father's job as a minor customs official at the nearby Austrian–German border. The Hitlers lived in the building only until Adolf was three years old, when his father was transferred to Passau.

Question: Minkä kaupungin lähistöllä Hitler vietti lapsuutensa?


Hitler birthplace memorial stone

Context: In 1989, the new mayor, Gerhard Skiba, took the initiative. In April 1989, (two weeks before the centenary of Hitler's birth) a memorial was placed directly in front of the house on public ground. The stone for the memorial came from a quarry on the grounds of the former Mauthausen Concentration Camp, near Linz, Austria. The inscription on the memorial reads:

Question: Minkä kaupungin lähistöllä Hitler vietti lapsuutensa?


Hitler birthplace memorial stone

Context: The official name of the memorial is the "Memorial Stone Against War and Fascism". It appears as the "Mahnstein" "("Remembrance Stone")" on street maps.

Question: Minkä kaupungin lähistöllä Hitler vietti lapsuutensa?


Earthquake

Context: At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and displacing or disrupting the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides and, occasionally, volcanic activity.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: In its most general sense, the word "earthquake" is used to describe any seismic event—whether natural or caused by humans—that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its hypocenter or focus. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault, however, is not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. Thus, the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become (Japan, 2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of within the brittle crust. Thus, earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about .

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighboring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g., deglaciation). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: During an earthquake, high temperatures can develop at the fault plane so increasing pore pressure consequently to vaporization of the ground water already contained within rock.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: In the coseismic phase, such increase can significantly affect slip evolution and speed and, furthermore, in the post-seismic phase it can control the Aftershock sequence because, after the main event, pore pressure increase slowly propagates into the surrounding fracture network.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: From the point of view of the Mohr-Coulomb strength theory, an increase in fluid pressure reduces the normal stress acting on the fault plane that holds it in place, and fluids can exert a lubricating effect.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: The first scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes was developed by Charles F. Richter in 1935. Subsequent scales (see seismic magnitude scales) have retained a key feature, where each unit represents a ten-fold difference in the amplitude of the ground shaking and a 32-fold difference in energy. Subsequent scales are also adjusted to have approximately the same numeric value within the limits of the scale.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Although the mass media commonly reports earthquake magnitudes as "Richter magnitude" or "Richter scale", standard practice by most seismological authorities is to express an earthquake's strength on the moment magnitude scale, which is based on the actual energy released by an earthquake.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: an earthquake of 3.7–4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7–5.5 every 10 years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years. This is an example of the Gutenberg–Richter law.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low intensity. However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the , horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo and Tehran in areas of high seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to three million people.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities:

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Propagation velocity of the seismic waves through solid rock ranges from approx. up to , depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the Earth's interior, the shock- or P-waves travel much faster than the S-waves (approx. relation 1.7:1). The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also, the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: On average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P- and S-wave times 8. Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analysis of seismograms, the Earth's core was located in 1913 by Beno Gutenberg.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: S-waves and later arriving surface waves do most of the damage compared to P-waves. P-waves squeeze and expand the material in the same direction they are traveling, whereas S-waves shake the ground up and down and back and forth.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is divided into 754 Flinn–Engdahl regions (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Standard reporting of earthquakes includes its magnitude, date and time of occurrence, geographic coordinates of its epicenter, depth of the epicenter, geographical region, distances to population centers, location uncertainty, several parameters that are included in USGS earthquake reports (number of stations reporting, number of observations, etc.), and a unique event ID.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Although relatively slow seismic waves have traditionally been used to detect earthquakes, scientists realized in 2016 that gravitational measurements could provide instantaneous detection of earthquakes, and confirmed this by analyzing gravitational records associated with the 2011 Tohoku-Oki ("Fukushima") earthquake.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and the effects of seismic energy focalization owing to the typical geometrical setting of such deposits.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges, and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any that are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general property damage, and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities, mental consequences such as panic attacks, depression to survivors, and higher insurance premiums.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue work.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: Floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?


Earthquake

Context: The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flooding if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people.

Question: Mistä maanjäristys syntyy?