Geography of the Philippines

Context: To the west of the Pacific Cordillera lies an extensive lowland, the Davao-Agusan Trough. Its northern portion includes the Agusan Valley which forms the lower river basin of the Agusan River. The river flows in a northward direction and empties into the Butuan Bay. Draining the southern portion of the lowland are several other rivers, which include the Tagum, flowing southward to the Davao Gulf.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Situated west of the Davao-Agusan Trough is a complex series of mountain ranges called the Central Mindanao Highlands (also known as the "Central Cordillera"). From these mountains form the headwaters of several rivers which include the Rio Grande de Mindanao, Pulangi, Maridagao and Tagoloan rivers. Several tall mountains, such as Mount Apo, the country's highest are found within the range.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: The north-central portion of Mindanao is dominated by an extensive highland region, the Bukidnon-Lanao Plateau, which includes the Kitanglad and Kalatungan mountain ranges. Within the plateau lies the country's second largest lake, Lake Lanao situated at an elevation of 2,296 feet, drained by the Agus River flowing northward to its river mouth at Iligan Bay.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: South of the Bukidnon-Lanao Plateau lies a large depression, the Cotabato Basin, which forms the lower river basin of the country's second largest river system, the Rio Grande de Cagayan (also known as the "Mindanao River"). Surrounded by three mountain ranges, the basin's only opening to the sea is to the northwest at Illana Bay, where the Mindanao River empties into the ocean.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Situated south and west of the Cotabato Basin are a moderately high mountain range, the Tiruray Highlands, which block off the Basin from the southern coastline. South of the highlands are narrow strips of coastlines.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: At the northwestern tip of Mindanao is the generally mountainous Zamboanga Peninsula. The chain of mountain ranges in this region is called "Zamboanga Cordilleras", with the highest elevation at Mount Dapi, which is high.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: The southern coastline is irregular, featuring two smaller peninsulas, the Sibuguey and Baganian, extending southward to the Moro Gulf.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: To the north of the Diwata Mountains at northeast Mindanao lie Siargao island and the Dinagat group of islands.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Southwest of the Zamboanga Peninsula is the Sulu Archipelago, a chain of islands which comprise the smaller archipelago provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: The Philippines is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGUs) with the 81 provinces and 38 independent cities as the primary unit. Provinces are further subdivided into component cities and municipalities, both of which consist of barangays, the smallest local government unit.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: There are 17 regions comprising the Philippines. Each region, with the exception of the National Capital Region, is further subdivided into component provinces. The National Capital Region is divided into four special districts.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Most government offices establish regional offices in a city to serve the constituent provinces. Such cities are designated as "regional centers". The regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Forming the regions, with the exception of the National Capital, are the 81 provinces. Each province has a capital city or municipality.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Unless otherwise indicated, the information below is taken from CIA Factbook information for the Philippines.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: The Philippines sit astride typhoon belt and are usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: In political geography, an enclave is a territory or part of a territory lying wholly within the boundaries of another, and an exclave is one which is politically attached to a larger piece but not actually contiguous with it. Many entities are both enclaves and exclaves, but the two are not synonymous.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: A quadripoint is a point on the Earth that touches four distinct regions. Such points are often called "four corners", from the corners of the four regions meeting there.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: Four distinct geographic divisions converging at a single point is not uncommon in the Philippines, and there are other points of convergence between five or more divisions that can be found.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: The boundaries of the Philippine archipelago are described in Article III of the Treaty of Paris (1898), as comprising an irregular polygon. A box enclosing that polygon would have corners at 20°N 116°E, 20°N 127°E, 4.75°N 127°E, 4.75°N 116°E. The center of this box would lie at 121.5 E, 12.375 N. That point lies roughly in the center of the Tablas Strait between the islands of Tablas and Mindoro.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: "Republic Act No. 9522", "An Act to Define the Baselines of the Territorial Sea of the Philippines", describes an irregular polygon which fits within a box with its center at 121°44'47.45"E 12°46'6.1252"N, a point also roughly in the center of the Tablas Strait.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Geography of the Philippines

Context: The center of a box enclosing these points would be located at 12°46’6.13"N, 120°26’36.46"E. That point is located in the Mindoro Strait, about NNE of Apo Island, in Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro.

Question: ما هي اكبر جزر الفلبين ؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Apart from what Al-Mas'udi writes of himself little is known. Born in Baghdad, he was descended from Abdullah Ibn Mas'ud, a companion of Muhammad. He mentions many scholar associates met on his travels through many lands:

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas‘udi may have reached Sri Lanka and China although he is known to have met Abu Zaid al-Sirafi on the coast of the Persian Gulf and received information on China from him. He presumably gathered information on Byzantium from the Byzantine admiral, Leo of Tripoli, a convert-to-Islam whom he met in Syria where his last years were divided between there and Egypt. In Egypt he found a copy of a Frankish king list from Clovis to Louis IV that had been written by an Andalusian bishop.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Little is known of his means and funding of his extensive travels within and beyond the lands of Islam, and it has been speculated that like many travelers he may have been involved in trade.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: We know that al-Mas‘udi wrote a revised edition of "Muruj adh-dhahab" in 956 CE; however, only a draft version from 947 is extant. Al-Mas‘udi in his "Tanbih" states that the revised edition of "Muruj adh-dhahab" contained 365 chapters.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas'udi lived at a time when books were available and cheap. Major towns like Baghdad had large public libraries and many individuals, such as as-Suli, a friend of Mas‘udi's, had private libraries, often containing thousands of volumes. Early in the Abbasid era the art of papermaking was brought to the Islamic world by Chinese prisoners after the battle of Talas and most large towns and cities had paper mills. Available cheap writing material contributed to the lively intellectual life.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas‘udi often refers readers to his other books, assuming their availability. The high literacy and vigor of the Islamic world with its rich cultural heritage of Greek philosophy, Persian literature, Indian mathematics, contrasted with that of Europe, when the author of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" was writing. Islamic Abbasid society of al-Mas‘udi's world manifested a knowledge seeking, perceptive analytical attitude and scholarly-minded people associated naturally in this highly civilized atmosphere.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: He was familiar with the medical work of Galen, with Ptolemaic astronomy, with the geographical work of Marinus and with the studies of Islamic geographers and astronomers.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas‘udi knew leading Mu'tazilites, including al-Jubba, al-Nawbakhti, ibn Abdak al-Jurjani and Abu'l Qasim al-Balkhi al-Ka'bi. He was also well acquainted with previous Mu'tazilite literature. His reasoning, his phraseology, his expressed high esteem for Mu'tazilities could suggest that he was one of their number. However, Shboul points out that his extant works do not specifically state that he was.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas‘udi included the history of the ancient civilizations that had occupied the land upon which Islam later spread. He mentions the Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians and Persians among others. He is also the only Arab historian to refer (albeit indirectly) to the kingdom of Urartu, when he speaks about the wars between the Assyrians (led by the legendary Queen Semiramis) and Armenians (led by Ara the Beautiful).

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: In al-Mas‘udi's view the greatest contribution of the Greeks was philosophy. He was aware of the progression of Greek philosophy from the pre-Socratics onward.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: He also was keenly interested in the earlier events of the Arabian peninsula. He recognized that Arabia had a long and rich history. He also was well-aware of the mixture of interesting facts in pre-Islamic times, in myths and controversial details from competing tribes and even referred to the similarity between some of this material and the legendary and story telling contributions of some Middle Persian and Indian books to the "Thousand and One Nights".

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Ahmad Shboul notes that al-Mas'udi is distinguished above his contemporaries for the extent of his interest in and coverage of the non-Islamic lands and peoples of his day. Other authors, even Christians writing in Arabic in the Caliphate, had less to say about the Byzantine Empire than al-Mas‘udi. He also described the geography of many lands beyond the Abbasid Caliphate, as well as the customs and religious beliefs of many peoples.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: His normal inquiries of travelers and extensive reading of previous writers were supplemented in the case of India with his personal experiences in the western part of the subcontinent. He demonstrates a deep understanding of historical change, tracing current conditions to the unfolding of events over generations and centuries. He perceived the significance of interstate relations and of the interaction of Muslims and Hindus in the various states of the subcontinent.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas'udi was also very well informed about Byzantine affairs, even internal political events and the unfolding of palace coups. He recorded the effect of the westward migration of various tribes upon the Byzantines, especially the invading Bulgars. He spoke of Byzantine relations with western Europe. And, of course, he was attentively interested in Byzantine-Islamic relations.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: He has some knowledge of other peoples of eastern and western Europe, even far away Britain and Anglo-Saxon England. He names it, though he is sketchy about it. He knows Paris as the Frankish capital. He obtained a copy of a list of Frankish rulers from Clovis to his own time. He makes several references to people interpreted as Vikings, described by him as Majus, they came to Al-Andalus from the North.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Al-Mas‘udi's global interest included Africa. He was well aware of peoples in the eastern portion of the continent (mentioning interesting details of the Zanj, for example). He knows less of West Africa, though he names such contemporary states as Zagawa, Kawkaw and Ghana. He described the relations of African states with each other and with Islam. He provided material on the cultures and beliefs of non-Islamic Africans.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: In general his surviving works reveal an intensely curious mind, a universalist eagerly acquiring as extensive a background of the entire world as possible. The geographical range of his material and the reach of his ever inquiring spirit is truly impressive.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: These anecdotes provide glimpses of other aspects of these prominent people, sharing, actually, greater realization of their humanity and the human concerns of their officials and ordinary subjects. One of the more interesting passages is the account of the symposium held at the home of Harun al-Rashid's famous vizier Yahya the Barmakid on the topic of love. A dozen leading thinkers provide their definition of love and then a thirteenth, a Magian judge, speaks at greater length on that theme.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: "Kitab at-Tanbih wa-l-'Ishraf" (), 'Book of Admonition and Revision'; an abridged "Muruj adh-Dhahab", about one-fifth its length, containing new material on the Byzantines, that al-Mas‘udi wrote shortly before his death.

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Ernest Renan compared al-Masudi to the second century A.D. Greek geographer Pausanias, while others compared him to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder. Even before al-Masudi's work was available in a European languages, orientalists had compared him to Herodotus, the ancient Greek historian called "The Father of History."

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Al-Masudi

Context: Some early commentators on al-Masudi indicate the influence of religious antagonisms. The Sunni scholar Ibn Hajar wrote: "[al-Mas‘udi's] books are imprecise because he was a Shi‘a, a Muʿtazili.". Adh-Dhahabi and Taj al-Din al-Subki believed he espoused heretical Mu'tazili doctrine. Indications of Shi‘i theology are cited in the following:

Question: ما اللغة التي يستعملها أبو علي الحسن بن مسعود بن محمد؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE has been designated as a terrorist organisation by 33 countries, including the European Union, Canada, the United States, and India.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: LTTE is noted by many academics for the popularization of the suicide vest as a weapon. Though the group did not invent suicide bombing, they perfected the use of suicide vest attacks, which are now used by many current militant organisations.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE carried out its first major attack on 23 July 1983, when they ambushed Sri Lanka Army patrol Four Four Bravo at Thirunelveli, Jaffna. Thirteen Sri Lankan servicemen were killed in the attack, leading to the Black July pogrom where up to 3000 Tamil civilians were killed across the island.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: Many consider Black July to be a planned rampage against the Tamil community of Sri Lanka, in which sections of the government were implicated.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: Thousands of outraged Tamil youths joined Tamil militant groups to fight the Sri Lankan government, in what is considered a major catalyst to the insurgency in Sri Lanka.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: In April 1984, the LTTE formally joined a common militant front, the Eelam National Liberation Front (ENLF), a union between LTTE, the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation (TELO), the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS), the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) and the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF).

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The last members of the IPKF, which was estimated to have had a strength of well over 100,000 at its peak, left the country in March 1990 upon the request of President Premadasa. Unstable peace initially held between the government and the LTTE, and peace talks progressed towards providing devolution for Tamils in the north and east of the country. A ceasefire held between LTTE and the government from June 1989 to June 1990, but broke down as LTTE massacred 600 police officers in the Eastern Province.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: Mahattaya, a one-time deputy leader of LTTE, was accused of treason by the LTTE and killed in 1994. He is said to have collaborated with the Indian Research and Analysis Wing to remove Prabhakaran from the LTTE leadership.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: Eelam War IV had commenced in the East. Mavil Aru came under the control of the Sri Lanka Army by 15 August 2006. Systematically, Sampoor, Vakarai, Kanjikudichchi Aru and Batticaloa also came under military control. The military then captured Thoppigala, the Tiger stronghold in Eastern Province on 11 July 2007. IPKF had failed to capture it from LTTE during its offensive in 1988.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: President Mahinda Rajapaksa declared military victory over the Tamil Tigers on 16 May 2009, after 26 years of conflict. The rebels offered to lay down their weapons in return for a guarantee of safety. On 17 May 2009, LTTE's head of the Department of International Relations, Selvarasa Pathmanathan conceded defeat, saying in an email statement, "this battle has reached its bitter end".

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE was viewed as a disciplined and militarised group with a leader of significant military and organisational skills. Three major divisions of the LTTE were the military, intelligence and political wings.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: LTTE used female cadres for military engagements. Its women's wing consisted of Malathi and Sothiya Brigades.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE also controlled a powerful international wing called the "KP branch", controlled by Selvarasa Pathmanathan, "Castro branch", controlled by Veerakathy Manivannam "alias" Castro, and "Aiyannah group" led by Ponniah Anandaraja "alias" Aiyannah.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The European Union banned LTTE as a terrorist organization on 17 May 2006. In a statement, the European Parliament said that the LTTE did not represent all Tamils and called on it to "allow for political pluralism and alternate democratic voices in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka".

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: In October 2014, the European Court of Justice annulled the anti-terrorism sanctions and several other restrictions placed on the LTTE in 2006. The court noted that the basis of proscribing the LTTE had been based on "imputations derived from the press and the Internet" rather than on direct investigation of the group's actions, as required by law. Later, in March 2015, the EU reimposes the sanctions and restrictions.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: In July 2017, the LTTE was removed from the terrorism blacklist of European Union's top court, stating that there was no evidence to show of LTTE carrying out attacks after its military defeat in 2009. However, despite the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruling, the European Union stated the LTTE organization remains listed as a terrorist organization by the EU.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: Karen Parker, an attorney specializing in human rights and humanitarian law, argued that the LTTE was not a terrorist organization but "an armed force in a war against the government of Sri Lanka." She characterized the war waged by the LTTE as "a war of national liberation in the exercise of the right of self-determination."

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, LTTE was the first insurgent organization to use concealed explosive belts and vests. According to the information published by the LTTE, the Black Tigers carried out 378 suicide attacks between 5 July 1987 and 20 November 2008. Out of the deceased, 274 were male and 104 were female.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: Black Tiger cadres killed in action were highly glorified and their families were given the "Maaveerar family" status, just like normal LTTE cadres. Also, these families were honored with the "Thamizheezha Maravar pathakkam" (Warrior medal of Tamil Eelam), one of the higher honors of Tamil Eelam. Black Tiger members were given a chance to have his/her last supper with the LTTE leader Prabhakaran, which was a rare honor, motivating LTTE cadres to join the Black Tiger wing.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: On 28 November 2007, an LTTE suicide bomber named Sujatha Vagawanam detonated a bomb hidden inside her bra in an attempt to kill Sri Lankan minister Douglas Devananda. This was recorded in the security cameras inside Devananda's office. It is one of the few detonations of an explosive by a suicide bomber recorded on camera.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: LTTE sympathisers justify some of the assassinations by arguing that the people attacked were combatants or persons closely associated with Sri Lankan military intelligence. Specifically in relation to the TELO, the LTTE has said that it had to perform preemptive self-defence because the TELO was in effect functioning as a proxy for India.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE argues that instances of child recruitment occurred mostly in the east, under the purview of former LTTE regional commander Colonel Karuna. After leaving the LTTE and forming the TMVP, it is alleged that Karuna continued to forcibly kidnap and induct child soldiers. Soon after Karuna's defection, the LTTE began an intensive campaign to re-recruit Karuna's former cadres, including child soldiers. Many of the former child soldiers were re-recruited by the LTTE, often by force.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE is responsible for forcibly removing, or ethnic cleansing, of Sinhalese and Muslim inhabitants from areas under its control.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: In 2003, the LTTE formally recognised the rights of the Muslim and Sinhalese communities to be present in the north-east in their ISGA proposals.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE has also executed civilian Tamils accused of dissent. Various dissident sources allege that the number of Tamil dissenters and prisoners from rival armed groups clandestinely killed by the LTTE in detention or otherwise ranges from 8,000 to 20,000.

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

Context: The LTTE has also tortured its prisoners. One Tamil prisoner held by the LTTE from 1992 to 1995 showed "clear signs of clear signs of burning with heated metal

Question: متى تاسست جماعة نمور التاميل؟


Alexander Parkes

Context: In total Parkes held at least 66 patents on processes and products, mostly related to electroplating and to development of plastics.

Question: من هو مخترع اللدائن؟


Alexander Parkes

Context: Parkes' younger brother Henry (1824–1909), a trained chemist, who was married to Fanny Roderick (1837–97), a sister of Alexander's second wife, assisted him in many of his experiments during a collaboration lasting more than fifty years.

Question: من هو مخترع اللدائن؟


Alexander Parkes

Context: It is believed that the Parkes family descends from the Rev. Michael Parkes, Vicar of Penkridge, Staffordshire (died 1617), and had close connections with the metal-working towns of Wednesbury and Wolverhampton in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

Question: من هو مخترع اللدائن؟


Alexander Parkes

Context: In September 2005, Parkes was posthumously inducted into the American Plastics Academy's Hall of Fame. He is buried in West Norwood Cemetery, London, although his memorial was removed in the 1970s.

Question: من هو مخترع اللدائن؟


Thyroid

Context: The thyroid gland develops in the floor of the pharynx at the base of the tongue at 3–4 weeks gestation; it then descends in front of the pharyngeal gut, and ultimately over the next few weeks, it migrates to the base of the neck. During migration, the thyroid remains connected to the tongue by a narrow canal, the thyroglossal duct. At the end of the fifth week the thyroglossal duct degenerates, and over the following two weeks the detached thyroid migrates to its final position.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ composed of two lobes, left and right, connected by a narrow tissue band, called an "isthmus". It weighs 25 grams in adults, with each lobe being about 5 cm long, 3 cm wide, and 2 cm thick and the isthmus about 1.25 cm in height and width. The gland is usually larger in women than in men, and increases in size during pregnancy.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Lymphatic drainage frequently passes the prelaryngeal lymph nodes (located just above the isthmus) and the pretracheal and paratracheal lymph nodes. The gland receives sympathetic nerve supply from the superior, middle and inferior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk. The gland receives parasympathetic nerve supply from the superior laryngeal nerve and the recurrent laryngeal nerve.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: There are many variants in the size and shape of the thyroid gland, and in the position of the embedded parathyroid glands.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Other variants include a levator muscle of thyroid gland, connecting the isthmus to the body of the hyoid bone, and the presence of the small thyroid ima artery.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: At the microscopic level, there are three primary features of the thyroid—follicles, follicular cells, and parafollicular cells, first discovered by Geoffery Websterson in 1664.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Thyroid follicles are small spherical groupings of cells 0.02–0.9mm in diameter that play the main role in thyroid function. They consist of a rim that has a rich blood supply, nerve and lymphatic presence, that surrounds a core of colloid that consists mostly of thyroid hormone precursor proteins called thyroglobulin, an iodinated glycoprotein.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The core of a follicle is surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells. When stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), these secrete the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. They do this by transporting and metabolising the thyroglobulin contained in the colloid. Follicular cells vary in shape from flat to cuboid to columnar, depending on how active they are.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Scattered among follicular cells and in spaces between the spherical follicles are another type of thyroid cell, parafollicular cells. These cells secrete calcitonin and so are also called C cells.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The neuroendocrine parafollicular cells, also known as C cells, responsible for the production of calcitonin, are derived from foregut endoderm. This part of the thyroid then first forms as the ultimopharyngeal body, which begins in the ventral fourth pharyngeal pouch and joins the primordial thyroid gland during its descent to its final location.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Aberrations in prenatal development can result in various forms of thyroid dysgenesis which can cause congenital hypothyroidism, and if untreated this can lead to cretinism.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The primary function of the thyroid is the production of the iodine-containing thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) and the peptide hormone calcitonin. The thyroid hormones are created from iodine and tyrosine. T3 is so named because it contains three atoms of iodine per molecule and T4 contains four atoms of iodine per molecule. The thyroid hormones have a wide range of effects on the human body. These include:

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: After secretion, only a very small proportion of the thyroid hormones travel freely in the blood. Most are bound to thyroxine-binding globulin (about 70%), transthyretin (10%), and albumin (15%). Only the 0.03% of T4 and 0.3% of T3 traveling freely have hormonal activity. In addition, up to 85% of the T3 in blood is produced following conversion from T4 by iodothyronine deiodinases in organs around the body.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Thyroid hormones act by crossing the cell membrane and binding to intracellular nuclear thyroid hormone receptors TR-α1, TR-α2, TR-β1, and TR-β2, which bind with hormone response elements and transcription factors to modulate DNA transcription. In addition to these actions on DNA, the thyroid hormones also act within the cell membrane or within cytoplasm via reactions with enzymes, including calcium ATPase, adenylyl cyclase, and glucose transporters.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The thyroid hormones are created from thyroglobulin. This is a protein within the colloid in the follicular lumen that is originally created within the rough endoplasmic reticulum of follicular cells and then transported into the follicular lumen. Thyroglobulin contains 123 units of tyrosine, which reacts with iodine within the follicular lumen.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: TRH is secreted at an increased rate in situations such as cold exposure in order to stimulate thermogenesis. In addition to being suppressed by the presence of thyroid hormones, TSH production is blunted by dopamine, somatostatin, and glucocorticoids.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells: 70% of these genes are expressed in thyroid cells. Two-hundred fifty of these genes are more specifically expressed in the thyroid, and about 20 genes are highly thyroid specific. In the follicular cells, the proteins synthesized by these genes direct thyroid hormone synthesis—thyroglobulin, TPO, and IYD; while in the parafollicular c-cells, they direct calcitonin synthesis—CALCA, and CALCB.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: General practitioners, and internal medicine specialists play a role in identifying and monitoring the treatment of thyroid disease. Endocrinologists and thyroidologists are thyroid specialists. Thyroid surgeons or otolaryngologists are responsible for the surgical management of thyroid disease.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Excessive production of the thyroid hormones is called hyperthyroidism. Causes include Graves' disease, toxic multinodular goitre, solitary thyroid adenoma, inflammation, and a pituitary adenoma which secretes excess TSH. Another cause is excess iodine availability, either from excess ingestion, induced by the drug amiodarone, or following iodinated contrast imaging.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Hyperthyroidism often causes a variety of non-specific symptoms including weight loss, increased appetite, insomnia, decreased tolerance of heat, tremor, palpitations, anxiety and nervousness. In some cases it can cause chest pain, diarrhoea, hair loss and muscle weakness. Such symptoms may be managed temporarily with drugs such as beta blockers.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Hypothyroidism is managed with replacement of the thyroid hormones. This is usually given daily as an oral supplement, and may take a few weeks to become effective. Some causes of hypothyroidism, such as Postpartum thyroiditis and Subacute thyroiditis may be transient and pass over time, and other causes such as iodine deficiency may be able to be rectified with dietary supplementation.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The presence of multiple nodules is called a multinodular goitre; and if it is associated with hyperthyroidism, it is called a toxic multinodular goitre.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: An enlarged thyroid gland is called a goitre. Goitres are present in some form in about 5% of people, and are the result of a large number of causes, including iodine deficiency, autoimmune disease (both Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis), infection, inflammation, and infiltrative disease such as sarcoidosis and amyloidosis. Sometimes no cause can be found, a state called "simple goitre".

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Inflammation of the thyroid is called thyroiditis, and may cause symptoms of hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism. Two types of thyroiditis initially present with hyperthyroidism and are sometimes followed by a period of hypothyroidism – Hashimoto's thyroiditis and postpartum thyroiditis. There are other disorders that cause inflammation of the thyroid, and these include subacute thyroiditis, acute thyroiditis, silent thyroiditis, Riedel's thyroiditis and traumatic injury, including palpation thyroiditis.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The most common neoplasm affecting the thyroid gland is a benign adenoma, usually presenting as a painless mass in the neck. Malignant thyroid cancers are most often carcinomas, although cancer can occur in any tissue that the thyroid consists of, including cancer of C-cells and lymphomas. Cancers from other sites also rarely lodge in the thyroid. Radiation of the head and neck presents a risk factor for thyroid cancer, and cancer is more common in women than men, occurring at a rate of about 2:1.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Thyroid cancers are treated by removing the whole or part of thyroid gland. Radioactive Iodine-131 may be given to radioablate the thyroid. Thyroxine is given to replace the hormones lost and to suppress TSH production, as TSH may stimulate recurrence. With the exception of the rare anaplastic thyroid cancer, which carries a very poor prognosis, most thyroid cancers carry an excellent prognosis and can even be considered curable.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Infants with thyroid hormone deficiency (congenital hypothyroidism) can manifest problems of physical growth and development as well as brain development, termed cretinism. Children with congenital hypothyroidism are treated supplementally with levothyroxine, which facilitates normal growth and development.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Another disorder is that of thyroid dysgenesis which can result in various presentations of one or more misplaced accessory thyroid glands. These can be asymptomatic.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Iodine deficiency, most common in inland and mountainous areas, can predispose to goitre – if widespread, known as endemic goitre. Pregnant women deficient of iodine can give birth to infants with thyroid hormone deficiency. The use of iodised salt to add iodine to the diet has eliminated endemic cretinism in most developed countries, and over 120 countries have made the iodination of salt mandatory.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Excessive iodine intake is uncommon and usually has no effect on the thyroid function. Sometimes though it may cause hyperthyroidism, and sometimes hypothyroidism with a resulting goitre.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: An examination of the thyroid will also include observation of the person as a whole, to look for systemic signs such as weight gain or loss, hair loss, and signs in other locations – such as protrusion of the eyes or swelling of the calves in Graves' disease.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Thyroid function tests include a battery of blood tests, including the measurement of the thyroid hormones, as well as the measurement of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). They may reveal hyperthyroidism (high T3 and T4), hypothyroidism (low T3, T4), or subclinical hyperthyroidism (normal T3 and T4 with a low TSH).

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: TSH levels are considered the most sensitive marker of thyroid dysfunction. They are however not always accurate, particularly if the cause of hypothyroidism is thought to be related to insufficient thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) secretion, in which case it may be low or falsely normal. In such a case a TRH stimulation test, in which TRH is given and TSH levels are measured at 30 and 60-minutes after, may be conducted.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Ultrasound of the thyroid may be used to reveal whether structures are solid or filled with fluid, helping to differentiate between nodules and goitres and cysts. It may also help differentiate between malignant and benign lesions.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: When further imaging is required, a radiolabelled iodine-123 or technetium-99 uptake scan may take place. This can determine the size and shape of lesions, reveal whether nodules or goitres are metabolically active, and reveal and monitor sites of thyroid disease or cancer deposits outside the thyroid.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: A fine needle aspiration of a sample of thyroid tissue may be taken in order to evaluate a lesion seen on ultrasound which is then sent for histopathology and cytology.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Computed tomography of the thyroid plays an important role in the evaluation of thyroid cancer. CT scans often incidentally find thyroid abnormalities, and thereby practically becomes the first investigation modality.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The thyroid gland received its modern name in the 1600s, when the anatomist Thomas Wharton likened its shape to that of an Ancient Greek shield or . However, the existence of the gland, and of the diseases associated with it, was known long before then.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: French chemist Bernard Courtois discovered iodine in 1811, and in 1896 Eugen Baumann documented it as the central ingredient in the thyroid gland. He did this by boiling the thyroid glands of a thousand sheep, and named the precipitate, a combination of the thyroid hormones, 'iodothyrin'. David Marine in 1907 proved that iodine is necessary for thyroid function.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: Graves' disease was described by Robert James Graves in 1834. The role of the thyroid gland in metabolism was demonstrated in 1895 by Adolf Magnus-Levy. Thyroxine was first isolated in 1914 and synthesized in 1927, and triiodothyroxine in 1952. The conversion of T4 to T3 was discovered in 1970. The process of discovering TSH took place over the early to mid twentieth century. TRH was discovered by Polish endocrinologist Andrew Schally in 1970, contributing in part to his Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1977.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: The thyroid gland is found in all vertebrates. In fish, it is usually located below the gills and is not always divided into distinct lobes. However, in some teleosts, patches of thyroid tissue are found elsewhere in the body, associated with the kidneys, spleen, heart, or eyes.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


Thyroid

Context: In tetrapods, the thyroid is always found somewhere in the neck region. In most tetrapod species, there are two paired thyroid glands – that is, the right and left lobes are not joined. However, there is only ever a single thyroid gland in most mammals, and the shape found in humans is common to many other species.

Question: ما هي وظيفة الغدة الدرقية؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and has developed a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence" doctrine.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: India has ratified the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and pledges to abide by its obligations. There is no clear evidence, circumstantial or otherwise, that directly points toward an offensive BW program. India does possess the scientific capability and infrastructure to launch an offensive BW program. In terms of delivery, India also possesses the capability to produce aerosols and has numerous potential delivery systems ranging from crop dusters to sophisticated ballistic missiles.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: No information exists in the public domain suggesting interest by the Indian government in delivery of biological agents by these or any other means. To reiterate the latter point, in October 2002, the then President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam asserted that "India will not make biological weapons. It is cruel to human beings".

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: India has an advanced commercial chemical industry, and produces the bulk of its own chemicals for domestic consumption. It is also widely acknowledged that India has an extensive civilian chemical and pharmaceutical industry and annually exports considerable quantities of chemicals to countries such as the United Kingdom, United States and Taiwan.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: R Chidambaram, who headed India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests, said in a 1999 interview with the Press Trust of India that India is capable of producing a neutron bomb.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: Nuclear-armed fighter-bombers were India's first and only nuclear-capable strike force until 2003, when the country's first land-based nuclear ballistic missiles were fielded.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: In addition to their ground-attack role, it is believed that the Dassault Mirage 2000s and SEPECAT Jaguars of the Indian Air Force are able to provide a secondary nuclear-strike role. The SEPECAT Jaguar was designed to be able to carry and deploy nuclear weapons and the Indian Air Force has identified the jet as being capable of delivering Indian nuclear weapons. The most likely delivery method would be the use of bombs that are free-falling and unguided.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: Three airbases with four squadrons of Mirage 2000H (about 16 aircraft with 16 bombs from 1st and 7th squadrons of the 40th Wing at Maharajpur Air Force Station) and Jaguar IS/IB (about 32 aircraft with 32 bombs from one squadron each at Ambala Air Force Station and Gorakhpur Air Force Station) aircraft, are believed to be assigned the nuclear strike role.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: The Indian Navy has developed two sea-based delivery systems for nuclear weapons, completing Indian ambitions for a nuclear triad, which may have been deployed in 2015.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: Since the implementation of the NSG waiver, India has signed nuclear deals with several countries including France, United States, Mongolia, Namibia, Kazakhstan and Australia while the framework for similar deals with Canada and the United Kingdom are also being prepared.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


India and weapons of mass destruction

Context: India has a number of laws in whole or in partial measure that deal with the regulation of weapons of mass destruction. They include the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) Act of 2005. In April 2022 a bill was tabled to amend the 2005 act to include the financing of proliferation.

Question: في أي عام صادقت الهند على اتفاقية الأسلحة البيولوجية ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Risk factors include a diet of mostly white rice, alcoholism, dialysis, chronic diarrhea, and taking high doses of diuretics. In rare cases, it may be due to a genetic condition that results in difficulties absorbing thiamine found in food. Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff syndrome are forms of dry beriberi. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, low levels of thiamine in the urine, high blood lactate, and improvement with thiamine supplementation.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Treatment is by thiamine supplementation, either by mouth or by injection. With treatment, symptoms generally resolve in a few weeks. The disease may be prevented at the population level through the fortification of food.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Thiamine deficiency is rare in the United States. It remains relatively common in sub-Saharan Africa. Outbreaks have been seen in refugee camps. Thiamine deficiency has been described for thousands of years in Asia, and became more common in the late 1800s with the increased processing of rice.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Symptoms of beriberi include weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception, weakness and pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular heart rate. Edema (swelling of bodily tissues) is common. It may increase the amount of lactic acid and pyruvic acid within the blood. In advanced cases, the disease may cause high-output cardiac failure and death.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Symptoms may occur concurrently with those of Wernicke's encephalopathy, a primarily neurological thiamine deficiency-related condition.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Beriberi is divided into four categories. The first three are historical and the fourth, gastrointestinal beriberi, was recognized in 2004:

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Dry beriberi causes wasting and partial paralysis resulting from damaged peripheral nerves. It is also referred to as endemic neuritis. It is characterized by:

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: A selective impairment of the large proprioceptive sensory fibers without motor impairment can occur and present as a prominent sensory ataxia, which is a loss of balance and coordination due to loss of the proprioceptive inputs from the periphery and loss of position sense.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Wernicke's encephalopathy (WE), Korsakoff syndrome (also called alcohol amnestic disorder), and Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome are forms of dry beriberi.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Korsakoff syndrome, in general, is considered to occur with deterioration of brain function in patients initially diagnosed with WE. This is an amnestic-confabulatory syndrome characterized by retrograde and anterograde amnesia, impairment of conceptual functions, and decreased spontaneity and initiative.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Following improved nutrition and the removal of alcohol consumption, some impairments linked with thiamine deficiency are reversed, in particular poor brain functionality, although in more severe cases, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome leaves permanent damage. (See delirium tremens.)

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Wet beriberi affects the heart and circulatory system. It is sometimes fatal, as it causes a combination of heart failure and weakening of the capillary walls, which causes the peripheral tissues to become edematous. Wet beriberi is characterized by:

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Infantile beriberi usually occurs between two and six months of age in children whose mothers have inadequate thiamine intake. It may present as either wet or dry beriberi.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: In the acute form, the baby develops dyspnea and cyanosis and soon dies of heart failure. These symptoms may be described in infantile beriberi:

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Beriberi may also be caused by shortcomings other than inadequate intake - diseases or operations on the digestive tract, alcoholism, dialysis or genetic deficiencies. All those causes mainly affect the central nervous system, and provoke the development of Wernicke's encephalopathy.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Mutations in the "SLC19A3 "gene have been linked to biotin-thiamine responsive basal ganglia disease, which is treated with pharmacological doses of thiamine and biotin, another B vitamin.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Other disorders in which a putative role for thiamine has been implicated include subacute necrotising encephalomyelopathy, opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome (a paraneoplastic syndrome), and Nigerian seasonal ataxia (or African seasonal ataxia). In addition, several inherited disorders of ThDP-dependent enzymes have been reported, which may respond to thiamine treatment.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Many people with beriberi can be treated with thiamine alone. Given thiamine intravenously (and later orally), rapid and dramatic recovery occurs, generally within 24 hours.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Populations under extreme stress may be at higher risk for beriberi. Displaced populations, such as refugees from war, are susceptible to micronutritional deficiency, including beriberi. The severe nutritional deprivation caused by famine also can cause beriberis, although symptoms may be overlooked in clinical assessment or masked by other famine-related problems. An extreme weight-loss diet can, rarely, induce a famine-like state and the accompanying beriberi.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: "Kakke", which is a Japanese synonym for thiamine deficiency, comes from the way "jiao qi" is pronounced in Japanese. ""Jiao qi" is an old word used in Chinese medicine to describe beriberi. ""Kakke" is supposed to have entered into the Japanese language sometime between the sixth and eighth centuries.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: As most feedstuffs used in poultry diets contain enough quantities of vitamins to meet the requirements in this species, deficiencies in this vitamin do not occur with commercial diets. This was, at least, the opinion in the 1960s.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Thiamine deficiency

Context: Snakes that consume a diet largely composed of goldfish and feeder minnows are susceptible to developing thiamine deficiency. This is often a problem observed in captivity when keeping garter and ribbon snakes that are fed a goldfish-exclusive diet, as these fish contain thiaminase, an enzyme that breaks down thiamine.

Question: ما هما النوعان المختلفين لمرض البيريبيري ؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Civil rights include the ensuring of peoples' physical and mental integrity, life, and safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as sex, race, sexual orientation, national origin, color, age, political affiliation, ethnicity, social class, religion, and disability; and individual rights such as privacy and the freedom of thought, speech, religion, press, assembly, and movement.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Political rights include natural justice (procedural fairness) in law, such as the rights of the accused, including the right to a fair trial; due process; the right to seek redress or a legal remedy; and rights of participation in civil society and politics such as freedom of association, the right to assemble, the right to petition, the right of self-defense, and the right to vote.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with economic, social, and cultural rights comprising the second portion). The theory of three generations of human rights considers this group of rights to be "first-generation rights", and the theory of negative and positive rights considers them to be generally negative rights.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights. The Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. It was one of the influences drawn on by George Mason and James Madison when drafting the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776. The Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U.S. Bill of Rights (1789).

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a "civil disability". In early 19th century Britain, the phrase "civil rights" most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, with many politicians agreeing with the existing civil disabilities of Catholics. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: T. H. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights and still later by social rights. In many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in international human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected. However, most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil and political rights. Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his "A Summary View of the Rights of British America" that "a free people [claim] their rights as derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of their chief magistrate."

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: The question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. Although in many countries citizens have greater protections against infringement of rights than non-citizens, civil and political rights are generally considered to be universal rights that apply to all persons.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr., analyzing the causes of and lack of protection from human rights abuses in the Global South should be focusing on the interactions of domestic and international factors—an important perspective that has usually been systematically neglected in the social science literature.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Custom also plays a role. Implied or unenumerated rights are rights that courts may find to exist even though not expressly guaranteed by written law or custom; one example is the right to privacy in the United States, and the Ninth Amendment explicitly shows that there are other rights that are also protected.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: The United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". It is considered by some that the sole purpose of government is the protection of life, liberty and property.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Some thinker have argued that the concepts of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the medicine one takes, the habit one indulges.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Civil rights guarantee equal protection under the law. When civil and political rights are not guaranteed to all as part of equal protection of laws, or when such guarantees exist on paper but are not respected in practice, opposition, legal action and even social unrest may ensue.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Civil rights movements in the United States gathered steam by 1848 with such documents as the Declaration of Sentiment. Consciously modeled after the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments became the founding document of the American women's movement, and it was adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention, July 19 and 20, 1848.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Worldwide, several political movements for equality before the law occurred between approximately 1950 and 1980. These movements had a legal and constitutional aspect, and resulted in much law-making at both national and international levels. They also had an activist side, particularly in situations where violations of rights were widespread. Movements with the proclaimed aim of securing observance of civil and political rights included:

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Most civil rights movements relied on the technique of civil resistance, using nonviolent methods to achieve their aims. In some countries, struggles for civil rights were accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and even armed rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty years have resulted in an extension of civil and political rights, the process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Questions about civil and political rights have frequently emerged. For example, to what extent should the government intervene to protect individuals from infringement on their rights by other individuals, or from corporations—e.g., in what way should employment discrimination in the private sector be dealt with?

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: Political theory deals with civil and political rights. Robert Nozick and John Rawls expressed competing visions in Nozick's "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" and Rawls' "A Theory of Justice". Other influential authors in the area include Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, and Jean Edward Smith.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Civil and political rights

Context: They were enshrined at the global level and given status in international law first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.

Question: ما هو مبدأ الحقوق المدنية والسياسية؟


Emma (novel)

Context: "Emma", written after Austen's move to Chawton, was her last novel to be published during her lifetime, while "Persuasion", the last complete novel Austen wrote, was published posthumously.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Philip Elton is a good-looking, initially well-mannered, and ambitious young vicar, 27 years old and unmarried when the story opens. Emma wants him to marry Harriet; however, he aspires to secure Emma's hand in marriage to gain her dowry of £30,000. Mr. Elton displays his mercenary nature by quickly marrying another woman of lesser means after Emma rejects him.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mrs. Weston was Emma's governess for sixteen years as Miss Anne Taylor and remains her closest friend and confidante after she marries Mr. Weston. She is a sensible woman who loves Emma. Mrs. Weston acts as a surrogate mother to her former charge and, occasionally, as a voice of moderation and reason. The Weston and the Woodhouse families see each other almost daily. Near the end of the story, the Westons' baby Anna is born.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Miss Bates is a friendly, garrulous spinster whose mother, Mrs. Bates, is a friend of Mr. Woodhouse. Her niece is Jane Fairfax, daughter of her late sister. She was raised in better circumstances in her younger days as the vicar's daughter; now she and her mother rent rooms in the home of another in Highbury. One day, Emma humiliates her on a day out in the country, when she alludes to her tiresome prolixity.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Isabella Knightley (née Woodhouse) is the elder sister of Emma, by seven years, and daughter of Henry. She is married to John Knightley. She lives in London with her husband and their five children (Henry, 'little' John, Bella, 'little' Emma, and George). She is similar in disposition to her father, and her relationship to Mr. Wingfield, (her family's physician) mirrors that of her father's to Mr. Perry.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: John Knightley is Isabella's husband and George's younger brother, 31 years old. He is an attorney by profession. Like the others raised in the area, he is a friend of Jane Fairfax. He greatly enjoys the company of his family, including his brother and his Woodhouse in-laws, but is not a very sociable sort of man. He is forthright with Emma, his sister-in-law, and close to his brother.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mr. Perry is the apothecary in Highbury who is never shown directly speaking but spends a significant amount of time responding to the health issues of Mr. Woodhouse. He and Mrs. Perry have several children. He is also the subject of a discussion between Miss Bates and Jane Fairfax that is relayed in a letter to Mr. Frank Churchill that he inadvertently discloses to Emma. He is described as an "...intelligent, gentlemanlike man, whose frequent visits were one of the comforts of Mr. Woodhouse's life."

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mrs. Bates is the widow of the former vicar of Highbury, the mother of Miss Bates and the grandmother of Jane Fairfax. She is old and hard of hearing, but is a frequent companion to Mr. Woodhouse when Emma attends social activities without him.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mr. & Mrs. Cole have been residents of Highbury for several years, but have recently benefited from a significant increase in their income that has allowed them to expand the size of their house, number of servants and other expenses. Despite their "low origin" in trade, their income and style of living have made them the second most prominent family in Highbury, next to the Woodhouses at Hartfield. They host a dinner party that is a significant plot element.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mrs. Churchill was the wife of the brother of Mr. Weston's first wife. She and her husband, Mr. Churchill, live at Enscombe and raised Mr. Weston's son, Mr. Frank Churchill. Although never seen directly, she makes demands on Frank Churchill's time and attention that prevent him from visiting his father. Her disapproval is the reason that the engagement between Frank Churchill and Jane Fairfax is kept secret. Her death provides the opportunity for the secret to be revealed.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Colonel and Mrs. Campbell were friends of Jane Fairfax's late father. Since Jane was their guest for extended visits, they took over her education in preparation for her serving as a governess when she grew up. They provided her every advantage possible, short of adoption, and were very fond of her.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mrs. Goddard is the mistress of a boarding school for girls in which Harriet Smith is one of the students. She is also a frequent companion to Mr. Woodhouse along with Mrs. Bates.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Mr. William Larkins is an employee on the Donwell Abbey estate of Mr. Knightley. He frequently visits the Bateses, bringing them gifts, such as apples, from Mr. Knightley.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Prior to publication, Austen's novels had come to the attention of the Prince Regent, whose librarian at Carlton House, a Mr. Clarke, showed her around the Library at the Prince Regent's request, and who suggested a dedication to the Prince Regent in a future publication. This resulted in a dedication of "Emma" to the Prince Regent at the time of publication and a dedication copy of the novel sent to Carlton House in December 1815.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: A contemporary Scottish novelist, Susan Edmonstone Ferrier, wrote to a friend, also in 1816:"I have been reading "Emma", which is excellent; there is no story whatever, and the heroine is not better than other people; but the characters are all true to life and the style so piquant, that it does not require the adventitious aids of mystery and adventure."

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Reversing the genders of "Pride and Prejudice" in "Emma" allowed Austen to disturb paradigms and examine the different expectations society had of men and women; the elements she chose to include in "Emma" and how she chose to revise them yield a powerful but ultimately conventional commentary on the status of women. The novel's central concern with gender is often noted in the literature as themes like gendered space, wealth, romance, female empowerment, parenting, and masculinity.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: It is only Mr. Knightley who can willingly share the burden of Emma's father, as well as providing her with guidance, love and companionship. He has been in love with her since she was 13 years old, but neither he nor she have realized that there is a natural bond between them. He declares his love for her: "What did she say? Just what she ought, of course. A lady always does.".

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Looser states that if you define feminism broadly as a movement relating to how women are limited and devalued within a culture then Austen's work applies to this concept of feminism. She states that if you define feminism as a movement to eradicate gender, race, class, and sexual prejudice and to agitate for change, then Austen's work does not really apply to this concept of feminism.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Emma (novel)

Context: Most of the other places mentioned are in southern England, such as the seaside resort towns of Weymouth, Dorset, Southend, and Cromer in Norfolk. Box Hill, Surrey, is still a place of beauty, popular for picnics. Bath, where Mr. Elton went to find a bride, is a well-known spa city in the southwest. The place furthest away is the fictional Enscombe, the estate of the Churchills, in the real Yorkshire, in the north.

Question: من هي صاحبة رواية "إيما"؟


Speed of light

Context: The speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted , is a universal physical constant that is important in many areas of physics. Its exact value is defined as (approximately ). According to the special theory of relativity, is the upper limit for the speed at which conventional matter, energy or any signal carrying information can travel through space.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Sometimes is used for the speed of waves in "any" material medium, and 0 for the speed of light in vacuum. This subscripted notation, which is endorsed in official SI literature, has the same form as other related constants: namely, "μ"0 for the vacuum permeability or magnetic constant, "ε"0 for the vacuum permittivity or electric constant, and "Z"0 for the impedance of free space. This article uses exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Since 1983, the metre has been defined in the International System of Units (SI) as the distance light travels in vacuum in of a second. This definition fixes the speed of light in vacuum at exactly .

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as "c" have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, it has been suggested in various theories that the speed of light may have changed over time. No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found, but they remain the subject of ongoing research.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: It also is generally assumed that the speed of light is isotropic, meaning that it has the same value regardless of the direction in which it is measured. Observations of the emissions from nuclear energy levels as a function of the orientation of the emitting nuclei in a magnetic field (see Hughes–Drever experiment), and of rotating optical resonators (see Resonator experiments) have put stringent limits on the possible two-way anisotropy.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: There are situations in which it may seem that matter, energy, or information-carrying signal travels at speeds greater than "c", but they do not. For example, as is discussed in the propagation of light in a medium section below, many wave velocities can exceed "c". The phase velocity of X-rays through most glasses can routinely exceed "c", but phase velocity does not determine the velocity at which waves convey information.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The rate of change in the distance between two objects in a frame of reference with respect to which both are moving (their closing speed) may have a value in excess of "c". However, this does not represent the speed of any single object as measured in a single inertial frame.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Another quantum effect that predicts the occurrence of faster-than-light speeds is called the Hartman effect: under certain conditions the time needed for a virtual particle to tunnel through a barrier is constant, regardless of the thickness of the barrier. This could result in a virtual particle crossing a large gap faster-than-light. However, no information can be sent using this effect.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: A 2011 report of neutrinos appearing to travel faster than light turned out to be due to experimental error.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion "through" space, but rather to the expansion of space itself. For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In classical physics, light is described as a type of electromagnetic wave. The classical behaviour of the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations, which predict that the speed "c" with which electromagnetic waves (such as light) propagate in vacuum is related to the distributed capacitance and inductance of vacuum, otherwise respectively known as the electric constant "ε"0 and the magnetic constant "μ"0, by the equation

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In modern quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED). In this theory, light is described by the fundamental excitations (or quanta) of the electromagnetic field, called photons. In QED, photons are massless particles and thus, according to special relativity, they travel at the speed of light in vacuum.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales, as predicted by some proposed theories of quantum gravity. In 2009, the observation of gamma-ray burst GRB 090510 found no evidence for a dependence of photon speed on energy, supporting tight constraints in specific models of spacetime quantization on how this speed is affected by photon energy for energies approaching the Planck scale.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: A pulse with different group and phase velocities (which occurs if the phase velocity is not the same for all the frequencies of the pulse) smears out over time, a process known as dispersion. Certain materials have an exceptionally low (or even zero) group velocity for light waves, a phenomenon called slow light.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The opposite, group velocities exceeding "c", was proposed theoretically in 1993 and achieved experimentally in 2000. It should even be possible for the group velocity to become infinite or negative, with pulses travelling instantaneously or backwards in time.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: None of these options, however, allow information to be transmitted faster than "c". It is impossible to transmit information with a light pulse any faster than the speed of the earliest part of the pulse (the front velocity). It can be shown that this is (under certain assumptions) always equal to "c".

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: It is possible for a particle to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium (but still slower than "c"). When a charged particle does that in a dielectric material, the electromagnetic equivalent of a shock wave, known as Cherenkov radiation, is emitted.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The speed of light is of relevance to communications: the one-way and round-trip delay time are greater than zero. This applies from small to astronomical scales. On the other hand, some techniques depend on the finite speed of light, for example in distance measurements.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In supercomputers, the speed of light imposes a limit on how quickly data can be sent between processors. If a processor operates at 1gigahertz, a signal can travel only a maximum of about in a single cycle. Processors must therefore be placed close to each other to minimize communication latencies; this can cause difficulty with cooling. If clock frequencies continue to increase, the speed of light will eventually become a limiting factor for the internal design of single chips.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light-years, especially in popular science publications and media. A light-year is the distance light travels in one Julian year, around 9461 billion kilometres, 5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 parsecs. In round figures, a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light-years away.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The speed of light has become important in high-frequency trading, where traders seek to gain minute advantages by delivering their trades to exchanges fractions of a second ahead of other traders. For example, traders have been switching to microwave communications between trading hubs, because of the advantage which microwaves travelling at near to the speed of light in air have over fibre optic signals, which travel 30–40% slower.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In 1983 the metre was defined as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of a second", fixing the value of the speed of light at by definition, as described below. Consequently, accurate measurements of the speed of light yield an accurate realization of the metre rather than an accurate value of "c".

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Outer space is a convenient setting for measuring the speed of light because of its large scale and nearly perfect vacuum. Typically, one measures the time needed for light to traverse some reference distance in the Solar System, such as the radius of the Earth's orbit. Historically, such measurements could be made fairly accurately, compared to how accurately the length of the reference distance is known in Earth-based units.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Previously, the inverse of  expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a best fit value for the light time per unit distance could be obtained. For example, in 2009, the best estimate, as approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), was:

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion (), equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth-based measurements of length by interferometry. Since the metre is defined to be the length travelled by light in a certain time interval, the measurement of the light time in terms of the previous definition of the astronomical unit can also be interpreted as measuring the length of an AU (old definition) in metres.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: A method of measuring the speed of light is to measure the time needed for light to travel to a mirror at a known distance and back. This is the working principle behind the Fizeau–Foucault apparatus developed by Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault, based on a suggestion by François Arago.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The method of Foucault replaces the cogwheel with a rotating mirror. Because the mirror keeps rotating while the light travels to the distant mirror and back, the light is reflected from the rotating mirror at a different angle on its way out than it is on its way back. From this difference in angle, the known speed of rotation and the distance to the distant mirror the speed of light may be calculated.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Nowadays, using oscilloscopes with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror. This method is less precise (with errors of the order of 1%) than other modern techniques, but it is sometimes used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: The Essen–Gordon-Smith result, , was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques. By 1950, repeated measurements by Essen established a result of .

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: Interferometry is another method to find the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation for determining the speed of light. A coherent beam of light (e.g. from a laser), with a known frequency ("f"), is split to follow two paths and then recombined. By adjusting the path length while observing the interference pattern and carefully measuring the change in path length, the wavelength of the light ("λ") can be determined. The speed of light is then calculated using the equation "c" = "λf".

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In the 13th century, Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle. In the 1270s, Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


Speed of light

Context: In 1972, using the laser interferometer method and the new definitions, a group at the US National Bureau of Standards in Boulder, Colorado determined the speed of light in vacuum to be "c" = . This was 100 times less uncertain than the previously accepted value. The remaining uncertainty was mainly related to the definition of the metre. As similar experiments found comparable results for "c", the 15th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1975 recommended using the value for the speed of light.

Question: من أول عالم قام بقياس سرعة الضوء؟


United Kingdom

Context: The United Kingdom is a unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 1952. The capital and largest city is London, a global city and financial centre with a metropolitan area population of over 14 million. Other major cities include Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool and Leeds. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have their own devolved governments, each with varying powers.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The United Kingdom is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the United Nations, NATO, AUKUS, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Interpol, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It was a member state of the European Communities (EC) and its successor, the European Union (EU), from its accession in 1973 until its withdrawal in 2020 following a referendum held in 2016.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Settlement by anatomically modern humans of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. By the end of the region's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Early modern Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England, and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the execution of King Charles I, and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. During the 17th and 18th centuries, British sailors were involved in acts of piracy (privateering), attacking and stealing from ships off the coast of Europe and the Caribbean.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of Acts of Union being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union and so unite the two kingdoms.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The term "United Kingdom" became official in 1801 when the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Britain fought alongside France, Russia and (after 1917) the United States, against Germany and its allies in the First World War (1914–1918). British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western front. The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: After the war, Britain received the League of Nations mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. The British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: By the mid-1920s most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes. Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement of 1998.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s under Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. From 1984, the economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK is still a key global player diplomatically and militarily. It plays leading roles in the UN and NATO.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the War on Terror in the early years of the 21st century. Controversy surrounded some of Britain's overseas military deployments, particularly in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The 2008 global financial crisis severely affected the UK economy. The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits which resulted. The devolved Scottish Government and UK government agreed for a referendum to be held on Scottish independence in 2014. This referendum resulted in the electorate in Scotland voting by 55.3 to 44.7% for Scotland to remain part of the United Kingdom.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020 and completed its withdrawal in full at the end of that year. The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on the UK in 2020 and 2021.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° and 61° N, and longitudes 9° W and 2° E. Northern Ireland shares a land boundary with the Republic of Ireland. The coastline of Great Britain is long. It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at ( underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: England accounts for just over half (53 per cent) of the total area of the UK, covering . Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with more upland and some mountainous terrain northwest of the Tees-Exe line; including the Lake District, the Pennines, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber. England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike () in the Lake District.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel, has an area of and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at , is the largest lake in the British Isles by area. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at .

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Celtic broadleaf forests, English Lowlands beech forests, North Atlantic moist mixed forests, and Caledon conifer forests. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.65/10, ranking it 161th globally out of 172 countries.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: United Kingdom is ranked 4 out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index. A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The UK is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy. The Parliament of the United Kingdom is sovereign. It is made up of the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Crown. The main business of parliament takes place in the two houses, but royal assent is required for a bill to become an act of parliament (law).

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: For general elections (elections to the House of Commons), the UK is divided into 650 constituencies, each of which is represented by a member of Parliament (MP). MPs hold office for up to five years and are always up for re-election in general elections. The Conservative Party, Labour Party and Scottish National Party are, respectively, the current first, second and third largest parties (by number of MPs) in the House of Commons.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The prime minister not only has statutory functions (alongside other ministers), but is the monarch's principal adviser and it is for them to advise the monarch on the exercise of the royal prerogative in relation to government. In particular, the prime minister recommends the appointment of ministers and chairs the Cabinet.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities. All unitary authorities are led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right. Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: Local government in Northern Ireland has since 1973 been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as collecting waste, controlling dogs and maintaining parks and cemeteries. In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK Parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law and local government. Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an act of the UK parliament passed in 2020.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟


United Kingdom

Context: The Welsh Government and the Senedd (Welsh Parliament; formerly the National Assembly for Wales) have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland. The Senedd is able to legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament through Acts of Senedd Cymru.

Question: كم كانت نسبة الموافقين علي خروج بريطانيا من اليورو ؟