James Joyce

Context: Joyce kept up his interest in music. He met Ferruccio Busoni, staged music with Otto Luening, and learned music theory from Philipp Jarnach. Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way into "Ulysses", particularly the "Sirens" section.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained a strict neutrality. He made few comments about the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement, he disagreed with its violence. He stayed intently focused on "Ulysses"

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: and the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of "The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" in "The Egoist" had been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published by B. W. Huebsch in 1916. In 1918, Pound got a commitment from Margaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazine "The Little Review", to publish "Ulysses" serially.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit. Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role in "The Importance of Being Earnest". Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. When the cases were settled in 1919, Joyce won the compensation case but lost the one for libel. The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Joyce finished writing "Ulysses" near the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyer John Quinn, Margaret Anderson and her co-editor Jane Heap had begun serially publishing it in "The Little Review" in March 1918.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Weaver was unable to find an English printer, and the novel was banned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations, but his vision severely declined. By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly. He even had all of his teeth removed because of problems related to his eyes. At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finish "Finnegans Wake", asking the Irish author James Stephens to complete it if something should happen.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: His financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money. Despite these issues, he published "Pomes Penyeach" in 1927, a collection of thirteen poems he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism. As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution. After the fall of France in 1940, Joyce and his family fled from Nazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for a perforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, less than a month before his 59th birthday.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Some critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation, a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life and personal development. He has been compared to the medieval [wandering bishops], who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Joyce's own responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion of "Ulysses", Joyce was asked "When did you leave the Catholic Church". He answered, "That's for the Church to say."

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, "Exiles", begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to "The Dead" (the final story in "Dubliners") and forward to "Ulysses", which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keep them open to constant reinterpretation. They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


James Joyce

Context: In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.

Question: ジェイムズ・ジョイスのデビュー作は何？


Aerostar

Context: Starting in 2021, Aerostar will perform the maintenance service of the Romanian Air Force F-16 fighter aircraft. The "Phase inspection" contract on F-16 number 1603 was awarded to the company on 17 September 2021.

Question: エアロスターの製造が始まったのはいつ


Aerostar

Context: Starting in 1996 the German company Flug Werk GmbH in cooperation with Aerostar Bacău SA began construction of FW 190 replicas. The first airplane flew in 2004, with a total of 21 aircraft being manufactured and sold as kits.

Question: エアロスターの製造が始まったのはいつ


Aerostar

Context: The group of designers from Aerostar used about 3.5 tons of parts recovered from various wrecks found and reached a total of 8000 drawings. As no original BMW 801 engines were available, Chinese made Dongan Hs-7, license built copy of the Shvetsov ASh-82FN engines, were used. These engines had about 200 hp more than the original BMW engines. The landing gear, engine frame and exhaust system were redesigned, using modern materials.

Question: エアロスターの製造が始まったのはいつ


Vector processor

Context: Vector machines appeared in the early 1970s and dominated supercomputer design through the 1970s into the 1990s, notably the various Cray platforms. The rapid fall in the price-to-performance ratio of conventional microprocessor designs led to a decline in vector supercomputers during the 1990s.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The first vector supercomputers are the Control Data Corporation STAR-100 and Texas Instruments Advanced Scientific Computer (ASC), which were introduced in 1974 and 1972, respectively.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The basic ASC (i.e., "one pipe") ALU used a pipeline architecture that supported both scalar and vector computations, with peak performance reaching approximately 20 MFLOPS, readily achieved when processing long vectors. Expanded ALU configurations supported "two pipes" or "four pipes" with a corresponding 2X or 4X performance gain. Memory bandwidth was sufficient to support these expanded modes.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The STAR-100 was otherwise slower than CDC's own supercomputers like the CDC 7600, but at data-related tasks they could keep up while being much smaller and less expensive. However the machine also took considerable time decoding the vector instructions and getting ready to run the process, so it required very specific data sets to work on before it actually sped anything up.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Throughout, Cray continued to be the performance leader, continually beating the competition with a series of machines that led to the Cray-2, Cray X-MP and Cray Y-MP. Since then, the supercomputer market has focused much more on massively parallel processing rather than better implementations of vector processors. However, recognising the benefits of vector processing, IBM developed Virtual Vector Architecture for use in supercomputers coupling several scalar processors to act as a vector processor.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Other CPU designs include some multiple instructions for vector processing on multiple (vectorised) data sets, typically known as MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data) and realized with VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word). The Fujitsu FR-V VLIW/"vector processor" combines both technologies.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: SIMD instruction sets lack crucial features when compared to vector processor instruction sets. The most important of these is that vector processors, inherently by definition and design, have always been variable-length since their inception.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Where pure (fixed-width, no predication) SIMD is commonly mistakenly claimed to be "vectors" (because SIMD is "used" to process data which happens to be vectors), through close analysis and comparison of historic and modern ISAs, actual vector processors may be observed to have the following features that no SIMD ISA has:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Predicated SIMD (part of Flynn's taxonomy) which is comprehensive individual element-level predicate masks on every vector instruction as is now available in ARM SVE2. and AVX-512, almost qualifies as a vector processor. Predicated SIMD uses fixed-width SIMD ALUs but allows locally controlled (predicated) activation of units to provide the appearance of variable length vectors. Examples below help explain these categorical distinctions.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: SIMD, due to it being fixed width batch processing, is "unable by design" to cope with iteration and reduction. This is illustrated further with examples, below.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Additionally, vector processors can be more resource-efficient (use slower hardware, saving power, but still achieving throughput) and have less latency than SIMD, through vector chaining.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Consider both a SIMD processor and a vector processor working on 4 64-bit elements, doing a LOAD, ADD, MULTIPLY and STORE sequence. If the SIMD width is 4, then the SIMD processor must LOAD four elements entirely before it can move on to the ADDs, must complete all the ADDs before it can move on to the MULTIPLYs, and likewise must complete all of the MULTIPLYs before it can start the STOREs. This is by definition and by design.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: To illustrate what a difference this can make, consider the simple task of adding two groups of 10 numbers together. In a normal programming language one would write a "loop" that picked up each of the pairs of numbers in turn, and then added them. To the CPU, this would look something like this:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Note the complete lack of looping in the instructions, because it is the "hardware" which has performed 10 sequential operations: effectively the loop count is on an explicit "per-instruction" basis.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Cray-style vector ISAs take this a step further and provide a global "count" register, called vector length (VL):

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Additionally, in more modern vector processor ISAs, "Fail on First" or "Fault First" has been introduced (see below) which brings even more advantages.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: But more than that, a high performance vector processor may have multiple functional units adding those numbers in parallel. The checking of dependencies between those numbers is not required as a vector instruction specifies multiple independent operations. This simplifies the control logic required, and can further improve performance by avoiding stalls. The math operations thus completed far faster overall, the limiting factor being the time required to fetch the data from memory.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The vector pseudocode example above comes with a big assumption that the vector computer can process more than ten numbers in one batch. For a greater quantity of numbers in the vector register, it becomes unfeasible for the computer to have a register that large. As a result, the vector processor either gains the ability to perform loops itself, or exposes some sort of vector control (status) register to the programmer, usually known as a vector Length.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The self-repeating instructions are found in early vector computers like the STAR-100, where the above action would be described in a single instruction (somewhat like ). They are also found in the x86 architecture as the prefix. However, only very simple calculations can be done effectively in hardware this way without a very large cost increase. Since all operands have to be in memory for the STAR-100 architecture, the latency caused by access became huge too.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Interestingly, though, Broadcom included space in all vector operations of the Videocore IV ISA for a field, but unlike the STAR-100 which uses memory for its repeats, the Videocore IV repeats are on all operations including arithmetic vector operations. The repeat length can be a small range of power of two or sourced from one of the scalar registers.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Modern GPUs, which have many small compute units each with their own independent SIMD ALUs, use Single Instruction Multiple Threads (SIMT). SIMT units run from a shared single broadcast synchronised Instruction Unit. The "vector registers" are very wide and the pipelines tend to be long. The "threading" part of SIMT involves the way data is handled independently on each of the compute units.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This example starts with an algorithm ("IAXPY"), first show it in scalar instructions, then SIMD, then predicated SIMD, and finally vector instructions. This incrementally helps illustrate the difference between a traditional vector processor and a modern SIMD one. The example starts with a 32-bit integer variant of the "DAXPY" function, in C:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: In each iteration, every element of y has an element of x multiplied by a and added to it. The program is expressed in scalar linear form for readability.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The scalar version of this would load one of each of x and y, process one calculation, store one result, and loop:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The STAR-like code remains concise, but because the STAR-100's vectorisation was by design based around memory accesses, an extra slot of memory is now required to process the information. Two times the latency is also needed due to the extra requirement of memory access.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Note that both x and y pointers are incremented by 16, because that is how long (in bytes) four 32-bit integers are. The decision was made that the algorithm "shall" only cope with 4-wide SIMD, therefore the constant is hard-coded into the program.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Unfortunately for SIMD, the clue was in the assumption above, "that n is a multiple of 4" as well as "aligned access", which, clearly, is a limited specialist use-case.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Realistically, for general-purpose loops such as in portable libraries, where n cannot be limited in this way, the overhead of setup and cleanup for SIMD in order to cope with non-multiples of the SIMD width, can far exceed the instruction count inside the loop itself. Assuming worst-case that the hardware cannot do misaligned SIMD memory accesses, a real-world algorithm will:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Eight-wide SIMD requires repeating the inner loop algorithm first with four-wide SIMD elements, then two-wide SIMD, then one (scalar), with a test and branch in between each one, in order to cover the first and last remaining SIMD elements (0 <= n <= 7).

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This more than "triples" the size of the code, in fact in extreme cases it results in an "order of magnitude" increase in instruction count! This can easily be demonstrated by compiling the iaxpy example for AVX-512, using the options to gcc.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Over time as the ISA evolves to keep increasing performance, it results in ISA Architects adding 2-wide SIMD, then 4-wide SIMD, then 8-wide and upwards. It can therefore be seen why AVX-512 exists in x86.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Without predication, the wider the SIMD width the worse the problems get, leading to massive opcode proliferation, degraded performance, extra power consumption and unnecessary software complexity.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Vector processors on the other hand are designed to issue computations of variable length for an arbitrary count, n, and thus require very little setup, and no cleanup. Even compared to those SIMD ISAs which have masks (but no instruction), Vector processors produce much more compact code because they do not need to perform explicit mask calculation to cover the last few elements (illustrated below).

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Assuming a hypothetical predicated (mask capable) SIMD ISA, and again assuming that the SIMD instructions can cope with misaligned data, the instruction loop would look like this:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Here it can be seen that the code is much cleaner but a little complex: at least, however, there is no setup or cleanup: on the last iteration of the loop, the predicate mask wil be set to either 0b0000, 0b0001, 0b0011, 0b0111 or 0b1111, resulting in between 0 and 4 SIMD element operations being performed, respectively.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: One additional potential complication: some RISC ISAs do not have a "min" instruction, needing instead to use a branch or scalar predicated compare.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: It is clear how predicated SIMD at least merits the term "vector capable", because it can cope with variable-length vectors by using predicate masks. The final evolving step to a "true" vector ISA, however, is to not have any evidence in the ISA "at all" of a SIMD width, leaving that entirely up to the hardware.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: On calling with the number of outstanding data elements to be processed, "" is permitted (essentially required) to limit that to the Maximum Vector Length (MVL) and thus returns the "actual" number that can be processed by the hardware in subsequent vector instructions, and sets the internal special register, "VL", to that same amount. ARM refers to this technique as "vector length agnostic" programming in its tutorials on SVE2.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Below is the Cray-style vector assembler for the same SIMD style loop, above. Note that t0 (which, containing a convenient copy of VL, can vary) is used instead of hard-coded constants:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This is essentially not very different from the SIMD version (processes 4 data elements per loop), or from the initial Scalar version (processes just the one). n still contains the number of data elements remaining to be processed, but t0 contains the copy of VL – the number that is "going" to be processed in each iteration. t0 is subtracted from n after each iteration, and if n is zero then all elements have been processed.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Not only is it a much more compact program (saving on L1 Cache size), but as previously mentioned, the vector version can issue far more data processing to the ALUs, again saving power because Instruction Decode and Issue can sit idle.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Additionally, the number of elements going in to the function can start at zero. This sets the vector length to zero, which effectively disables all vector instructions, turning them into no-ops, at runtime. Thus, unlike non-predicated SIMD, even when there are no elements to process there is still no wasted cleanup code.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This example starts with an algorithm which involves reduction. Just as with the previous example, it will be first shown in scalar instructions, then SIMD, and finally vector instructions, starting in c:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This is very straightforward. "y" starts at zero, 32 bit integers are loaded one at a time into r1, added to y, and the address of the array "x" moved on to the next element in the array.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This is where the problems start. SIMD by design is incapable of doing arithmetic operations "inter-element". Element 0 of one SIMD register may be added to Element 0 of another register, but Element 0 may not be added to anything other than another Element 0. This places some severe limitations on potential implementations. For simplicity it can be assumed that n is exactly 8:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: but with 4-wide SIMD being incapable by design of adding for example, things go rapidly downhill just as they did with the general case of using SIMD for general-purpose IAXPY loops. To sum the four partial results, two-wide SIMD can be used, followed by a single scalar add, to finally produce the answer, but, frequently, the data must be transferred out of dedicated SIMD registers before the last scalar computation can be performed.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Even with a general loop (n not fixed), the only way to use 4-wide SIMD is to assume four separate "streams", each offset by four elements. Finally, the four partial results have to be summed. Other techniques involve shuffle:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Aside from the size of the program and the complexity, an additional potential problem arises if floating-point computation is involved: the fact that the values are not being summed in strict order (four partial results) could result in rounding errors.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Vector instruction sets have arithmetic reduction operations "built-in" to the ISA. If it is assumed that n is less or equal to the maximum vector length, only three instructions are required:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The code when n is larger than the maximum vector length is not that much more complex, and is a similar pattern to the first example ("IAXPY").

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The simplicity of the algorithm is stark in comparison to SIMD. Again, just as with the IAXPY example, the algorithm is length-agnostic (even on Embedded implementations where maximum vector length could be only one).

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Implementations in hardware may, if they are certain that the right answer will be produced, perform the reduction in parallel. Some vector ISAs offer a parallel reduction mode as an explicit option, for when the programmer knows that any potential rounding errors do not matter, and low latency is critical.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This example again highlights a key critical fundamental difference between true vector processors and those SIMD processors, including most commercial GPUs, which are inspired by features of vector processors.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Compared to any SIMD processor claiming to be a vector processor, the order of magnitude reduction in program size is almost shocking. However, this level of elegance at the ISA level has quite a high price tag at the hardware level:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Where many SIMD ISAs borrow or are inspired by the list below, typical features that a vector processor will have are:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: With many 3D shader applications needing trigonometric operations as well as short vectors for common operations (RGB, ARGB, XYZ, XYZW) support for the following is typically present in modern GPUs, in addition to those found in vector processors:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Introduced in ARM SVE2 and RISC-V RVV is the concept of speculative sequential Vector Loads. ARM SVE2 has a special register named "First Fault Register", where RVV modifies (truncates) the Vector Length (VL).

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: The basic principle of is to attempt a large sequential Vector Load, but to allow the hardware to arbitrarily truncate the "actual" amount loaded to either the amount that would succeed without raising a memory fault or simply to an amount (greater than zero) that is most convenient. The important factor is that "subsequent" instructions are notified or may determine exactly how many Loads actually succeeded, using that quantity to only carry out work on the data that has actually been loaded.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Contrast this situation with SIMD, which is a fixed (inflexible) load width and fixed data processing width, unable to cope with loads that cross page boundaries, and even if they were they are unable to adapt to what actually succeeded, yet, paradoxically, if the SIMD program were to even attempt to find out in advance (in each inner loop, every time) what might optimally succeed, those instructions only serve to hinder performance because they would, by necessity, be part of the critical inner loop.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: This begins to hint at the reason why is so innovative, and is best illustrated by memcpy or strcpy when implemented with standard 128-bit non-predicated SIMD. For IBM POWER9 the number of hand-optimised instructions to implement strncpy is in excess of 240.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: Let r be the vector speed ratio and f be the vectorization ratio. If the time taken for the vector unit to add an array of 64 numbers is 10 times faster than its equivalent scalar counterpart, r = 10. Also, if the total number of operations in a program is 100, out of which only 10 are scalar (after vectorization), then f = 0.9, i.e., 90% of the work is done by the vector unit. It follows the achievable speed up of:

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Vector processor

Context: So, even if the performance of the vector unit is very high (formula_2) there is a speedup less than formula_3, which suggests that the ratio f is crucial to the performance. This ratio depends on the efficiency of the compilation like adjacency of the elements in memory.

Question: ベクトル計算機を開発したのは誰？


Freedom Riders

Context: "Boynton" outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines. Five years prior to the "Boynton" ruling, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) had issued a ruling in "Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company" (1955) that had explicitly denounced the "Plessy v. Ferguson" (1896) doctrine of separate but equal in interstate bus travel. The ICC failed to enforce its ruling, and Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sponsored most of the subsequent Freedom Rides, but some were also organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The Freedom Rides, beginning in 1960, followed dramatic sit-ins against segregated lunch counters conducted by students and youth throughout the South, and boycotts of retail establishments that maintained segregated facilities.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The Supreme Court's decision in "Boynton" supported the right of interstate travelers to disregard local segregation ordinances. Southern local and state police considered the actions of the Freedom Riders to be criminal and arrested them in some locations. In some localities, such as Birmingham, Alabama, the police cooperated with Ku Klux Klan chapters and other white people opposing the actions, and allowed mobs to attack the riders.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The Freedom Riders' tactics for their journey were to have at least one interracial pair sitting in adjoining seats, and at least one black rider sitting up front, where seats under segregation had been reserved for white customers by local custom throughout the South. The rest of the team would sit scattered throughout the rest of the bus. One rider would abide by the South's segregation rules in order to avoid arrest and to contact CORE and arrange bail for those who were arrested.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina, but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Over 300 Riders were arrested in Charlotte, North Carolina; Winnsboro, South Carolina; and Jackson, Mississippi.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: When the Trailways bus reached Anniston and pulled in at the terminal an hour after the Greyhound bus was burned, it was boarded by eight Klansmen. They beat the Freedom Riders and left them semi-conscious in the back of the bus.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: When reports of the bus burning and beatings reached US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, he urged restraint on the part of Freedom Riders and sent an assistant, John Seigenthaler, to Alabama to try to calm the situation.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: Despite the violence suffered and the threat of more to come, the Freedom Riders intended to continue their journey. Kennedy had arranged an escort for the Riders in order to get them to Montgomery, Alabama, safely. However, radio reports told of a mob awaiting the riders at the bus terminal, as well as on the route to Montgomery. The Greyhound clerks told the Riders that their drivers were refusing to drive any Freedom Riders anywhere.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: Recognizing that their efforts had already called national attention to the civil rights cause and wanting to get to the rally in New Orleans, the Riders decided to abandon the rest of the bus ride and fly directly to New Orleans from Birmingham. When they first boarded the plane, all passengers had to exit because of a bomb threat.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: Upon arriving in New Orleans, local tensions prevented normal accommodations—after which Norman C. Francis, president of Xavier University of Louisiana (XULA), decided to house them on campus in secret at St Michael's Hall, a dormitory.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: Diane Nash, a Nashville college student who was a leader of the Nashville Student Movement and SNCC, believed that if Southern violence were allowed to halt the Freedom Rides the movement would be set back years. She pushed to find replacements to resume the rides. On May 17, a new set of riders, 10 students from Nashville who were active in the Nashville Student Movement, took a bus to Birmingham, where they were arrested by Bull Connor and jailed.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The students kept their spirits up in jail by singing freedom songs. Out of frustration, Connor drove them back up to the Tennessee line and dropped them off, saying, "I just couldn't stand their singing." They immediately returned to Birmingham.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: In answer to SNCC's call, Freedom Riders from across the Eastern US joined John Lewis and Hank Thomas, the two young SNCC members of the original Ride, who had remained in Birmingham. On May 19, they attempted to resume the ride, but, terrified by the howling mob surrounding the bus depot, the drivers refused. Harassed and besieged by the mob, the riders waited all night for a bus.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: On Wednesday morning, May 24, Freedom Riders boarded buses for the journey to Jackson, Mississippi. Surrounded by Highway Patrol and the National Guard, the buses arrived in Jackson without incident, but the riders were immediately arrested when they tried to use the white-only facilities at the Tri-State Trailways depot. The third bus arrived at the Jackson Greyhound station early on May 28, and its Freedom Riders were arrested.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: In Montgomery, the next round of Freedom Riders, including the Yale University chaplain William Sloane Coffin, Gaylord Brewster Noyce, and southern ministers Shuttlesworth, Abernathy, Wyatt Tee Walker, and others were similarly arrested for violating local segregation ordinances.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: Riders arrested in Jackson included Stokley Carmichael (19), Catherine Burks (21), Gloria Bouknight (20), Luvahgn Brown (16), Margaret Leonard (19), Helen O'Neal (20), Hank Thomas (20), Carol Silver (22), Hezekiah Watkins (13), Peter Stoner (22), Byron Baer (31), and LeRoy Glenn Wright (19) in addition to many more

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The Kennedys called for a "cooling off period" and condemned the Rides as unpatriotic because they embarrassed the nation on the world stage at the height of the Cold War. James Farmer, head of CORE, responded to Kennedy saying, "We have been cooling off for 350 years, and if we cooled off any more, we'd be in a deep freeze." The Soviet Union criticized the United States for its racism and the attacks on the Riders.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: During the summer of 1961, Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination. They sat together in segregated restaurants, lunch counters and hotels. This was especially effective when they targeted large companies, such as hotel chains. Fearing boycotts in the North, the hotels began to desegregate their businesses.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The group included 35-year-old Reverend Robert L Pierson. After the case against the priests was dismissed on May 21, 1962, they sought damages against the police under the Civil Rights Act of 1871. Their claims were ultimately rejected in the United States Supreme Court case "Pierson v. Ray" (1967), which held that the police were protected by qualified immunity.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The widespread violence provoked by the Freedom Rides sent shock waves through American society. People were worried that the Rides were evoking widespread social disorder and racial divergence, an opinion supported and strengthened in many communities by the press. The press in white communities condemned the direct action approach that CORE was taking, while some of the national press negatively portrayed the Riders as provoking unrest.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: " Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v. Virginia (1960) decision at a terminal facility only"

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: In celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Freedom Rides, Oprah Winfrey invited all living Freedom Riders to join her TV program to celebrate their legacy. The episode aired on May 4, 2011.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: In late 2011, Palestinian activists, inspired by the freedom riders, used the same methods in Israel by boarding a bus from which they were excluded.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: In January, 2017, President Barack Obama declared the Anniston, Alabama bus station the Freedom Riders National Monument.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The 1980s PBS series, "Eyes on the Prize," had an episode, "Ain't Scared of Your Jails: 1960-1961," which gave attention to the Freedom Riders. It included an interview with James Farmer.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: The title of the 2007 film "Freedom Writers" is an explicit pun on the Freedom Riders, a fact made clear in the film itself which references the campaign.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Freedom Riders

Context: PBS in 2012 broadcast "Freedom Riders" as part of its "American Experience" series. It included interviews and news footage from the Freedom Riders movement.

Question: ライド のリーダーは誰


Context: An underground colony would escape the extreme of temperature on the Moon's surface. The average temperature on the surface of the Moon is about −5 °C. The day period (about 354 hours) has an average temperature of about , although it can rise as high as . The night period (also 354 hours) has an average temperature of about . Underground, both periods would be around , and humans could install ordinary heaters.

Colonization of the Moon


Context: The work of Henri Braconnot in 1777 and the work of Christian Schönbein in 1846 led to the discovery of nitrocellulose, which, when treated with camphor, produced celluloid. Dissolved in ether or acetone, it is collodion, used as a wound dressing since the U.S. Civil War. Cellulose acetate was first prepared in 1865. In years 1834-1844 the properties of rubber (polyisoprene) were found to be greatly improved by heating with sulfur, thus founding the vulcanization process.

Polymer chemistry


Context: Shuji Isawa (1851-1917) studied music at Bridgewater Normal School and Harvard University and was an important figure in the development of Western-influenced Japanese music in the Meiji Era (1868-1912). On returning to Japan in 1879, Isawa formed the Ongaku-Torishirabe-Gakari (Music Investigation Agency), a national research center for Western music; it was later renamed the Tokyo Music School (Tôkyô ongaku gakkô). In 1880, Isawa's American friend and teacher, Luther Whiting Mason, took up a two-year appointment to further develop the music curriculum of Japanese schools. Kosaku Yamada, Yoshinao Nakada, and Toru Takemitsu are Japanese composers who have successively developed what is now known as Japanese Classical Music.

Music of Japan


Context: The number of stables peaked at 54, with the opening of Onoe stable in August 2006. In order to limit the over-proliferation of stables the Japan Sumo Association introduced new rules the following month that greatly raised the qualifications needed by former wrestlers wishing to branch out (namely, those ranked below "yokozuna" or "ōzeki" must have spent at least 60 tournaments in the top "makuuchi" division or 25 in the titled "san'yaku" ranks). Discounting the special circumstances of the temporary closure of Kise stable from 2010 until 2012, there were no new stables established for more than six years, while eleven folded, bringing the number of active stables down to 43. This sequence was ended by the opening of former "yokozuna" Musashimaru's Musashigawa stable in April 2013. Since this time the opening and closing of stables has stabilized and the number of stables has remained in the mid 40s.

List of sumo stables


Context: Tsutomu Sato (1902 - June 9, 1960) was a Japanese ophthalmologist who performed an early version of the radial keratotomy and was the first professor at the Research Institute of Ophthalmology at Juntendo University School of Medicine.

Tsutomu Sato (ophthalmologist)


Context: Nearly 90% of Kansas' land is devoted to agriculture. The state's agricultural outputs are cattle, sheep, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, cotton, hogs, corn, and salt. As of 2018, there were 59,600 farms in Kansas, 86 (0.14%) of which are certified organic farms. The average farm in the state is about 770 acres (more than a square mile), and in 2016, the average cost of running the farm was $300,000.

Kansas


Context: The subventricular zone (SVZ) is a term used to describe both embryonic and adult neural tissues in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). In embryonic life, the SVZ refers to a secondary proliferative zone containing neural progenitor cells, which divide to produce neurons in the process of neurogenesis. The primary neural stem cells of the brain and spinal cord, termed radial glial cells, reside in the ventricular zone (VZ) (so-called because the VZ lines the developing ventricles). In the developing cerebral cortex, which resides in the dorsal telencephalon, the SVZ and VZ are transient tissues that do not exist in the adult. However, the SVZ of the ventral telencephalon persists throughout life.

Subventricular zone


Context: A second gallery opened in 2008 at the Somerville Theatre in Davis Square, Somerville, Massachusetts, where the collection was placed near both the women's and men's restrooms. Although the original gallery was free and open to the public, the second is free with admission to the theater or with a pass requested from the museum. Exhibitions titled "Bright Colors / Dark Emotions" and "Know What You Like / Paint How You Feel" have been held in the academic gallery at Montserrat College of Art in Beverly, Massachusetts. One of MOBA's goals is "to take bad art on the road", according to Sacco. Pieces from MOBA's collection have been on display in museums in New York City, Ottawa, Taipei, and Virginia.

Museum of Bad Art


Context: Initially, small out-posts were built for the fur trade. In May 1624, from a ship under the command of Cornelius Jacobsen Mey (after whom Cape May is named) thirty families were required to spread themselves throughout the region including Fort Wilhelmus. The last was on the east bank of the Delaware River, the site of the first European settlement in what would become New Jersey. Later another was built at Fort Nassau.

History of New Jersey


Context: Initially inhabited by the Ainu, Iturup was reached in 1661 by the Japanese Shichirobei and his fellows after they had drifted there. The island saw both a Russian settlement (late 18th century) and a Japanese garrison (1800) at the site of the present-day Kurilsk. In 1855 Iturup was ceded to Japan by the Treaty of Shimoda. Its name comes from the Ainu エﾂﾟヲロ (Etuworop), meaning "Place possessing [many] capes."

Iturup


Context: Svalbard (; ; prior to 1925 known by its Dutch name 'Spitsbergen') is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. Situated north of mainland Europe, it is about midway between continental Norway and the North Pole. The islands of the group range from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. The largest island is Spitsbergen, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. Administratively, the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county, but forms an unincorporated area administered by a governor appointed by the Norwegian government. Since 2002, Svalbard's main settlement, Longyearbyen, has had an elected local government, somewhat similar to mainland municipalities. Other settlements include the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research station of Ny-Ålesund, and the mining outpost of Sveagruva. Ny-Ålesund is the northernmost settlement in the world with a permanent civilian population. Other settlements are farther north, but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers.

Svalbard


Context: Julius Meinl V was born in Vienna, Austria to a wealthy family. To prepare him to join the family business, he was educated at the "Ecole des Hautes Etudes Economiques, Juridiques et Sociales", St Gallen, one of the world's leading business schools. He then gained experience in London with Swiss Bank Corporation and later in the United States with Brown Brothers Harriman, America's oldest and largest private bank. As a boy, Meinl V went to school in Austria, before finishing a degree in banking in Switzerland at the University of St. Gallen.

Julius Meinl V


Context: In computer science, a microkernel (often abbreviated as μ-kernel) is the near-minimum amount of software that can provide the mechanisms needed to implement an operating system (OS). These mechanisms include low-level address space management, thread management, and inter-process communication (IPC).

Microkernel


Context: For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with their cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have employed several different conceptions of the day's boundaries. Common convention among the ancient Romans, ancient Chinese and in modern times is for the civil day to begin at midnight, i.e. 00:00, and last a full 24 hours until 24:00 (i.e. 00:00 of the next day).  In ancient Egypt, the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise.

Day


Context: Washington, D.C. is located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast. Due to the District of Columbia retrocession, the city has a total area of 68.34 square miles (177.0 km2), of which 61.05 square miles (158.1 km2) is land and 7.29 square miles (18.9 km2) (10.67%) is water. The district is bordered by Montgomery County, Maryland to the northwest; Prince George's County, Maryland to the east; Arlington County, Virginia to the south; and Alexandria, Virginia to the west.

Washington, D.C.


Context: The sitcom format was born in January 1926 with the initial broadcast of "Sam 'n' Henry" on WGN radio in Chicago, Illinois. The 15-minute daily program was revamped in 1928, moved to another station, renamed "Amos 'n' Andy", and became one of the most successful sitcoms of the period. It was also one of the earliest examples of radio syndication. Like many radio programs of the time, the two programs continued the American entertainment traditions of vaudeville and the minstrel show.

Sitcom


Context: St. Nicholas of Japan (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin) brought Orthodox Christianity to Japan in the 19th century. In 1861 he was sent by the Russian Orthodox Church to Hakodate, Hokkaidō, as a presbyter to a chapel of the Russian consulate. Though the contemporary "shōgun"s government prohibited Japanese conversion to Christianity, some neighbors who frequently visited the chapel converted in 1864—Nicolai's first three converts in Japan. While they were his first converts in Japan, they were not the first Japanese to become Orthodox Christians—some Japanese who had settled in Russia had converted to Orthodox Christianity.

Japanese Orthodox Church


Context: After his father asked Lasorda to select Piazza as a favor, the Miami-Dade Community College student was drafted by the Dodgers in the 62nd round of the 1988 MLB amateur draft as the 1,390th player picked overall. Lasorda asked Piazza to give up his first base position and learn how to catch to improve his chances of reaching the major leagues, and helped him attend a special training camp for catchers in the Dominican Republic. Piazza became an excellent hitter, especially for a catcher. His MLB debut came with the Dodgers on September 1, 1992, against the Chicago Cubs. He drew a walk in his first plate appearance and then doubled to deep center field in his first official at-bat, against Mike Harkey of the Cubs. He hit his first home run on September 12, 1992, against Steve Reed of the San Francisco Giants. He only appeared in 21 games that season, hitting .232.

Mike Piazza


Context: A Tory () is a person who holds a political philosophy, known as Toryism, based on a British version of traditionalism and conservatism, which upholds the supremacy of social order as it has evolved throughout history. The Tory ethos has been summed up with the phrase "God, King, and Country". Tories generally advocate monarchism, and were historically of a high church Anglican religious heritage, opposed to the liberalism of the Whig faction.

Tory


Context: The term "Aryan" came to be used as the term for the newly discovered Indo-European languages, and, by extension, the original speakers of those languages. In the 19th century, "language" was considered a property of "ethnicity", and thus the speakers of the Indo-Iranian or Indo-European languages came to be called the "Aryan race", as contradistinguished from what came to be called the "Semitic race". By the late 19th century, among some people, the notions of an "Aryan race" became closely linked to Nordicism, which posited Northern European racial superiority over all other peoples. This "master race" ideal engendered both the "Aryanization" programs of Nazi Germany, in which the classification of people as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan" was most emphatically directed towards the exclusion of Jews. By the end of World War II, the word 'Aryan' had become associated by many with the racial ideologies and atrocities committed by the Nazis.

Aryan


Context: Major League II also welcomes some new faces to the team. David Keith plays Jack Parkman, a selfish superstar catcher who is looking to replace the aging Jake Taylor (Tom Berenger) as the starter. Takaaki Ishibashi, of Japanese comedic duo Tunnels, is outfielder Hiroshi "Kamikaze" Tanaka who helps excite the team. Eric Bruskotter is rookie catcher Rube Baker who is getting used to the MLB life. Unlike the first film, which was rated R, "Major League II" is rated PG and is distributed by Warner Bros. instead of Paramount Pictures.

Major League II


Context: Engadget was founded by former Gizmodo technology weblog editor and co-founder, Peter Rojas. Engadget was the largest blog in Weblogs, Inc., a blog network with over 75 weblogs including Autoblog and Joystiq which formerly included Hack-A-Day. Weblogs Inc. was purchased by AOL in 2005. Engadget's editor-in-chief, Ryan Block, announced on July 22, 2008, that he would be stepping down as editor-in-chief in late August, leaving the role to Joshua Topolsky. On March 12, 2011, Topolsky announced that he was leaving Engadget to start "The Verge". Editorial Director Joshua Fruhlinger appointed Tim Stevens — profiled by Fortune on May 31, 2012—as the editor-in-chief.

Engadget


Context: The park hosts rich terrestrial biodiversity of fauna and flora including 15 species of mammals, 310 species of birds, 59 species of reptiles and amphibians, 21 species of freshwater fish, 216 species of butterflies, and various insects.

Kenting National Park


Context: Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and "Führer" ("Leader") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. He killed himself by gunshot on 30 April 1945 in his "Führerbunker" in Berlin. Eva Braun, his wife of one day, committed suicide with him by taking cyanide. In accordance with Hitler's prior written and verbal instructions, that afternoon their remains were carried up the stairs through the bunker's emergency exit, doused in petrol, and set alight in the Reich Chancellery garden outside the bunker. Records in the Soviet archives show that their burnt remains were recovered and interred in successive locations until 1946. In 1970, they were again exhumed, cremated, and the ashes scattered.

Death of Adolf Hitler


Context: The first recipient of the Cy Young Award was Don Newcombe of the Dodgers. In 1957, Warren Spahn became the first left-handed pitcher to win the award. In 1963, Sandy Koufax became the first pitcher to win the award in a unanimous vote; two years later he became the first multiple winner. In 1978, Gaylord Perry (age 40) became the oldest pitcher to receive the award, a record that stood until broken in 2004 by Roger Clemens (age 42). The youngest recipient was Dwight Gooden (age 20 in 1985). In 2012, R.A. Dickey became the first knuckleball pitcher to win the award.

Cy Young Award


Context: Kim Dong-in, born on October 2, 1900 in Pyeongyang, Pyeongannam-do was a pioneer of realism and naturalism in Modern Korean literature. A son of a wealthy landowner, like many other young Korean intellectuals Kim took his higher education in Japan, attending the Meiji Academy in Tokyo and entering the Kawabata School of Fine Arts. Kim dropped out when he decided to pursue writing as a career. In 1919, Kim and other advocates for "art-for-art's-sake-literature," launched the influential but transitory journal "Creation" (Changjo) in Japan along with Joo Yohan, Jeon Yeongtaek, Choi Seungman, and Kim Hwan. "Creation" took a stand against the didactic literature ("national literature" to put it another way) proposed by Yi Kwang-su, In "Creation" Kim published his debut story, “The Sorrows of the Weak” (Yakhanjaui seulpeum). In 1925, Kim published one of his most famous works, "Potato," which was a breakthrough in Korean "realist" fiction and a further salvo in his ongoing literary war with Yi Kwang-su.

Kim Dong-in


Context: Stone tips are one of the earliest forms of weapons assumed by archaeologists, with the earliest surviving examples of stone tips with animal blood dating to around 64,000 years ago from the Natal, in what is now South Africa. These early arrows were just a stone tip, which is advantageous over organic materials because it enables weapons to cut through tougher hides and create larger wounds, killing more easily.  There is as yet no direct evidence for bows during the African Pleistocene, and the hypothesis that very early, stone points were used to tip darts or arrows remains unsupported by use-trace studies and contextual evidence. Some hypothesised concomitants, such as the use of bow drills, also remain elusive.<ref name="publication/256678582_Indications_of_Bow_and_Stone-Tipped_Arrow_Use_64000_Years_Ago_in_KwaZulu-Natal_South_Africa"></ref>

History of weapons


Context: All animals have a set of DNA coding for genes present on chromosomes. In humans, most mammals, and some other species, two of the chromosomes, called the X chromosome and Y chromosome, code for sex. In these species, one or more genes are present on their Y chromosome that determine maleness. In this process, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome act to determine the sex of offspring, often due to genes located on the Y chromosome that code for maleness. Offspring have two sex chromosomes: an offspring with two X chromosomes will develop female characteristics, and an offspring with an X and a Y chromosome will develop male characteristics.

XY sex-determination system


Context: Netanyahu was killed in action on July 4, 1976, while commanding the rescue mission during Operation Entebbe. He was the only Israeli soldier killed during the raid (along with three hostages, all of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine members, and dozens of Ugandan soldiers). The commonly accepted version of his death is that Netanyahu fired on Ugandan soldiers, and was shot in response by an African from the airport's control tower. The family refused to accept this verdict, and insisted instead that he was killed by the German commanding the hijackers. Netanyahu was shot outside the building being stormed, and would soon die in the arms of Efraim Sneh, commander of the mission's medical unit. The operation itself was a success, and was renamed as "Mivtsa Yonatan" ("Operation Jonathan" in English) in his honor.

Yonatan Netanyahu


Context: Mark Charles Honeywell (December 29, 1874 – September 13, 1964) was an American electronics industrialist. He founded the eponymous Honeywell, Incorporated and was its first president and CEO (1927–1933).

Mark C. Honeywell


Context: Broadway's first "long-run" musical was a 50-performance hit called "The Elves" in 1857. In 1870, the heart of Broadway was in Union Square, and by the end of the century, many theatres were near Madison Square. Theatres did not arrive in the Times Square area until the early 1900s, and the Broadway theatres did not consolidate there until a large number of theatres were built around the square in the 1920s and 1930s. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's "musical burletta" "The Seven Sisters" (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. It was at a performance by Keene's troupe of "Our American Cousin" in Washington, D.C. that Abraham Lincoln was shot. The first theatre piece that conforms to the modern conception of a musical, adding dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is considered to be "The Black Crook", which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, "The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post" was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy".

Broadway theatre


Context: The battle was the defining engagement of a short war between the US and the Lakota Sioux over disputes concerning violations of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie. In this battle 600 soldiers attacked 250 Sioux, killing 86 and capturing 70 women and children.

Battle of Ash Hollow


Context: The Iriomote cat ("Prionailurus bengalensis iriomotensis") is a subspecies of the leopard cat that lives exclusively on the Japanese island of Iriomote. It has been listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2008, as the only population comprises fewer than 250 adult individuals and is considered declining. As of 2007, there were an estimated 100–109 individuals remaining.

Iriomote cat


Context: The concept's origins can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".

Intellectual property


Context: In Japan, the position was generally referred to as GHQ (General Headquarters), as SCAP also referred to the offices of the occupation, including a staff of several hundred U.S. civil servants as well as military personnel. Some of these personnel effectively wrote a first draft of the Japanese Constitution, which the National Diet then ratified after a few amendments. Australian, British, Indian, and New Zealand forces under SCAP were organized into a sub-command known as British Commonwealth Occupation Force.

Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers


Context: Wallachia was founded as a principality in the early 14th century by Basarab I, after a rebellion against Charles I of Hungary, although the first mention of the territory of Wallachia west of the river Olt dates to a charter given to the voivode Seneslau in 1246 by Béla IV of Hungary. In 1417, Wallachia accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire; this lasted until the 19th century, albeit with brief periods of Russian occupation between 1768 and 1854. In 1859, Wallachia united with Moldavia to form the United Principalities, which adopted the name "Romania" in 1866 and officially became the Kingdom of Romania in 1881. Later, following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the resolution of the elected representatives of Romanians in 1918, Bukovina, Transylvania as well as parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș were allocated to the Kingdom of Romania, thereby forming the modern Romanian state.

Wallachia


Context: Grand Theft Auto IV: The Lost and Damned is the first of two episodic expansion packs developed for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows versions of "Grand Theft Auto IV", developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It was first released for Xbox 360 on 17 February 2009, and for PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010. It is the third expansion pack in the "Grand Theft Auto" series (the first since "", released in 1999), and the twelfth release overall.


Context: Imagine is a song co-written and performed by English musician John Lennon. The best-selling single of his solo career, its lyrics encourage the listener to imagine a world at peace without the barriers of borders or the divisions of religion and nationality and to consider the possibility that the whole of humanity would live unattached to material possessions. Shortly before his death, Lennon said that much of the song's "lyric and content" came from his wife Yoko Ono, and in 2017, she received a co-writing credit.

Imagine (John Lennon song)


Context: Des Moines () is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is also the county seat of Polk County. A small part of the city extends into Warren County. It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as Fort Des Moines, which was shortened to "Des Moines" in 1857. It is on and named after the Des Moines River, which likely was adapted from the French colonial name, "Rivière des Moines," meaning "River of the Monks". The city's population was 217,521 as of the 2017 population estimate. The five-county metropolitan area is ranked 89th in terms of population in the United States with 634,725 residents according to the 2016 estimate by the United States Census Bureau.

Des Moines, Iowa


Context: The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with the urban centre was proposed in the 1830s, and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854. To prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, filled up. The world's first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service. The Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground "inner circle" connecting London's main-line stations. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and cover method. Both railways expanded, the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing, Hounslow, Uxbridge, Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as in Buckinghamshire, more than from Baker Street and the centre of London.

London Underground


Context: Claudette Colvin (born September 5, 1939) is an American nurse and was a pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement. On March 2, 1955, she was arrested at the age of 15 in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to give up her seat to a white woman on a crowded, segregated bus. Colvin acted a few months before the more widely known incident in which Rosa Parks, secretary of the local chapter of the NAACP, played the lead role, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott that began that year.

Claudette Colvin


Context: Chief marshal of the armored troops Pavel Alexeyevich Rotmistrov () (6 July 1901 in Skovorovo – 6 April 1982) was a Soviet military commander of armoured troops in the Red Army during and following World War II, most notable at the Battle of Prokhorovka where he engaged Waffen SS in point blank range.

Pavel Rotmistrov


Context: Volkswagen (), shortened to VW (), is a German automaker founded on 28 May 1937 by the German Labour Front and headquartered in Wolfsburg. It is the flagship marque of the Volkswagen Group, the largest automaker by worldwide sales in 2016 and 2017. The group's main market is in China, which delivers 40% of its sales and profits.

Volkswagen


Context: The Palais Garnier ( French ) is a 1,979-seat opera house, which was built from 1861 to 1875 for the Paris Opera. It was called the Salle des Capucines, because of its location on the Boulevard des Capucines in the 9th arrondissement of Paris, but soon became known as the Palais Garnier, in recognition of its opulence and its architect, Charles Garnier. The theatre is also often referred to as the Opéra Garnier ( French ) and historically was known as the Opéra de Paris or simply the Opéra, as it was the primary home of the Paris Opera and its associated Paris Opera Ballet until 1989, when the Opéra Bastille opened at the Place de la Bastille. The Paris Opera now mainly uses the Palais Garnier for ballet.

Palais Garnier


Context: The original company, T.G. John and Company Ltd., was founded in 1919 by Thomas George John (1880–1946). Its first products were stationary engines, carburetors and motorscooters. Following complaints from the Avro aircraft company whose logo bore similarities to the original winged green triangle, the more familiar inverted red triangle incorporating the word "Alvis" evolved. On 14 December 1921 the company officially changed its name to The Alvis Car and Engineering Company Ltd. Geoffrey de Freville (1883–1965) designed the first Alvis engine and is also responsible for the company name.

Alvis Car and Engineering Company


Context: The Soviet order of battle for the invasion of Poland in 1939 details the major combat units arrayed for the Soviet surprise attack on Poland on September 17, 1939. As a result of joining battle after the Germans had already launched their invasion, the Soviets, prepared for battle in secrecy, met comparatively limited resistance. Several skirmishes between the German and Soviet forces did occur, but neither government was prepared for starting a larger conflict, and these were soon referred to as "misunderstandings".

Soviet order of battle for invasion of Poland in 1939


Context: Union casualties were approximately 2,900 men, some due to heat stroke. Confederate casualties were 1,500. General Gregg, Brig. Gen. John R. Chambliss's classmate at West Point, took charge of the cavalryman's body and later sent it through the lines to Chambliss's widow. As at the First Battle of Deep Bottom, the Federal assault had failed against a smaller defensive force. However, the operation had compelled General Lee to detach forces from Petersburg and Bermuda Hundred to deal with the Union advance, preventing him as well from reinforcing Early in the Shenandoah Valley.

Second Battle of Deep Bottom


Context: The three leagues below the Premier League are known as the Championship, League One and League Two, with 24 clubs in each division (72 in total). Promotion and relegation between these divisions is a central feature of the League and is further extended to allow the top Championship clubs to exchange places with the lowest-placed clubs in the Premier League, and the bottom clubs of League Two to switch with the top clubs of the National League, thus integrating the League into the English football league system. Although primarily a competition for English clubs, clubs from Wales – currently Swansea City and Newport County – also take part, while in the past Cardiff City, Wrexham, Merthyr Town and Aberdare Athletic have been members.

English Football League


Context: The history of chess can be traced back nearly 1500 years, although the earliest origins are uncertain. The earliest predecessor of the game probably originated in India, before the 6th century AD; a minority of historians believe the game originated in China. From India, the game spread to Persia. When the Arabs conquered Persia, chess was taken up by the Muslim world and subsequently spread to Southern Europe. In Europe, chess evolved into roughly its current form in the 15th century.

History of chess


Context: Due to its large ionic radius, caesium is one of the "incompatible elements". During magma crystallization, caesium is concentrated in the liquid phase and crystallizes last. Therefore, the largest deposits of caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process. Because caesium does not substitute for potassium as readily as rubidium, the alkali evaporite minerals sylvite (KCl) and carnallite () may contain only 0.002% caesium. Consequently, Cs is found in few minerals. Percentage amounts of caesium may be found in beryl () and avogadrite (), up to 15 wt% CsO in the closely related mineral pezzottaite (Cs(BeLi)AlSiO), up to 8.4 wt% CsO in the rare mineral londonite (), and less in the more widespread rhodizite. The only economically important ore for caesium is pollucite , which is found in a few places around the world in zoned pegmatites, associated with the more commercially important lithium minerals, lepidolite and petalite. Within the pegmatites, the large grain size and the strong separation of the minerals results in high-grade ore for mining.

Caesium


Context: London ( ) is the capital and largest city of the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in southeastern England, at the head of its estuary leading to the North Sea, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. "Londinium" was founded by the Romans. The City of London, London's ancient core − an area of just and colloquially known as the Square Mile − retains boundaries that follow closely its medieval limits. The City of Westminster is also an Inner London borough holding city status. Greater London is governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.

London


Context: Ivory Coast's contemporary political history is closely associated with the career of Félix Houphouët-Boigny, President of the republic and leader of the "Parti Démocratique de la Ivory Coast" (PDCI) until his death on December 7, 1993. He was one of the founders of the "Rassemblement Démocratique Africain" (RDA), the leading pre-independence inter-territorial political party for all of the French West African territories except Mauritania.

History of Ivory Coast


Context: Potato root nematodes or potato cyst nematodes (PCN) are 1-mm long roundworms belonging to the genus Globodera, which comprises around 12 species. They live on the roots of plants of the Solanaceae family, such as potatoes and tomatoes. PCN cause growth retardation and, at very high population densities, damage to the roots and early senescence of plants. The nematode is not indigenous to Europe but originates from the Andes. Fields are free from PCN until an introduction occurs, after which the typical patches, or hotspots, occur on the farmland. These patches can become full field infestations when unchecked. Yield reductions can average up to 60% at high population densities.

Potato cyst nematode


Context: Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima is an iconic photograph taken by Joe Rosenthal on February 23, 1945, which depicts six United States Marines raising a U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi, during the Battle of Iwo Jima, in World War II.

Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima


Context: Subhas Chandra Bose believed that the Bhagavad Gita was a great source of inspiration for the struggle against the British. Swami Vivekananda's teachings on universalism, his nationalist thoughts and his emphasis on social service and reform had all inspired Subhas Chandra Bose from his very young days. The fresh interpretation of the India's ancient scriptures had appealed immensely to him. Many scholars believe that Hindu spirituality formed the essential part of his political and social thought throughout his adult life, although there was no sense of bigotry or orthodoxy in it. Subhas who called himself a socialist, believed that socialism in India owed its origins to Swami Vivekananda. As historian Leonard Gordon explains "Inner religious explorations continued to be a part of his adult life. This set him apart from the slowly growing number of atheistic socialists and communists who dotted the Indian landscape.".

Subhas Chandra Bose


Context: Laurens Hammond was born in Evanston, Illinois, on January 11, 1895 to William Andrew and Idea Louise Strong Hammond. Laurens showed his great technical prowess from an early age. His father, William, took his own life in 1898, ostensibly due to the pressures of running the First National Bank, which he had founded. Upon her husband's death, Idea, who was an artist, relocated to France with Laurens to further her studies, and the family spent the next eleven years in France and Germany.

Laurens Hammond


Context: Timetoget Bratsbergbanen AS, trading as Timetoget ("the Hourly Train"), is a defunct railway company that tried to start operating passenger trains on the Bratsberg Line in Norway. The concept was launched in 1998, and in 1999 an agreement was made with the incumbent, Norwegian State Railways (NSB), to start operation in 2000. The founders were Gjermund Jamtveit and Halvor Grene, while NSB owned a third of the company. The company bought three used Y1 railcars from Sweden.

Timetoget


Context: As of the census of 2000, there were 328 people, 54 households, and 52 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 306.0 people per square mile (118.4/km²). There were 56 housing units at an average density of 52.2/sq mi (20.2/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 98.78% Native American and 1.22% White. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 0.91% of the population.

Wounded Knee, South Dakota


Context: Works of history or biography have often used the narrative devices of fiction to depict real-world events. Scholars have suggested that the novel "Operación Masacre" (1957) by Argentine author and journalist Rodolfo Walsh was the first non-fiction novel.

Non-fiction novel


Context: Evolution of human colour vision over time: humans ("homo sapiens") have developed a trichromatic view of the world in comparison to a majority of other mammals that only see the world from a dichromatic view. Early human ancestors are believed to have viewed the world using UV vision as far back as 90 million years ago. It is thought that the shift to trichromatic vision capabilities and the ability to see blue light have evolved as an adaptive trait over time.

Evolution of human colour vision


Context: George Howard Herbig (January 2, 1920 – October 12, 2013) was an American astronomer at the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy. He is perhaps best known for the discovery of Herbig–Haro objects.

George Herbig


Context: The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of discoveries in mathematics and, to a lesser extent, an investigation into the mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. From 3000 BC the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, together with Ancient Egypt and Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for purposes of taxation, commerce, trade and also in the field of astronomy and to formulate calendars and record time.

History of mathematics


Context: Daisy Jazz Isobel Ridley (born 10 April 1992) is an English actress. Born in Westminster and brought up in Maida Vale, Ridley trained in drama at the Tring Park School for the Performing Arts. She began acting in minor guest roles on television and in short films, making her film debut in the independent horror film "Scrawl" (2015). She rose to international prominence for playing the lead role of Rey in the "Star Wars" sequel trilogy, starring in "" (2015) and "" (2017). She is also known for her performance of Mary Debenham in "Murder on the Orient Express" (2017), and as the voice of Cottontail in "Peter Rabbit" (2018).

Daisy Ridley


Context: Galactus () is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Formerly a mortal man, Galactus is a cosmic entity who originally consumed planets to sustain his life force, and serves a functional role in the upkeep of the primary Marvel continuity. Galactus was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and first appeared in the comic book "Fantastic Four" #48, published in March 1966.

Galactus


Context: Micronesia is a region that includes approximately 2100 islands, with a total land area of , the largest of which is Guam, which covers . The total ocean area within the perimeter of the islands is .

Micronesia


Context: The series starts with Ash's tenth birthday, which according to Pokémon trainer registration bylaws allowed him to become a full-fledged Pokémon trainer and obtain a starter Pokémon. As a ten-year-old hailing from Pallet Town in the Kanto region, Ash was offered a choice between three Pokémon as his starter: Bulbasaur, Squirtle and Charmander. While he was planning to choose Squirtle, he received the electric type Pokémon Pikachu from Professor Oak instead, because he woke up late and all the other starter Pokémon had been taken by other trainers. After receiving Pikachu and a Pokédex, Ash left Pallet Town to start his journey. Since then Ash has traveled the world of Pokémon, competed in many challenges, and caught newer Pokémon. He has met many companions, such as Misty and Brock.

Ash Ketchum


Context: , also known as Maihime Τερψιχόρα in Greek, is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Ryoko Yamagishi. The manga was awarded the grand prize for the 11th Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 2007. Media Factory published the 10 "tankōbon" volumes of the manga between June 23, 2001 and January 23, 2007.

Terpsichora


Context: The original Nagano Electric Railway was built in 1926, connecting Gondō in Nagano with Suzaka, and electrified at 1,500 V DC. Later that year, the company absorbed the operations of Katō Railway, which operated a line on the east bank of the Chikuma River from Yashiro via Suzaka to Kijima, with the Gongo to Yoshida section being double-tracked. The following year, an additional line was constructed from Shinshū-Nakano to Yudanaka, and in 1928, the line was extended to Nagano Station as dual track.

Nagano Electric Railway


Context: The role of the COO differs from industry to industry and from organization to organization. Some organizations function without a COO. Others may have two COOs, each assigned to oversee several business lines or divisions, such as Lehman Brothers from 2002 to 2004 when Bradley Jack and Joseph M. Gregory were the co-COOs. A COO could also be brought in from other organizations as a "fixer," such as Daniel J. O'Neill who in 1999 joined Molson in that capacity.

Chief operating officer


Context: Peckelsheim had its first documentary mention in Corvey Abbey documents in the 10th century. It was granted town rights on 31 July 1318. The town was burnt down several times by town fires, but always built anew afterwards, even keeping its original town layout today, which can still be seen in the way the streets are arranged

Willebadessen


Context: Oxford Scientific Films (OSF) is a British company that produces natural history and documentary programmes. Founded on 8 July 1968, by noted documentary filmmaker Gerald Thompson, the independent film company broke new ground in the world of documentaries, using new filming techniques and capturing footage of never before filmed activities of its various subjects. In 1996, Oxford Scientific Films was sold to Circle Communications, where it retained its own identity as a division within the company. The following year, Circle Communications was taken over by Southern Star Entertainment UK. Under the new ownership, Oxford Scientific Films continued to enhance its reputation for innovative film-making, producing multiple award-winning series and films, including the highly acclaimed Animal Planet series, "Meerkat Manor".

Oxford Scientific Films


Context: In the work of Niels Abel and Carl Jacobi, the answer was formulated: this would involve functions of two complex variables, having four independent "periods" (i.e. period vectors). This gave the first glimpse of an abelian variety of dimension 2 (an abelian surface): what would now be called the "Jacobian of a hyperelliptic curve of genus 2".

Abelian variety


Context: Panizza was born in Buenos Aires, of Italian parents. His birth name was Héctor Panizza but throughout his career he was known as Ettore. Panizza studied first with his father, who was a cellist at the old Teatro Colón, and later in Milan. He made his debut as assistant conductor at the Rome Opera in 1897.

Ettore Panizza


Context: Jacques Roux (21 August 1752 – 10 February 1794) was a radical Roman Catholic priest who took an active role in politics during the French Revolution. He skillfully expounded the ideals of popular democracy and classless society to crowds of Parisian sans-culottes, working class wage earners and shopkeepers, radicalizing them into a dangerous revolutionary force. He became a leader of a popular far-left.

Jacques Roux


Context: A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity. Any other quantity of that kind can be expressed as a multiple of the unit of measurement.

Unit of measurement


Context: The University of Houston (UH) is a state research university and the flagship institution of the University of Houston System. Founded in 1927, UH is the university in Texas with nearly 44,000 students. Its campus spans 667 acres in southeast Houston, and was known as University of Houston–University Park from 1983 to 1991. The Carnegie Foundation classifies UH as a doctoral degree-granting institution with "highest research activity." The "U.S. News & World Report" ranks the university No. 171 in its National University Rankings, and No. 91 among top public universities.

University of Houston


Context: Kikujiro tells the story of a young boy searching for his mother during his summer vacation. The film is mostly divided into smaller chapters, listed as entries in the boy's summer vacation diary. Kitano's inspiration for the character (not the film) was his own father, Kikujiro Kitano, a gambler who struggled to feed his family and pay the rent.

Kikujiro


Context: Nuclear magnetic resonance was first described and measured in molecular beams by Isidor Rabi in 1938, by extending the Stern–Gerlach experiment, and in 1944, Rabi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. In 1946, Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell expanded the technique for use on liquids and solids, for which they shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1952.

Nuclear magnetic resonance


Context: During the Second World War American servicemen stationed in Europe began to experience the benefits of the nimble British sports cars, and many shipped them home on their return. There were no legal restrictions to this behavior until 1967. Some owners even acted as sales reps for manufacturers who were happy to help, leading to official imports and the British sports car craze in North America. As with future waves of imported cars, this led the U.S. automakers to respond by introducing home grown models, such as the Chevrolet Corvette.

Grey import vehicle


Context: In June 1941, Schulhoff was deported to the Wülzburg concentration camp near Weißenburg, Bavaria. He died there on 18 August 1942 from tuberculosis.

Erwin Schulhoff


Context: Tammy Wynette (; born Virginia Wynette Pugh; May 5, 1942 – April 6, 1998), was an American country music singer-songwriter and one of country music's best-known artists and biggest-selling female singers.

Tammy Wynette


Context: The Three Kingdoms (220–280 A.D.) was the tripartite division of China between the states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. It started with the end of the Han dynasty and was followed by the Jin dynasty. The term "Three Kingdoms" is something of a misnomer, since each state was eventually headed not by a king, but by an emperor who claimed suzerainty over all China. Nevertheless, the term "Three Kingdoms" has become standard among English-speaking sinologists. To distinguish the three states from other historical Chinese states of the same names, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Wei" () is also known as "Cao Wei" (), the state that called itself "Han" () is also known as "Shu Han" () or just "Shu" (), and the state that called itself "Wu" () is also known as "Eastern Wu" () or "Sun Wu" ().

Three Kingdoms


Context: Street children are children experiencing poverty, homelessness or both, who are living on the streets of a city, town, or village. Homeless youth are often called street kids or street child; the definition of street children is contested, but many practitioners and policymakers use UNICEF’s concept of boys and girls, aged under 18 years, for whom "the street" (including unoccupied dwellings and wasteland) has become home and/or their source of livelihood, and who are inadequately protected or supervised.

Street children


Context: EHB was launched on 10 June 2012 in San Sebastián by five founding components: Eusko Alkartasuna, Aralar, Alternatiba, Sortu, and independents of the "Abertzale left" (groups and independent individuals from the Basque leftist-nationalist milieu, many of whom had been members of Batasuna), all of whom had been previously members of the Amaiur coalition. On 3 July 2012 Laura Mintegi was chosen as candidate for "Lehendakari" in the 2012 Basque parliamentary election. Mintegi, a professor at the University of the Basque Country, formerly stood as a candidate for Herri Batasuna.

EH Bildu


Context: The name comes from the mathematical model of computation defined by Alan Turing with the same name (Turing machine).

Turing Machine (band)


Context: The assassination of the king took place at a masked ball at the Royal Opera House in Stockholm at midnight on 16 March 1792. Gustav had arrived earlier that evening to enjoy a dinner in the company of friends. During dinner, he received an anonymous letter that described a threat to his life (written by the colonel of the Life guards Carl Pontus Lilliehorn), but, as the king had received numerous threatening letters in the past, he chose to ignore it. After dining, he left his rooms to take part in the masquerade. The letter was written in French, and in translation it started:

Gustav III of Sweden


Context: Kelzang Gyatso was born in Lithang of Eastern Tibet, in the present-day Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of present-day Sichuan province. At that time, the Dalai Lama's throne in Lhasa was occupied by Ngawang Yeshey Gyatso, who had been installed by Lha-bzang Khan as "the real 6th Dalai Lama" in place of Tsangyang Gyatso. Ngawang Yeshey Gyatso still held this position (though most Tibetans did not consider him to be a legitimate Dalai Lama) when a monk at Litang monastery, spontaneously channeling the Nechung Oracle, identified Kelzang Gyatso as the reincarnation of Tsangyang Gyatso. Since this presented a contradiction of Lha-bzang Khan's Dalai Lama, it was a controversial matter and potentially dangerous to the child. Subsequently, the Tibetan leader of a delegation from Lhasa covertly confirmed that the child was Tsangyang Gyatso's reincarnation. The child was quietly taken into Litang monastery for protection and training. In 1715, the Kangxi Emperor sponsored Kelzang Gyatso's entrance into Kumbum Monastery. This entrance was marked by formal ceremonies due to a Dalai Lama and thus signified a public challenge to Lha-bzang Khan's Dalai Lama. He was ordained by Ngawang Lobsang Tenpai Gyaltsen. His reign started when he was 12.

7th Dalai Lama


Context: The concept of switching small blocks of data was first explored independently by Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation starting in the late 1950s in the US and Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the UK.

Packet switching


Context: HMS "Furious" was a modified built for the Royal Navy (RN) during the First World War. Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Fisher, the ship was very lightly armoured and designed to be armed with only two heavy guns (18-inch), one forward and one aft, plus a number of lesser guns. "Furious" was modified and became an aircraft carrier while under construction. Her forward turret was removed and a flight deck was added in its place, such that aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure to land. Later in the war, the ship had her rear turret removed and a second flight deck installed aft of the superstructure, but this was less than satisfactory due to air turbulence. "Furious" was briefly laid up after the war before she was reconstructed with a full-length flight deck in the early 1920s.

HMS Furious (47)


Context: The system was developed by Bob Kahn at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI). The original work was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) between 1992 and 1996, as part of a wider framework for distributed digital object services, and was thus contemporaneous with the early deployment of the World Wide Web, with similar goals.

Handle System


Context: 12 Years a Slave is a 2013 period drama film and an adaptation of the 1853 slave memoir "Twelve Years a Slave" by Solomon Northup, a New York State-born free African-American man who was kidnapped in Washington, D.C. by two conmen in 1841 and sold into slavery. Northup was put to work on plantations in the state of Louisiana for 12 years before being released. The first scholarly edition of Northup's memoir, co-edited in 1968 by Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon, carefully retraced and validated the account and concluded it to be accurate. Other characters in the film were also real people, including Edwin and Mary Epps, and Patsey.

12 Years a Slave (film)


Context: T-Mobile Park is a retractable roof baseball park located in Seattle, Washington. Owned and operated by the Washington State Major League Baseball Stadium Public Facilities District, it is the home stadium of the Seattle Mariners of Major League Baseball (MLB) and has a seating capacity of 47,715 for baseball. It is located in Seattle's SoDo neighborhood, near the western terminus of Interstate 90. The first game was played on July 15, 1999.

T-Mobile Park


Context: In November 1996, an issue of the National Geographic Magazine included an article titled "Realm of the Seamount", describing dives made at Bowie Seamount by two explorers named Bill Curtsinger and Eric Hiner. They explored the slopes of Bowie Seamount using scuba diving equipment down to . Their photographs featured one of Bowie's rugged peaks thickly covered with seaweeds and colourful sea bottom invertebrates. Shoals of young rockfish were seen on Bowie's steep flanks.

Bowie Seamount


Context: At the start of the Age of Discovery, European governments sent explorers to find trade routes to facilitate economic relations with Asia and Europe. During this time, these men found the new lands that could be used for the economic benefit of their home countries. In order to understand these new lands and the resources that might be available, explorers fostered relationships with the native people. This led to the colonization of the Americas. The Catholic Church was an essential part of both the Spanish and Portuguese Empires so as the empires spread to new lands, it was the duty of the King to be sure Christianity was spread into the New World.

Spanish missions in the Americas


Context: Henry Wallop then renewed his prosecution of Boyle. Boyle was summoned to appear at the Court of Star Chamber. In the proceedings, Boyle's adversaries seem to have failed to substantiate their accusations. Boyle had somehow managed to secure the attendance of Queen Elizabeth I herself at the proceedings, and he successfully exposed some misconduct on the part of his adversaries.

Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork


Context: The ISDA Master Agreement is a development of the Swaps Code, introduced by ISDA in 1985 and updated in 1986. In its earliest form, it consisted of standard definitions, representations and warranties, events of default, and remedies.

ISDA Master Agreement


Context: During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.

Computer


Context: In 2005, she competed in her first PKRA World Tour organised by the International Kiteboarding Association. She fully focused on the competition circuit and within three tour events she claimed a top five ranking, which she kept until the end of the 2005 season. At the same time she studied Technology and Policy at the Technical University of Eindhoven. She combined the PKRA World Tour season in 2006 with finishing her Masters degree. After her studies she wanted to combine her professional kite surfing career with a job outside of sports. She took a job offer from KPN, a Dutch telecommunication company and she focused on a new discipline in kite surfing, speed kiting as it is easier to train for in the Netherlands and because it has less competitions during a year. In Lüderitz, Namibia she set a new Dutch women outright speed record, meaning that she is the fastest Dutch women powered by wind on the water. With 39.56 knots (=73.3 km/h) average over 500 meters she is faster than windsurfers, kite surfers and sailors.

Katja Roose


Context: Anadyr (; Chukchi: , "Kagyrgyn") is a port town and the administrative center of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia, located at the mouth of the Anadyr River at the tip of a peninsula that protrudes into Anadyrsky Liman. Anadyr is the easternmost town in Russia; more easterly settlements, such as Provideniya and Uelen, do not have town status. It was previously known as "Novo–Mariinsk" (until 1923).

Anadyr (town)


Context: In 1904, Torao Yamaha produced the first domestically manufactured bus, which was powered by a steam engine. In 1907, Komanosuke Uchiyama produced the Takuri, the first entirely Japanese-made gasoline engine car. The Kunisue Automobile Works built the Kunisue in 1910, and the following year manufactured the "Tokyo" in cooperation with Tokyo Motor Vehicles Ltd. In 1911, Kaishinsha Motorcar Works was established and later began manufacturing a car called the DAT. In 1920, Jitsuyo Jidosha Seizo Co., founded by William R. Gorham, began building the Gorham and later the Lila. The company merged with Kaishinsha in 1926 to form the DAT Automobile Manufacturing Co. (later to evolve into Nissan Motors). From 1924 to 1927, Hakuyosha Ironworks Ltd. built the Otomo. Toyota, a textile manufacturer, began building cars in 1936. Most early vehicles, however, were trucks produced under military subsidy. Isuzu, Yanmar and Daihatsu initially focused on diesel engine development.

Automotive industry in Japan


Context: The California Trail was heavily used from 1845 until several years after the end of the American Civil War; in 1869 several rugged wagon routes were established across the Carson Range and Sierra Nevada mountains to different parts of northern California. After about 1848 the most popular route was the Carson Route which, while rugged, was still easier than most others and entered California in the middle of the gold fields. The trail was heavily used in the summers until the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 by the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads. Trail traffic rapidly fell off as the cross-country trip was much quicker and easier by train—about seven days. The economy class fare across the western United States of about $69 was affordable by most California-bound travelers.

California Trail


Context: The Gambia has a smoking ban in place.

List of smoking bans


Context: The method of steeping loose tea leaves in hot water came to be known as , and it soon led to a new way of producing green tea that would work well with this technique. In 1737, an Uji-based tea grower named Nagatani Sōen developed what is now the standard process for making leaf teas in Japan: tea leaves are first steamed, then rolled into narrow needles and dried in an oven. The process imparts a vivid emerald color to the leaf, along with a "clean", sometimes sweet flavor. Nagatani's tea caught the attention of his friend Baisao, becoming synonymous with the "sencha" method of steeping tea. It thereafter came to be known by the same name. "Sencha" grew in popularity over time, and is now the most popular form of tea in Japan, representing 80 percent of all tea produced each year.

History of tea in Japan


Context: Although sensitivity levels vary by country, the most common food allergies are allergies to milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, seafood, shellfish, soy, and wheat. These are often referred to as "the big eight". Allergies to seeds — especially sesame — seem to be increasing in many countries. An example an allergy more common to a particular region is that to rice in East Asia where it forms a large part of the diet.

Food allergy


Context: Some of the earliest written records of meditation (Dhyana), come from the Hindu traditions of Vedantism around 1500 BCE. The Vedas discuss the meditative traditions of ancient India. Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, other forms of meditation developed in Taoist China and Buddhist India. Dhyana in early Buddhism also takes influence on Vedanta by ca. the 4th century BCE.

History of meditation


Context: Chalmers received his undergraduate degree in pure mathematics from the University of Adelaide in Australia and continued his studies at the University of Oxford, where he was a Rhodes Scholar. Chalmers received his PhD in philosophy and cognitive science from Indiana University Bloomington under Douglas Hofstadter, writing a doctoral thesis titled, "Toward a theory of consciousness." He was a postdoctoral fellow in the Philosophy-Neuroscience-Psychology program directed by Andy Clark at Washington University in St. Louis from 1993 to 1995.

David Chalmers