Kurt Cobain

Context: Broomfield's documentary was noted by "The New York Times" to be a rambling, largely speculative and circumstantial work, relying on flimsy evidence as was his later documentary "Biggie & Tupac".

Question: Во сколько лет умер Курт Кобейн?


Kurt Cobain

Context: Gus Van Sant loosely based his 2005 movie "Last Days" on the events in the final days of Cobain's life, starring Michael Pitt as the main character Blake who was based on Cobain. In January 2007, Love began to shop the biography "Heavier Than Heaven" to various movie studios in Hollywood to turn the book into an A-list feature film about Cobain and Nirvana.

Question: Во сколько лет умер Курт Кобейн?


Kurt Cobain

Context: A Brett Morgen film, entitled "", premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015, followed by small-screen and cinema releases. Morgen said that documentary "will be this generation's "The Wall"".

Question: Во сколько лет умер Курт Кобейн?


Kurt Cobain

Context: Regarding the depiction of Nirvana, and in particular Kurt Cobain, the indie rock author Andrew Earles wrote:

Question: Во сколько лет умер Курт Кобейн?


Kurt Cobain

Context: In September 2009, the Roy Smiles play "Kurt and Sid" debuted at the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End. The play, set in Cobain's greenhouse on the day of his suicide, revolves around the ghost of Sid Vicious visiting Cobain to try to convince him not to kill himself. Cobain was played by Shaun Evans.

Question: Во сколько лет умер Курт Кобейн?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The main religion in Azerbaijan is Islam, though Azerbaijan is the most secular country in the Muslim world. Estimates include 96.9% (CIA, 2010) and 99.2% (Pew Research Center, 2006) of the population identifying as Muslim.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The rest of the population adheres to other faiths or are non-religious, although they are not officially represented. Other traditional religions or beliefs that are followed by many in the country are the Armenian Apostolic Church (in Nagorno-Karabakh), the Russian Orthodox Church, and various other Christian denominations.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The Christian religion began to be spread in the territory of present day Azerbaijan in the first years of the Apostolic era. Christianity is represented by Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism as well as a number of minority communities in Azerbaijan.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Christians, who are estimated to number between 280,000–450,000 (3.1%–4.8%) are mostly Russian and Georgian Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic (almost all Armenians live in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh). There is also a small ethnic Azerbaijani Protestant community, numbering around 5,000, mostly from Muslim backgrounds.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Orthodoxy is currently represented in Azerbaijan by the Russian and Georgian Orthodox churches. The Russian Orthodox Churches are grouped in the Eparchy of Baku and the Caspian region.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Azerbaijan also has eleven Molokan communities related to the old rituals of Orthodoxy. These communities do not have any church; their dogmas are fixed in a special book of rituals. They oppose the church hierarchy which has a special power.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Approximately 6,000 of the 10,000 people of the Udi ethnic community live in Azerbaijan including 4,400 people residing in Nij village, Qabala district.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The Vatican Foreign Minister Giovanni Lajolo visited Baku on May 19, 2006. During the visit that lasted until May 25, he met with President Ilham Aliyev and chairman of the Caucasus Clerical Office, Sheikh Allahshukur Pashazada to discuss ties between Azerbaijan and the Vatican.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Giovanni Lajolo made the following statements: "We are satisfied with the level of friendly communications between Azerbaijan and Vatican". "Azerbaijan really is a place of merge of religions and cultures. We highly estimate tolerance existing here. And we are very glad with intensive development of Azerbaijan. Vatican is interested in expansion of relations with Azerbaijan, and the purpose of my visit to Baku consists in carrying out of exchange by opinions on the further development of our ties."

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Baku's Catholic church was demolished in the Stalin era, but a new one commenced building in September 2005 and was opened in the summer of 2007.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The history of Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan goes back to the first millennium BC. Together with the other territories of the Persian Empire, Azerbaijan remained a predominantly Zoroastrian state until the Arab invasion in the 7th century. The name Azerbaijan means the "Land of The Eternal Fire" in Middle Persian, a name that is said to have a direct link with Zoroastrianism.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Today the religion, culture, and traditions of Zoroastrianism remain highly respected in Azerbaijan, and Novruz continues to be the main holiday in the country. Zoroastrianism has left a deep mark in the history of Azerbaijan. Traces of the religion are still visible in Ramana, Khinalyg, and Yanar Dag.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan has been tied not to survival of the ancient religion in the area, but a more recent arrival of the Parsi Zoroastrians coming from the British India, such as from Sindh and the Punjabi city of Multan at the time of the discovery of oil in Baku and the need for expert labor in the 1880s. The Fire Temple of Baku was constructed for their use at the site of an ancient fire temple utilizing the naturally burning gas and oil on the ground. The structure a

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Hinduism in Azerbaijan has been tied to cultural diffusion on the Silk Road. In the Middle Ages, Hindu traders visited present-day Azerbaijan for the Silk Road trade. The area was traversed by Hindu traders coming mostly from Multan and Sindh (Pakistan). The Hindus also have the Fire Temple of Baku. Today there are over 400–500 Hindus in Azerbaijan.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Very little is known about pre-Christian and pre-Islam Azerbaijani mythology; sources are mostly Hellenic historians like Strabo and based on archeological evidence. Strabo names the gods of the sun, the sky, and above all, the moon.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: There are 1802 Mosques, 10 Synagogues, 5 Eastern Orthodox, 1 Catholic, 4 Georgian Orthodox, 1 Lutheran church and other places of worship in Azerbaijan. The Red Town of Guba has been home to Jews since the 13th century with their unique language, specific customs and traditions and is believed to be the world's only all-Jewish town outside Israel. There are 2 schools for Jewish children, and 2 synagogues in the town.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Article 25 and 44 of the Constitution of Azerbaijan grants equality of rights and liberties of everyone, irrespective of race, nationality, religion, language, sex, origin, financial position, occupation, political convictions, membership in political parties, trade unions and other public organizations. President of Azerbaijan declared 2016 to be the “Year of Multiculturalism”.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The constitution of Azerbaijan provides for freedom of religion, and the law does not allow religious activities to be interfered with unless they endanger public order.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: As a result of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, mosques in the Nagorno-Karabakh region have been abandoned, and Armenian churches in Azerbaijan have likewise been inactive or damaged in the fighting.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: The position of the governmental authorities towards Islam is controversial. Men who grow beards more than normal are often viewed with suspicion by the authorities, for fear of the propagation of Wahhabism. Despite the government's denial of the matter, the Azerbaijani police drew criticism from lawyers for infringing the rights of observant Muslims.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: However, the 2009 Religion Law requires the compulsory re-registration of all religious groups. The overwhelming majority of religious groups that have been granted re-registration are Muslim. Hundreds of others are still waiting to hear from the authorities.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Religion in Azerbaijan

Context: Despite being (Shia) Muslim majority country, the ruling regime of Ilham Aliyev regularly and aggressively enforces secularism; Azerbaijanis are forbidden to study in foreign hawzas, Azeri women are discouraged and forbidden from mandatory Islamic veiling, yearly Ashura commemorations are scrutinised and often banned.

Question: Какую религию исповедует большенство населения Азербайджа́на на март 2019?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: The initial Treaty of San Stefano, signed on 3 March 1878, is today celebrated on Liberation Day in Bulgaria, although the occasion somewhat fell out of favour during the years of Communist rule.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: Article 9 of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty, concluded at the end of the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. Before the treaty was signed, the Ottoman government issued an edict, the Edict of Gülhane, which proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: In 1858, stirred by their clergy, the Maronite peasants of northern Lebanon revolted against their predominantly Druze feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern Lebanon, where both Maronite and Druze peasants worked under Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their co-religious and against the Maronites, transforming the conflict into a civil war. Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were massacred at the hands of the Druze.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: The Cretan Revolt, which began in 1866, resulted from the failure of the Ottoman Empire to apply reforms for improving the life of the population and the Cretans' desire for enosis — union with Greece. The insurgents gained control over the whole island, except for five fortified cities where the Muslims took refuge. The Greek press claimed that Muslims had massacred Greeks and the word was spread throughout Europe. Thousands of Greek volunteers were mobilized and sent to the island.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: The siege of Arkadi Monastery became particularly well known. In November 1866, about 250 Cretan Greek combatants and around 600 women and children were besieged by about 23,000 mainly Cretan Muslims aided by Ottoman troops, and this became widely known in Europe. After a bloody battle with a large number of casualties on both sides, the Cretan Greeks finally surrendered when their ammunition ran out but were killed upon surrender.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: By early 1869, the insurrection was suppressed, but the Porte offered some concessions, introducing island self-rule and increasing Christian rights on the island. Although the Cretan crisis ended better for the Ottomans than almost any other diplomatic confrontation of the century, the insurrection, and especially the brutality with which it was suppressed, led to greater public attention in Europe to the oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: Franklin Parker states that the Albanian highlanders resented new taxes and conscription, and fought against the Ottomans in the war.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: An uprising against Ottoman rule began in Herzegovina in July 1875. By August almost all of Herzegovina had been seized and the revolt had spread into Bosnia. Supported by nationalist volunteers from Serbia and Montenegro, the uprising continued as the Ottomans committed more and more troops to suppress it.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: The revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovina spurred Bucharest-based Bulgarian revolutionaries into action. In 1875, a Bulgarian uprising was hastily prepared to take advantage of Ottoman preoccupation, but it fizzled before it started. In the spring of 1876, another uprising erupted in the south-central Bulgarian lands despite the fact that there were numerous regular Turkish troops in those areas.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: On 10 May 1877, the Principality of Romania, which was under formal Turkish rule, declared its independence.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: Many Jewish communities in their entirety fled with the retreating Turks as their protectors. The "Bulletins de l'Alliance Israélite Universelle" reported that thousands of Bulgarian Jews found refuge at the Ottoman capital of Constantinople.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: Bulgarian historians claim that 30,000 civilian Bulgarians were killed during the war, two-thirds of which occurred in the Stara Zagora area.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

Context: The novella "Jalaleddin", published in 1878 by the novelist Raffi describes the Kurdish massacres of Armenians in the Eastern Ottoman Empire at the time of the Russo-Turkish War. The novella follows the journey of a young man through the mountains of Anatolia. The historical descriptions in the novella correspond with information from British sources at the time.

Question: Кто выиграл в Русско-турецкой войне?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman was executive producer of films like "The Contender", "Plunkett & Macleane" (1999) and "Nil by Mouth" (1997), the latter of which he also wrote and directed. He has featured in television shows such as "Slow Horses", "Fallen Angels", "Tracey Takes On..." and "Friends", voiced Ignitius and Viktor Reznov respectively in "The Legend of Spyro" and "Call of Duty" video games and appeared in music videos for David Bowie, Guns N' Roses and Annie Lennox.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman attended West Greenwich School in Deptford, leaving at the age of 16 to work in a sports shop. He played piano as a child, but he gave up his musical aspirations to pursue an acting career after seeing Malcolm McDowell's performance in the film "The Raging Moon" (1971). In a 1995 interview with Charlie Rose, he said, "Something about Malcolm just arrested me, and I connected, and I said, 'I wanna do that.'"

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman studied with the Young People's Theatre in Greenwich during the mid-1970s, while working jobs on assembly lines, as a porter in an operating theatre, selling shoes and beheading pigs in an abattoir. He applied unsuccessfully to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), which welcomed him to try again the following year, but advised him to find something else to do for a living. When asked by Charlie Rose if he had reminded RADA of this, Oldman joked that "the work speaks for itself".

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: He won a scholarship to attend the Rose Bruford College in Sidcup, south-east London, from which he graduated with a BA in Acting in 1979. Oldman described himself as a "shy" but diligent worker during his time there, performing roles such as Puck in Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream".

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2010, Oldman co-starred with Denzel Washington in "The Book of Eli". He also played a lead role in Catherine Hardwicke's "Red Riding Hood". Oldman voiced the role of villain Lord Shen and was nominated for an Annie Award for his performance in "Kung Fu Panda 2".

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2015, Oldman played the head of police that investigates Tom Hardy's character in "Child 44", alongside Noomi Rapace and Joel Kinnaman, and had a supporting role in the post-apocalyptic American thriller "Man Down", directed by Dito Montiel, and starring alongside Shia LaBeouf and Kate Mara. In 2016, Oldman played a CIA chief in "Criminal", directed by Ariel Vromen, and starring Kevin Costner, Tommy Lee Jones, Ryan Reynolds, Alice Eve, and Gal Gadot.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2018, in his first post-Oscar role, Oldman voiced an evil artificial intelligence in Netflix's independent film "Tau" and starred in "Hunter Killer" alongside Gerard Butler. In 2019, Oldman starred in horror-thriller "Mary", directed by Michael Goi, and the thriller "The Courier", opposite Olga Kurylenko, and appeared in Steven Soderbergh's "The Laundromat" as Jürgen Mossack, opposite Meryl Streep and Antonio Banderas.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: He has been set to play a hitman alongside Dylan O'Brien in "The Bayou". Oldman is also slated to direct a biopic about Eadweard Muybridge entitled "Flying Horse".

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2022, Oldman starred as a cantankerous manager of intelligence agents in the Apple TV+ spy drama television series "Slow Horses", based on the book of the same name. "Slow Horses" marked the first time Oldman played a lead role in a television series.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2015, Oldman and his manager Douglas Urbanski signed a deal with the Simon & Schuster/Atria Publishing label Emily Bestler Books for "Blood Riders", a vampire book series.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman has adopted various accents for roles and portrayed a wide range of characters. He is known for his in-depth research of his roles, as well as his devotion to them, at one point being hospitalized after losing significant weight for "Sid and Nancy", and another time had to hire a dialect coach to relearn his English accent after nearly adopting an "American twang" due to his children being raised American. In a 2017 interview, he differentiated between immersion and impression:

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2012, Oldman was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork—the Beatles' "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" album cover—to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires to mark his 80th birthday. In 2014, he received the Dilys Powell Award For Excellence In Film by the London Film Critics.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: In 2019, British Airways celebrated its 100th anniversary with a television advertisement featuring key figures from British culture, including Oldman. He was described by BA as "an iconic British legend" who is "regarded as one of the greatest screen actors of his generation".

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: After establishing himself as an actor, Oldman moved to Los Angeles in the early 1990s. Despite numerous lead and supporting roles in major Hollywood films, he is protective of his private life and is known for his stance on celebrity culture and the ideals of Hollywood: "Being famous, that's a whole other career. And I haven't got any energy for it." In 2014, he described himself as a libertarian.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman's alcoholism was well known during the early 1990s; he was arrested for drunk driving in 1991 and checked himself into rehab in 1994. In subsequent interviews, he acknowledged his problems with alcohol and called himself a recovering alcoholic in a 2001 interview with Charlie Rose. He now lives a teetotal lifestyle (he has been sober since 1997) and attributes his success in beating his addiction to attending meetings with Alcoholics Anonymous, whom he has publicly praised.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman has been married five times. He wed English actress Lesley Manville in 1987, and their son, Alfie, was born the following year. Oldman broke up with Manville in 1989, three months after their son was born. She stated in 2018 that they are on good terms, saying, "[H]e's got a new wife, and we all get on... Gary and I are friends." They have two grandchildren, Matilda and Ozzy Oldman, through Alfie.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: Oldman met American actress Uma Thurman on the set of "State of Grace"; they were married in 1990, but divorced in 1992. From 1994 to 1996, he was engaged to Italian actress and model Isabella Rossellini, his co-star in "Immortal Beloved", but they never wed.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


Gary Oldman

Context: On 31 December 2008, Oldman married English singer and actress Alexandra Edenborough in Santa Barbara, California. Edenborough filed for divorce on 9 January 2015; the divorce was finalised in September 2015. In August 2017, Oldman married writer and art curator Gisele Schmidt in a private ceremony at the home of his manager, Douglas Urbanski.

Question: Когда родился Гэ́ри Ле́онард О́лдмен?


List of Moscow Kremlin towers

Context: The Second Unnamed Tower () was built in the middle of the 15th century. It had purely defensive functions. In 1680, a quadrangular structure and a tall pyramidal tent roof with a watchtower were added to the top of the tower. It is crowned with an eight-sided hipped cupola with a weather vane.

Question: Сколько башен в Московском Кремле?


List of Moscow Kremlin towers

Context: The Nikolskaya Tower () is a tower with a through-passage on the eastern wall of the Moscow Kremlin, which overlooks the Red Square not far from the State Historical Museum.

Question: Сколько башен в Московском Кремле?


List of Moscow Kremlin towers

Context: Marking today the main public entrance to the Kremlin, the Kutafya tower was modified several times through the centuries:

Question: Сколько башен в Московском Кремле?


List of Moscow Kremlin towers

Context: The Kutafya Tower is currently 13.5 m high; it used to be 18 m but the lower part of the tower was "submerged" by successive constructions that heightened the street-level ground.

Question: Сколько башен в Московском Кремле?


Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin

Context: Stalin's health deteriorated towards the end of World War II. He had atherosclerosis as a result of heavy smoking, a mild stroke around the time of the Victory Parade in May 1945, and a severe heart attack in October 1945.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Сталин?


Context: Stalin's body was then taken to an unspecified location and an autopsy performed, after which it was embalmed for public viewing. Attempts to locate the original autopsy report have been unsuccessful until recently, but the most important findings were reported in a special bulletin in Pravda on 7 March 1953, as follows:

Question: В каком возрасте умер Сталин?


Context: Czechoslovak leader Gottwald died shortly after attending Stalin's funeral on 14 March 1953 after one of his arteries burst.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Сталин?


Context: Fearing their departure might encourage rivals within the ranks of the Party of Labour of Albania, neither Prime Minister Enver Hoxha nor Deputy Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu risked traveling to Moscow to attend the funeral, with Hoxha instead pledging eternal allegiance to the late Soviet leader.

Question: В каком возрасте умер Сталин?


Context: Guatemalan officials in the government of Jacobo Árbenz eulogized Stalin as a "great statesman and leader ... whose passing is mourned by all progressive men". The Guatemalan Congress paid tribute to Stalin with a "minute of silence".

Question: В каком возрасте умер Сталин?


Secession in the United States

Context: In the context of the United States, secession primarily refers to the voluntary withdrawal of one or more states from the Union that constitutes the United States; but may loosely refer to leaving a state or territory to form a separate territory or new state, or to the severing of an area from a city or county within a state. Advocates for secession are called disunionists by their contemporaries in various historical documents.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Threats and aspirations to secede from the United States, or arguments justifying secession, have been a feature of the country's politics almost since its birth. Some have argued for secession as a constitutional right and others as from a natural right of revolution. In "Texas v. White" (1869), the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession unconstitutional, while commenting that revolution or consent of the states could lead to a successful secession.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: The most serious attempt at secession was advanced in the years 1860 and 1861 as 11 Southern states each declared secession from the United States, and joined together to form the Confederate States of America, a procedure and body that the [northern] government of the United States refused to accept. The movement collapsed in 1865 with the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in the American Civil War.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: In the history of the United States, the only territories to have been withdrawn from the country are the small portions of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 49th parallel north, established as the U.S.–British (now Canadian) border by the Treaty of 1818; and the territory of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, which became independent after the Treaty of Manila. The former is today part of Canada, while the latter corresponds to the Republic of the Philippines.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Boundaries of U.S. territories, such as the Nebraska Territory, were not defined precisely. The boundaries of each new state are set in the document admitting the former territory to the Union as a state, which Congress must approve. There is only one instance in U.S. history in which a portion of a state successfully seceded to create a new state: West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863. The central issue was slavery, which was not allowed in the new West Virginia.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Historian Pauline Maier argues that this narrative asserted "the right of revolution, which was, after all, the right Americans were exercising in 1776"; and notes that Thomas Jefferson's language incorporated ideas explained at length by a long list of 17th-century writers, including John Milton, Algernon Sidney, John Locke, and other English and Scottish commentators, all of whom had contributed to the development of the Whig tradition in 18th-century Britain.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Gordon S. Wood quotes President John Adams: "Only repeated, multiplied oppressions placing it beyond all doubt that their rulers had formed settled plans to deprive them of their liberties, could warrant the concerted resistance of the people against their government".

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Whatever the intentions of the Founders, threats of secession and disunion were a constant in the political discourse of Americans preceding the Civil War. Historian Elizabeth R. Varon wrote:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Because the Articles had specified a "perpetual union", various arguments have been offered to explain the apparent contradiction (and presumed illegality) of abandoning one form of government and creating another that did not include the members of the original. One explanation was that the Articles of Confederation simply failed to protect the vital interests of the individual states. Necessity then, rather than legality, was the practical factor in abandoning the Articles.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Other arguments that justified abandoning the Articles of Confederation pictured the Articles as an "international" compact between "unconsolidated", "sovereign" states, any one of which was empowered to renounce the compact at will. (This as opposed to a "consolidated" union that "totally annihilated, without any power of revival" the sovereign states.) The Articles required that all states were obliged to comply with all requirements of the agreement; thus, permanence was linked to compliance.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: St. George Tucker, an influential jurist in the early republic era, and especially in the South, argued that abandoning the Articles of Confederation was the same as seceding from the Articles government. In 1803, he wrote that the unanimous dissolution of the Articles Confederation in 1789 by Act of Congress was legal precedent for future secession(s) from the Constitution one state at a time by state legislatures.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Nationalists for Union in the antebellum America argued the opposite of secession; that indeed the new Constitution inherited "perpetuity" from the language in the Articles and from other actions done prior to the Constitution. Historian Kenneth Stampp explains their view:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Patrick Henry adamantly opposed adopting the Constitution because he interpreted its language to replace the sovereignty of the individual states, including that of his own Virginia. He gave his strong voice to the anti-federalist cause in opposition to the federalists led by Madison and Hamilton. Questioning the nature of the proposed new federal government, Henry asked:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Debates on the legality of secession often looked back to the example of the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence. Law professor Daniel Farber defined what he considered the borders of this debate:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: In the public debate over the Nullification Crisis the separate issue of secession was also discussed. James Madison, often referred to as "The Father of the Constitution", strongly opposed the argument that secession was permitted by the Constitution. In a March 15, 1833, letter to Daniel Webster (congratulating him on a speech opposing nullification), Madison discussed "revolution" versus "secession":

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Thus Madison affirms an "extra"constitutional right to revolt against conditions of "intolerable oppression"; but if the case cannot be made (that such conditions exist), then he rejects secession—as a violation of the Constitution.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: During the crisis, President Andrew Jackson, published his Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, which made a case for the perpetuity of the Union; plus, he provided his views re the questions of "revolution" and "secession":

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: In response to the 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts—advanced by the Federalist Party—John Taylor of the Virginia House of Delegates spoke out, urging Virginia to secede from the United States. He argued—as one of many vociferous responses by the Jeffersonian Republicans—the sense of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, adopted in 1798 and 1799, which reserved to those States the rights of secession and interposition (nullification).

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Thomas Jefferson, while sitting as Vice President of the United States in 1799, wrote to James Madison of his conviction in "a reservation of th[ose] rights resulting to us from these palpable violations [the Alien and Sedition Acts]" and, "if the federal government did not return to"

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Jeffersonian Republicans were not alone in claiming "reserved rights" against the federal government. Contributing to the rancorous debates during the War of 1812, Founding Father Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania and New York—a Federalist, a Hamilton ally and a primary author of the Constitution who advanced the concept that Americans were citizens of a single Union of the states—was persuaded to claim that "secession, under certain circumstances, was entirely constitutional."

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Federalist party members convened the Hartford Convention on December 15, 1814, and they addressed their opposition to the continuing war with Britain and the domination of the federal government by the "Virginia dynasty". Twenty six delegates attended; Massachusetts sent 12, Connecticut seven, and Rhode Island four. New Hampshire and Vermont declined, but two counties each from those states sent delegates. Historian Donald R. Hickey notes:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: The final report addressed issues related to the war and state defense, and it recommended several amendments to the Constitution. Massachusetts and Connecticut endorsed it, but the war ended as the delegates were returning to Washington, effectively quashing any impact that it might have had. The Jeffersonians described the convention as "a synonym for disloyalty and treason", and it became a major factor in the sharp decline of the Federalist Party.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: It is not often remembered today, as it was the South that actually attempted to secede. However, there was a movement to have the North secede, thereby escaping the Slave Power that dominated the Federal government.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Support of secession began to shift to Southern states from 1846, after introduction of the Wilmot Proviso into the public debate. Southern leaders increasingly felt helpless against a powerful political group that was attacking their interests, reminiscent of Federalist alarms at the beginning of the century.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: "See main articles Origins of the American Civil War, Confederate States of America and American Civil War."

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: This secession movement brought about the American Civil War. The position of the Union was that the Confederacy was not a sovereign nation—and never had been, but that "the Union" was always a single nation by intent of the states themselves, from 1776 onward—and thus that a rebellion had been initiated by individuals. Historian Bruce Catton described President Abraham Lincoln's April 15, 1861, proclamation after the attack on Fort Sumter, which defined the Union's position on the hostilities:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: "Texas v. White" was argued before the United States Supreme Court during the December 1868 term. Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase read the Court's decision, on April 15, 1869. Australian Professors Peter Radan and Aleksandar Pavkovic write:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: However, the Court's decision recognized some possibility of the divisibility "through revolution, or through consent of the States".

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: In 1877, the "Williams v. Bruffy" decision was rendered, pertaining to Civil War debts. The Court wrote regarding acts establishing an independent government that "The validity of its acts, both against the parent state and the citizens or subjects thereof, depends entirely upon its ultimate success; if it fail to establish itself permanently, all such acts perish with it; if it succeed and become recognized, its acts from the commencement of its existence are upheld as those of an independent nation."

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Historian Kenneth Stampp notes that a historical case against secession had been made that argued that "the Union is older than the states" and that "the provision for a perpetual Union in the Articles of Confederation" was carried over into the Constitution by the "reminder that the preamble to the new Constitution gives us one of its purposes the formation of 'a more perfect Union'". Concerning the "White" decision Stampp wrote:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: The separation referred to is not secession but partition. Some of the movements to partition states have identified themselves as "secessionist" movements.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Of the new states admitted to the Union by Congress, three were set off from already existing states, while one was established upon land claimed by an existing state after existing for several years as a "de facto" independent republic. They are:

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: There was an attempt by Staten Island to break away from New York City in the late 1980s and early 1990s, leading to a 1993 referendum, in which 65% voted to secede. Implementation was blocked in the State Assembly by assertions that the state's constitution required a "home rule message" from New York City.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: The San Fernando Valley lost a vote to separate from Los Angeles in 2002. Despite the majority (55%) of the valley within the L.A. city limits voting for secession, the city council unanimously voted to block the partition of the valley north of Mulholland Drive.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Other attempted city secession drives include Killington, Vermont, which has voted twice (2005 and 2006) to join New Hampshire; the community of Miller Beach, Indiana, originally a separate incorporated community, to split from the city of Gary in 2007 and Northeast Philadelphia to split from the city of Philadelphia in the 1980s.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: A portion of the town of Calabash, North Carolina, voted to secede from the town in 1998 after receiving permission for a referendum on the issue from the state of North Carolina. Following secession, the area incorporated itself as the town of Carolina Shores. Despite the split, the towns continue to share fire and emergency services.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: The town of Rough and Ready, California declared its secession from the Union as The Great Republic of Rough and Ready on 7 April 1850, largely to avoid mining taxes, but voted to rejoin the Union less than three months later on 4 July.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: Some state movements seek secession from the United States itself and the formation of a nation from one or more states.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: A September 2017 Zogby International poll found that 68% of Americans were open to states of the USA seceding. A 2014 Reuters/Ipsos poll showed 24% of Americans supported their state seceding from the union if necessary; 53% opposed the idea. Republicans were somewhat more supportive than Democrats. Respondents cited issues like gridlock, governmental overreach, the possible unconstitutionality of the Affordable Care Act and a loss of faith in the federal government as reasons for desiring secession.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Secession in the United States

Context: A 2021 poll found that 52% of Trump voters and 41% of Biden voters support partitioning the United States into multiple countries based on political party lines.

Question: Сколько штатов входило в конфедерацию?


Panpsychism

Context: The term "panpsychism" comes from the Greek "pan" (πᾶν : "all, everything, whole") and "psyche" (ψυχή: "soul, mind"). "Psyche" comes from the Greek word ψύχω ("psukhō", "I blow") and may mean life, soul, mind, spirit, heart, or "life-breath". The use of "psyche" is controversial because it is synonymous with "soul", a term usually taken to refer to something supernatural; more common terms now found in the literature include mind, mental properties, mental aspect, and experience.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: The philosopher David Chalmers, who has explored panpsychism as a viable theory, distinguishes between microphenomenal experiences (the experiences of microphysical entities) and macrophenomenal experiences (the experiences of larger entities, such as humans).

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Originally, the term "panexperientialism" had a narrower meaning, having been coined by David Ray Griffin to refer specifically to the form of panpsychism used in process philosophy (see below).

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Plato argues for panpsychism in his "Sophist", in which he writes that all things participate in the form of Being and that it must have a psychic aspect of mind and soul ("psyche"). In the "Philebus" and "Timaeus", Plato argues for the idea of a world soul or "anima mundi". According to Plato:

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: This world is indeed a living being endowed with a soul and intelligence ... a single visible living entity containing all other living entities, which by their nature are all related.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Stoicism developed a cosmology that held that the natural world is infused with the divine fiery essence "pneuma", directed by the universal intelligence "logos". The relationship between beings' individual "logos" and the universal "logos" was a central concern of the Roman Stoic Marcus Aurelius. The metaphysics of Stoicism finds connections with Hellenistic philosophies such as Neoplatonism. Gnosticism also made use of the Platonic idea of "anima mundi".

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In the 19th century, panpsychism was at its zenith. Philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, C.S. Peirce, Josiah Royce, William James, Eduard von Hartmann, F.C.S. Schiller, Ernst Haeckel and William Kingdon Clifford as well as psychologists such as Gustav Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt and Rudolf Hermann Lotze all promoted panpsychist ideas.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Arthur Schopenhauer argued for a two-sided view of reality as both Will and Representation ("Vorstellung"). According to Schopenhauer, "All ostensible mind can be attributed to matter, but all matter can likewise be attributed to mind".

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Our only intelligible notion of an object "in itself" is that it should be an object "for itself", and this lands us in panpsychism and a belief that our physical perceptions are effects on us of 'psychical' realities

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: English philosopher Alfred Barratt, the author of "Physical Metempiric" (1883), has been described as advocating panpsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In 1893, Paul Carus proposed a philosophy similar to panpsychism, "panbiotism", according to which "everything is fraught with life; it contains life; it has the ability to live."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In the 20th century, panpsychism's most significant proponent is arguably Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947). Whitehead's ontology saw the basic nature of the world as made up of events and the process of their creation and extinction. These elementary events (which he called occasions) are in part mental. According to Whitehead, "we should conceive mental operations as among the factors which make up the constitution of nature."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Bertrand Russell's neutral monist views tended toward panpsychism. The physicist Arthur Eddington also defended a form of panpsychism. The psychologists James Ward and Charles Augustus Strong also endorsed variants of panpsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: The geneticist Sewall Wright endorsed a version of panpsychism. He believed that the birth of consciousness was not due to a mysterious property emerging at a certain level of the hierarchy of increasing material complexity, but rather an inherent property, implying the most elementary particles have these properties.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In 1990, the physicist David Bohm published "A new theory of the relationship of mind and matter," a paper based on his interpretation of quantum mechanics. The philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen has described Bohm's view as a version of panprotopsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: The integrated information theory of consciousness (IIT), proposed by the neuroscientist and psychiatrist Giulio Tononi in 2004 and since adopted by other neuroscientists such as Christof Koch, postulates that consciousness is widespread and can be found even in some simple systems.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In 2019 cognitive scientist Donald Hoffman published "The Case Against Reality: How evolution hid the truth from our eyes." Hoffman argues that consensus reality lacks concrete existence, and is nothing more than an evolved user-interface. He argues that the true nature of reality are abstract "conscious agents". Science editor Annaka Harris argues that panpsychism is a viable theory in her 2019 book "Conscious", though she stops short of fully endorsing it.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Panpsychism has been postulated by psychoanalyst Robin S. Brown as a means to theorizing relations between "inner" and "outer" tropes in the context of psychotherapy. Panpsychism has also been applied in environmental philosophy by Australian philosopher Freya Mathews, who has put forward the notion of ontopoetics as a version of panpsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Panpsychism encompasses many theories, united only by the notion that mind in some form is ubiquitous.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Advaita Vedānta is a form of idealism in Indian philosophy which views consensus reality as illusory. Anand Vaidya and Purushottama Bilimoria have argued that it can be considered a form of panpsychism or cosmopsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Animism maintains that all things have a soul, and hylozoism maintains that all things are alive. Both could reasonably be interpreted as panpsychist, but both have fallen out of favour in contemporary academia. Modern panpsychists have tried to distance themselves from theories of this sort, careful to carve out the distinction between the ubiquity of experience and the ubiquity of mind and cognition.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: The term "Buddha-nature" is the English translation of the classical Chinese term 佛性 (or "fó xìng" in pinyin), which is in turn a translation of the Sanskrit "tathāgatagarbha. Tathāgata" refers to someone (namely the Buddha) having arrived, while "garbha" translates into the words "embryo" or "root".

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature can be defined as the ubiquitous dispositional state of being capable of obtaining Buddhahood. In some Buddhist traditions, this may be interpreted as implying a form of panpsychism. Graham Parks argues that most "traditional Chinese, Japanese and Korean philosophy would qualify as panpsychist in nature."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Even if reality is an illusion, Hoffman takes consciousness as an indisputable fact. He represents rudimentary units of consciousness (which he calls "conscious agents") as Markovian kernels. Though the theory was not initially panpsychist, he reports that he and his colleague Chetan Prakash found the math to be more parsimonious if it were. They hypothesize that reality is composed of these conscious agents, who interact to form "larger, more complex" networks.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: The philosopher Hedda Hassel Mørch's views IIT as similar to Russellian monism, while other philosophers, such as Chalmers and John Searle, consider it a form of panpsychism. IIT does not hold that all systems are conscious, leading Tononi and Koch to state that IIT incorporates some elements of panpsychism but not others. Koch has called IIT a "scientifically refined version" of panpsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Because panpsychism encompasses a wide range of theories, it can in principle be compatible with reductive materialism, dualism, functionalism, or other perspectives depending on the details of a given formulation.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Panpsychism is incompatible with emergentism. In general, theories of consciousness fall under one or the other umbrella; they hold either that consciousness is present at a fundamental level of reality (panpsychism) or that it emerges higher up (emergentism).

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In "The Conscious Mind," David Chalmers writes that, in some instances, the differences between "Russell's neutral monism" and his property dualism are merely semantic. Philip Goff believes that neutral monism can reasonably be regarded as a form of panpsychism "in so far as it is a dual aspect view." Neutral monism, panpsychism, and dual aspect theory are grouped together or used interchangeably in some contexts.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Chalmers calls panpsychism an alternative to both materialism and dualism. Similarly, Goff calls panpsychism an alternative to both physicalism and substance dualism. Strawson, on the other hand, describes panpsychism as a form of physicalism, on his view the only viable form. Panpsychism can be combined with reductive materialism but cannot be combined with eliminative materialism because the latter denies the existence of the relevant mental attributes.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Before the first premise is accepted, the range of possible explanations for consciousness is fully open. Each premise, if accepted, narrows down that range of possibilities. If the argument is sound, then by the last premise panpsychism is the only possibility left.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In 2015, Chalmers proposed a possible solution to the mind-body problem through the argumentative format of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The goal of such arguments is to argue for sides of a debate (the thesis and antithesis), weigh their vices and merits, and then reconcile them (the synthesis). Chalmers's thesis, antithesis, and synthesis are as follows:

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: (1) A centerpiece of Chalmers's argument is the physical world's causal closure. Newton's law of motion explains this phenomenon succinctly: "for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction". Cause and effect is a symmetrical process. There is no room for consciousness to exert any causal power on the physical world unless it is itself physical.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: (2) On one hand, if consciousness is separate from the physical world then there is no room for it to exert any causal power on the world (a state of affairs philosophers call epiphenomenalism). If consciousness plays no causal role, then it is unclear how Chalmers could even write this paper. On the other hand, consciousness is irreducible to the physical processes of the brain.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: (3) Panpsychism has all the benefits of materialism because it could mean that consciousness is physical while also escaping the grasp of epiphenomenalism. After some argumentation Chalmers narrows it down further to Russellian monism, concluding that thoughts, actions, intentions and emotions may just be the quiddities of neurotransmitters, neurons, and glial cells.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Rather than solely trying to solve the problem of consciousness, Russell also attempted to solve the "problem of substance", which is arguably a form of the "problem of infinite regress".

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: (2) Russell argued that physics is mathematical because "it is only mathematical properties we can discover." This is true almost by definition: if "only" extrinsic properties are outwardly observable, then they will be the only ones discovered. This led Alfred North Whitehead to conclude that intrinsic properties are "intrinsically unknowable."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Max Tegmark, theoretical physicist and creator of the mathematical universe hypothesis, disagrees with these conclusions. By his account, the universe is not just describable by math but "is" math; comparing physics to economics or population dynamics is a disanalogy. While population dynamics may be grounded in individual people, those people are grounded in "purely mathematical objects" such as energy and charge. The universe is, in a fundamental sense, made of nothing.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Quantum theories of consciousness have yet to gain mainstream attention. Tegmark has formally calculated the "decoherence rates" of neurons, finding that the brain is a "classical rather than a quantum system" and that quantum mechanics does not relate "to consciousness in any fundamental way."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: In 2007, Steven Pinker criticized explanations of consciousness invoking quantum physics, saying: "to my ear, this amounts to the feeling that quantum mechanics sure is weird, and consciousness sure is weird, so maybe quantum mechanics can explain consciousness," a view echoed by physicist Stephen Hawking. In 2017, Penrose rejected these characterizations, stating that disagreements are about the nature of quantum mechanics.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: One criticism of panpsychism is that it cannot be empirically tested. A corollary of this criticism is that panpsychism has no predictive power. Tononi and Koch write: "Besides claiming that matter and mind are one thing, [panpsychism] has little constructive to say and offers no positive laws explaining how the mind is organized and works."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: John Searle has alleged that panpsychism's unfalsifiability goes deeper than run-of-the-mill untestability: it is unfalsifiable because "it does not get up to the level of being false. It is strictly speaking meaningless because no clear notion has been given to the claim." The need for coherence and clarification is accepted by David Skrbina, a proponent of panpsychism.

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: Many proponents of panpsychism base their arguments not on empirical support but on panpsychism's theoretical virtues. Chalmers says that while no direct evidence exists for the theory, neither is there direct evidence against it, and that "there are indirect reasons, of a broadly theoretical character, for taking the view seriously." Notwithstanding Tononi and Koch's criticism of panpsychism, they state that it integrates consciousness into the physical world in a way that is "elegantly unitary."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Panpsychism

Context: A related criticism is what seems to many to be the theory's bizarre nature. Goff dismisses this objection: though he admits that panpsychism is counterintuitive, he notes that Einstein's and Darwin's theories are also counterintuitive. "At the end of the day," he writes, "you should judge a view not for its cultural associations but by its explanatory power."

Question: Где возник панпсихизм?


Synchronised swimming at the 2015 European Games

Context: Synchronised swimming was not included in the earliest list of sports confirmed for the 2015 Games, as the European swimming authorities at that stage were minded not to take part. However, following negotiations with the organising authorities, a compromise was reached whereby, in 2015, these events were for junior swimmers only - in effect, under 18 for women.

Question: Можно ли купаться в Баку?


Context: A total of 150 athletes from 21 nations competed in Synchronised swimming at the 2015 European Games.

Question: Можно ли купаться в Баку?


Perestroika

Context: Perestroika (; ) was a political movement for reform within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the late 1980s widely associated with CPSU general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform. The literal meaning of perestroika is "reconstruction", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system, in an attempt to end the Era of Stagnation.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: Gorbachev first used the term in a speech during his visit to the City of Togliatti in 1986. Perestroika lasted from 1985 until 1991, and is sometimes argued to be a significant cause of the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This marked the end of the Cold War.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: In May 1985, Gorbachev gave a speech in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) in which he admitted the slowing of economic development, and inadequate living standards.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: The program was furthered at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party in Gorbachev's report to the congress, in which he spoke about "perestroika", "uskoreniye", "human factor", "glasnost", and "expansion of the khozraschyot" (commercialization).

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: During the initial period (1985–87) of Mikhail Gorbachev's time in power, he talked about modifying central planning but did not make any truly fundamental changes ("uskoreniye"; "acceleration"). Gorbachev and his team of economic advisors then introduced more fundamental reforms, which became known as "perestroika" (restructuring).

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: At the June 1987 plenary session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev presented his "basic theses", which laid the political foundation of economic reform for the remainder of the existence of the Soviet Union.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: Alexander Yakovlev was considered to be the intellectual force behind Gorbachev's reform program of glasnost and perestroika. In the summer of 1985, Yakovlev became head of the propaganda department of the CPSU Central Committee. He argued in favor of the reform programs and played a key role in executing those policies.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: Gorbachev's economic changes did not do much to restart the country's sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms decentralized things to some extent, although price controls remained, as did the ruble's inconvertibility and most government controls over the means of production.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: Reform was largely focused on industry and on cooperatives, and a limited role was given to the development of foreign investment and international trade. Factory managers were expected to meet state demands for goods, but to find their own funding. Perestroika reforms went far enough to create new bottlenecks in the Soviet economy but arguably did not go far enough to effectively streamline it.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: One of the final important measures taken on the continuation of the movement was a report from the central committee meeting of the CPSU titled "On Reorganization and the Party's Personnel Policy". Gorbachev emphasized the need of a faster political personnel turnover and of a policy of democratization that opened the political elections to multiple candidates and to non-party members.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: This report was in such high demand in Prague and Berlin that many people could not get a copy. One effect was the abrupt demand for Russian dictionaries in order to understand the content of Gorbachev's report.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Perestroika

Context: The biggest weapon used during Perestroika was Glasnost as a Political Weapon. For the previous fifty years, the USSR was a bureaucracy that needed restructuring and Gorbachev saw it needed to shift towards conservative. It was said that the theory of glasnost is perceived as being Leninist, in reference to Leninist socialism. In an interview with Miezeslaw Rakowski he states the success of perestroika was impossible without glasnost.

Question: В каком году началась Перестройка?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ's College) encouraged his passion for natural science. His five-year voyage on established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's conception of gradual geological change, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the "Tripos", he joined the "ordinary" degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment at Christ's College, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was still studying there. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting. He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' "Illustrations of British entomology" (1829–32).

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising. FitzRoy began writing the official "Narrative" of the "Beagle" voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account. Darwin's "Journal" was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on geology and natural history.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine". He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Without telling Darwin, extracts from his letters to Henslow had been read to scientific societies, printed as a pamphlet for private distribution among members of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and reported in magazines, including "The Athenaeum". Darwin first heard of this at Cape Town, and at Ascension Island read of Sedgwick's prediction that Darwin "will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to arrange expert classification of his collections, and prepare his own research for publication. Questions of how to combine his diary into the "Narrative" were resolved at the end of the month when FitzRoy accepted Broderip's advice to make it a separate volume, and Darwin began work on his "Journal and Remarks".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "wren" was in the finch group. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands. The two rheas were distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The strain took a toll, by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected", thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory". He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory. For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the "Beagle" collections, in particular, the barnacles.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: FitzRoy's long delayed "Narrative" was published in May 1839. Darwin's "Journal and Remarks" got good reviews as the third volume, and on 15 August it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely. In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy. Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled "Natural Selection", which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development. Darwin first used the word evolution in "The Descent of Man" in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of "The Origin of Species".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" It said this should be left to theologians as being too dangerous for ordinary readers. Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin, but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published "On the Origin of Species" as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's book "The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication" (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure", there has since been speculation about the causes of long-term problems with the health of Charles Darwin.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me". While she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: As Alfred Russel Wallace put it, Darwin had "wrought a greater revolution in human thought within a quarter of a century than any man of our time – or perhaps any time", having "given us a new conception of the world of life, and a theory which is itself a powerful instrument of research; has shown us how to combine into one consistent whole the facts accumulated by all the separate classes of workers, and has thereby revolutionised the whole study of nature".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Most scientists were now convinced of evolution as descent with modification, though few agreed with Darwin that natural selection "has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: During "the eclipse of Darwinism" scientists explored alternative mechanisms, then Ronald Fisher incorporated Mendelian genetics in "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection", leading to population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis which continues to develop. Scientific discoveries have confirmed and validated Darwin's key insights.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Geographical features were given his name, both during the "Beagle" voyage (notably Darwin Sound and Mount Darwin) and after it. Darwin Harbour, named by his former shipmates, became the location of Darwin, the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's name was given, formally or informally, to numerous plants and animals. He had collected many of them on the voyage. Some names were given later, for example, tanagers found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" in 1947.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's children, now eminent, preserved his memory. In 1887 Francis Darwin published "Life and Letters" with his own reminiscences of his father, an autobiography Darwin had written for his family (edited to spare the sensitivities of Darwin's widow Emma), and correspondence. More volumes of correspondence followed.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The Shrewsbury School building, which Darwin attended as a boy, became the Free Library. A seated statue of Darwin was installed outside it, and unveiled in 1897.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The Linnean Society of London began awards of the Darwin–Wallace Medalin 1908, to mark fifty years from the joint reading on 1 July 1858 of papers by Darwin and Wallace publishing their theory. Further awards were made in 1958 and 2008, since 2010 the medal awards have been annual.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In June 1909, more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate Darwin's centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of "On the Origin of Species".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University founded in 1964, is named after the Darwin family. From 2000 to 2017, UK £10 banknotes issued by the Bank of England featured Darwin's portrait printed on the reverse, along with a hummingbird and HMS "Beagle".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of "On the Origin of Species", and subsequently Darwin Day became an annual celebration. Marking his bicentenary, a statue of Darwin as a young man was placed in a courtyard of his alma mater, Christ's College, Cambridge.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children. Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: He examined inbreeding in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of outcrossing in many species. Despite his fears, most of the surviving children and many of their descendants went on to have distinguished careers.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society, distinguished as astronomer, botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted. Another son, Leonard, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: By his return, he was critical of the Bible as history, and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid. In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species, he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma, whose beliefs similarly came from intensive study and questioning.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in her 1875 book "The Sexes Throughout Nature".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez-faire economics. Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book "Social Statics" based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: . Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist, biologist, and author. After a summer as a physician's assistant (helping his father) and two years as a medical student, he went to Cambridge for the ordinary degree to qualify as a clergyman; he was also trained in taxidermy.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: . Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In "On the Origin of Species" Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to sexual selection: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: . See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from Gilbert and Sullivan's "Princess Ida", which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: In the "Descent of Man", he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Charles Darwin

Context: He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"

Question: Где похоронен Чарльз Дарвин?


Time dilation

Context: In physics and relativity, time dilation is the difference in the elapsed time as measured by two clocks. It is either due to a relative velocity between them (special relativistic "kinetic" time dilation) or to a difference in gravitational potential between their locations (general relativistic gravitational time dilation). When unspecified, "time dilation" usually refers to the effect due to velocity.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: These predictions of the theory of relativity have been repeatedly confirmed by experiment, and they are of practical concern, for instance in the operation of satellite navigation systems such as GPS and Galileo. Time dilation has also been the subject of science fiction works.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Theoretically, time dilation would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to advance further into the future in a short period of their own time. For sufficiently high speeds, the effect is dramatic. For example, one year of travel might correspond to ten years on Earth. Indeed, a constant 1 g acceleration would permit humans to travel through the entire known Universe in one human lifetime.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: With current technology severely limiting the velocity of space travel, however, the differences experienced in practice are minuscule: after 6 months on the International Space Station (ISS), orbiting Earth at a speed of about 7,700 m/s, an astronaut would have aged about 0.005 seconds less than those on Earth. The cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Sergei Avdeyev both experienced time dilation of about 20 milliseconds compared to time that passed on Earth.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Time dilation can be inferred from the observed constancy of the speed of light in all reference frames dictated by the second postulate of special relativity.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: This constancy of the speed of light means that, counter to intuition, the speeds of material objects and light are not additive. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear greater by moving towards or away from the light source.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Consider then, a simple vertical clock consisting of two mirrors and , between which a light pulse is bouncing. The separation of the mirrors is and the clock ticks once each time the light pulse hits mirror .

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: In the frame in which the clock is at rest (diagram on the left), the light pulse traces out a path of length and the period of the clock is divided by the speed of light:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: which expresses the fact that the moving observer's period of the clock formula_6 is longer than the period formula_7 in the frame of the clock itself.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Because all clocks that have a common period in the resting frame should have a common period when observed from the moving frame, all other clocksmechanical, electronic, optical (such as an identical horizontal version of the clock in the example)should exhibit the same velocity-dependent time dilation.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Given a certain frame of reference, and the "stationary" observer described earlier, if a second observer accompanied the "moving" clock, each of the observers would perceive the other's clock as ticking at a "slower" rate than their own local clock, due to them both perceiving the other to be the one that is in motion relative to their own stationary frame of reference.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Common sense would dictate that, if the passage of time has slowed for a moving object, said object would observe the external world's time to be correspondingly sped up. Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts the opposite. When two observers are in motion relative to each other, each will measure the other's clock slowing down, in concordance with them being in motion relative to the observer's frame of reference.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: While this seems self-contradictory, a similar oddity occurs in everyday life. If two persons A and B observe each other from a distance, B will appear small to A, but at the same time, A will appear small to B. Being familiar with the effects of perspective, there is no contradiction or paradox in this situation.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: In the Minkowski diagram from the first image on the right, clock C resting in inertial frame S′ meets clock A at "d" and clock B at "f" (both resting in S). All three clocks simultaneously start to tick in S. The worldline of A is the ct-axis, the worldline of B intersecting "f" is parallel to the ct-axis, and the worldline of C is the ct′-axis. All events simultaneous with "d" in S are on the x-axis, in S′ on the x′-axis.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: In addition to the light clock used above, the formula for time dilation can be more generally derived from the temporal part of the Lorentz transformation. Let there be two events at which the moving clock indicates formula_11 and formula_12, thus:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Since the clock remains at rest in its inertial frame, it follows formula_14, thus the interval formula_15 is given by:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Thus the duration of the clock cycle of a moving clock is found to be increased: it is measured to be "running slow". The range of such variances in ordinary life, where even considering space travel, are not great enough to produce easily detectable time dilation effects and such vanishingly small effects can be safely ignored for most purposes. It is only when an object approaches speeds on the order of 30,000 km/s (1/10 the speed of light) that time dilation becomes important.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: In special relativity, time dilation is most simply described in circumstances where relative velocity is unchanging. Nevertheless, the Lorentz equations allow one to calculate proper time and movement in space for the simple case of a spaceship which is applied with a force per unit mass, relative to some reference object in uniform (i.e. constant velocity) motion, equal to "g" throughout the period of measurement.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Let "t" be the time in an inertial frame subsequently called the rest frame. Let "x" be a spatial coordinate, and let the direction of the constant acceleration as well as the spaceship's velocity (relative to the rest frame) be parallel to the "x"-axis. Assuming the spaceship's position at time being and the velocity being "v"0 and defining the following abbreviation:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: In the case where "v"(0) = "v"0 = 0 and "τ"(0) = "τ"0 = 0 the integral can be expressed as a logarithmic function or, equivalently, as an inverse hyperbolic function:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: The clock hypothesis is the assumption that the rate at which a clock is affected by time dilation does not depend on its acceleration but only on its instantaneous velocity. This is equivalent to stating that a clock moving along a path formula_27 measures the proper time, defined by:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: The clock hypothesis was implicitly (but not explicitly) included in Einstein's original 1905 formulation of special relativity. Since then, it has become a standard assumption and is usually included in the axioms of special relativity, especially in the light of experimental verification up to very high accelerations in particle accelerators.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Gravitational time dilation is experienced by an observer that, at a certain altitude within a gravitational potential well, finds that their local clocks measure less elapsed time than identical clocks situated at higher altitude (and which are therefore at higher gravitational potential).

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Contrarily to velocity time dilation, in which both observers measure the other as aging slower (a reciprocal effect), gravitational time dilation is not reciprocal. This means that with gravitational time dilation both observers agree that the clock nearer the center of the gravitational field is slower in rate, and they agree on the ratio of the difference.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: High-accuracy timekeeping, low-Earth-orbit satellite tracking, and pulsar timing are applications that require the consideration of the combined effects of mass and motion in producing time dilation. Practical examples include the International Atomic Time standard and its relationship with the Barycentric Coordinate Time standard used for interplanetary objects.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: Relativistic time dilation effects for the solar system and the Earth can be modeled very precisely by the Schwarzschild solution to the Einstein field equations. In the Schwarzschild metric, the interval formula_29 is given by:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: The coordinate time formula_40 is the time that would be read on a hypothetical "coordinate clock" situated infinitely far from all gravitational masses (formula_41), and stationary in the system of coordinates (). The exact relation between the rate of proper time and the rate of coordinate time for a clock with a radial component of velocity is:

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Time dilation

Context: The above equation is exact under the assumptions of the Schwarzschild solution. It reduces to velocity time dilation equation in the presence of motion and absence of gravity, i.e. formula_50. It reduces to gravitational time dilation equation in the absence of motion and presence of gravity, i.e. formula_51.

Question: В космосе время замедляется для человека?


Economy of Tuvalu

Context: Tuvalu joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on 24 June 2010. On 5 August 2012, the executive board of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) concluded the Article IV consultation with Tuvalu, and assessed the economy of Tuvalu: “A slow recovery is underway in Tuvalu, but there are important risks. GDP grew in 2011 for the first time since the global financial crisis, led by the private retail sector and education spending. We expect growth to rise slowly”.

Question: Какая средняя зарплата жителя Тува́лу на 2019 год?