Kate Chopin

Context: Within a decade of her death, Chopin was widely recognized as one of the leading writers of her time. In 1915, Fred Lewis Pattee wrote, "some of [Chopin's] work is equal to the best that has been produced in France or even in America. [She displayed] what may be described as a native aptitude for narration amounting almost to genius."

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Kate was the third of five children, but her sisters died in infancy and her half-brothers (from her father's first marriage) died in their early twenties. They were reared Roman Catholic, in the French and Irish traditions. She also became an avid reader of fairy tales, poetry, and religious allegories, as well as classic and contemporary novels. She graduated from Sacred Heart Convent in St. Louis in 1868.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: The family left the city and moved to Cloutierville, in south Natchitoches Parish, to manage several small plantations and a general store. They became active in the community, where Chopin found, in the local creole culture, much material for her future writing.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: When Oscar Chopin died in 1882, he left Kate $42,000 in debt (approximately $ in 2022). According to Emily Toth, "for a while the widow Kate ran his [Oscar's] business and flirted outrageously with local men; (she even engaged in a relationship with a married farmer)." Although Chopin worked to make her late husband's plantation and general store succeed, two years later she sold her Louisiana business.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Her mother had implored her to move back to St. Louis, which Chopin did, with her mother's financial support. Her children gradually settled into life in the bustling city, but Chopin's mother died the following year.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Chopin struggled with depression after the successive loss of her husband, her business, and her mother. Chopin's obstetrician and family friend, Dr. Frederick Kolbenheyer, suggested that she start writing, believing that it could be therapeutic for her. He understood also that writing could be a focus for her extraordinary energy, as well as a source of income.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: By the early 1890s, Chopin's short stories, articles, and translations were appearing in periodicals, including the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" newspaper, and in various literary magazines. During a period of considerable publishing of folk tales, works in dialect, and other elements of Southern folk life, she was considered a regional writer who provided local color. Her strong literary qualities were overlooked.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: In 1899, her second novel, "The Awakening," was published. Some newspaper critics reviewed the novel favorably. However, the critical reception was largely negative. The critics considered the behavior of the novel's characters, especially the women – and Chopin's general treatment of female sexuality, motherhood, and marital infidelity – to be in conflict with prevailing standards of moral conduct and therefore offensive.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: This novel, her best-known work, is the story of a woman trapped within the confines of an oppressive society. Out of print for several decades, it was rediscovered in the 1970s, when there was a wave of new studies and appreciation of women's writings. The novel has since been reprinted and is widely available. It has been critically acclaimed for its writing quality and importance as an early feminist work of the South.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: While visiting the St. Louis World's Fair on August 20, 1904, Chopin suffered a brain hemorrhage. She died two days later, at the age of 54. She was interred in Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Chopin's writing style was influenced by her admiration of the contemporary French writer Guy de Maupassant, known for his short stories:

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: She knew that she would weep again when she saw the kind, tender hands folded in death; the face that had never looked save with love upon her, fixed and gray and dead. But she saw beyond that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to her absolutely. And she opened and spread her arms out to them in welcome.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Not many writers during the mid- to late 19th century were bold enough to address subjects that Chopin took on. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, of Emory University, wrote that "Kate was neither a feminist nor a suffragist, she said so. She was nonetheless a woman who took women extremely seriously. She never doubted women's ability to be strong." Kate Chopin's sympathies lay with the individual in the context of his and her personal life and society.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Through her stories, Chopin wrote a kind of autobiography and described her societies; she had grown up in a time when her surroundings included the abolitionist movements before the American Civil War, and their influence on freedmen education and rights afterward, as well as the emergence of feminism. Her ideas and descriptions were not reporting, but her stories expressed the reality of her world.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: In 1893, she wrote "Madame Célestin's Divorce," and thirteen of her stories were published. In 1894, "The Story of an Hour" and "A Respectable woman" were firstly published by "Vogue". "Bayou Folk", a collection of twenty-three of Chopin's stories, was a success to Kate Chopin in 1894 which was published by Houghton Mifflin. It was the first of her works to gain national attention, and was followed by another collection of short stories, "A Night in Acadie" (1897).

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Published in 1899, her novel "The Awakening" is often considered ahead of its time, garnering more negative reviews than positive from contemporary sources. Chopin was discouraged by this criticism, and would turn to writing short stories almost exclusively. The female characters in "The Awakening" went beyond the standards of social norms of the time. The protagonist has sexual desires and questions the sanctity of motherhood.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Kate Chopin has been credited by some as a pioneer of the early feminist movement even though she did not achieve any literary rewards for her works.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: Louisiana Public Broadcasting, under president Beth Courtney, produced a documentary on Chopin's life, "Kate Chopin: A Reawakening".

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: In the penultimate episode of the first season of HBO's "Treme," set in New Orleans, the teacher Creighton (played by John Goodman) assigns Kate Chopin's "The Awakening" to his freshmen and warns them:

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Kate Chopin

Context: I want you to take your time with it," he cautions. "Pay attention to the language itself. The ideas. Don't think in terms of a beginning and an end. Because unlike some plot-driven entertainments, there is no closure in real life. Not really.

Question: أين ولدت  الكاتبة كايت شوبن؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Note: The glossopharyngeal nerve contributes in the formation of the pharyngeal plexus along with the vagus nerve.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The branchial motor component of CN IX provides voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle, which elevates the pharynx during swallowing and speech.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The branchial motor component originates from the nucleus ambiguus in the reticular formation of the medulla

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Rostral medulla. Fibers leaving the nucleus ambiguus travel anteriorly and laterally to exit the medulla, along with the other components of CN IX, between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Upon emerging from the lateral aspect of the medulla the branchial motor component joins the other components of CN IX to exit the skull via the jugular foramen. The glossopharyngeal fibers travel just anterior to the cranial nerves X and XI, which also exit the skull via the jugular foramen.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Upon exiting the skull the branchial motor fibers descend deep to the temporal styloid process and wrap around the posterior border of the stylopharyngeus muscle before innervating it.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Signals for the voluntary movement of stylopharyngeus muscle originate in the pre-motor and motor cortex (in association with other cortical areas) and pass via the corticobulbar tract in the genu of the internal capsule to synapse bilaterally on the ambiguus nuclei in the medulla.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Parasympathetic component of the glossopharyngeal nerve that innervates the ipsilateral parotid gland.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The preganglionic nerve fibers originate in the inferior salivatory nucleus of the rostral medulla and travel anteriorly and laterally to exit the brainstem between the medullary olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle with the other components of CN IX. Note: These neurons do not form a distinct nucleus visible on cross-section of the brainstem. The position indicated on the diagram is representative of the location of the cell bodies of these fibers.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Upon exiting the skull, the lesser petrosal nerve synapses in the otic ganglion, which is suspended from the mandibular nerve immediately below the foramen ovale. Postganglionic fibers from the otic ganglion travel with the auriculotemporal branch of CN V3 to enter the substance of the parotid gland.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Fibers from the hypothalamus and olfactory system project via the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus to influence the output of the inferior salivatory nucleus. Examples include: 1) dry mouth in response to fear (mediated by the hypothalamus); 2) salivation in response to smelling food (mediated by the olfactory system)

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: This component of CN IX innervates the baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and chemoreceptors of the carotid body.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Sensory fibers arise from the carotid sinus and carotid body at the common carotid artery bifurcation, ascend in the carotid sinus nerve, and join the other components of CN IX at the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion. The cell bodies of these neurons reside in the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion. The central processes of these neurons enter the skull via the jugular foramen.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Once inside the skull, the visceral sensory fibers enter the lateral medulla between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle and descend in the solitary tract to synapse in the caudal solitary nucleus. From the solitary nucleus, connections are made with several areas in the reticular formation and hypothalamus to mediate cardiovascular and respiratory reflex responses to changes in blood pressure, and serum concentrations of CO2 and O2.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The visceral sensory fibers of CN IX mediate the afferent limb of the pharyngeal reflex in which touching the back of the pharynx stimulates the patient to gag (i.e., the gag reflex). The efferent signal to the musculature of the pharynx is carried by the branchial motor fibers of the vagus nerve.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: This component of CN IX carries general sensory information (pain, temperature, and touch) from the skin of the external ear, internal surface of the tympanic membrane, the walls of the upper pharynx, and the posterior one-third of the tongue, anterior surface of the epiglottis, vallecula.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Sensory fibers from the skin of the external ear initially travel with the auricular branch of CN X, while those from the middle ear travel in the tympanic nerve as discussed above (CN IX visceral motor section). General sensory information from the upper pharynx and posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX. These peripheral processes have their cell body in either the superior or inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The central processes of the general sensory neurons exit the glossopharyngeal ganglia and pass through the jugular foramen to enter the brainstem at the level of the medulla. Upon entering the medulla these fibers descend in the spinal trigeminal tract and synapse in the caudal spinal nucleus of the trigeminal.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The special sensory component of CN IX provides taste sensation from the posterior one-third of the tongue.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Special sensory fibers from the posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX to the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion where their cell bodies reside.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: Damage to the glossopharyngeal nerve can result in loss of taste sensation to the posterior one third of the tongue, and impaired swallowing.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The clinical tests used to determine if the glossopharyngeal nerve has been damaged include testing the gag reflex of the mouth, asking the patient to swallow or cough, and evaluating for speech impediments. The clinician may also test the posterior one-third of the tongue with bitter and sour substances to evaluate for impairment of taste.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Glossopharyngeal nerve

Context: The integrity of the glossopharyngeal nerve may be evaluated by testing the patient's general sensation and that of taste on the posterior third of the tongue. The gag reflex can also be used to evaluate the glossphyaryngeal nerve.

Question: هل يعد العصب البلعومي اللساني عصباً حسياً وحركياً بنفس الوقت؟


Ocean

Context: Strictly speaking, a "sea""" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. The word "sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by land.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The contemporary concept of the "World Ocean" was coined in the early 20th century by the Russian oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous ocean that covers and encircles most of Earth. The global, interconnected body of salt water is sometimes referred to as the world ocean or global ocean. The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The word "ocean" comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (; "Ōkeanós", ), the elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology. Oceanus was believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling the world.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are so named based on nearest continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. Oceans are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres in total distance. They are also connected to smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as, seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. Seawater covers approximately and is customarily divided into five principal oceans, as below:

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Every ocean basin has a mid-ocean ridge, which creates a long mountain range beneath the ocean. Together they form the global mid-oceanic ridge system that features the longest mountain range in the world. The longest continuous mountain range is . This underwater mountain range is several times longer than the longest continental mountain range—the Andes.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life. Scientists believe that a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. This is called atmospheric escape.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Plate tectonics, post-glacial rebound, and sea level rise continually change the coastline and structure of the world ocean. A global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The volume of water in all the oceans together is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (1.335 sextillion liters, 320.3 million cubic miles).

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. More precisely the average depth is . Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over deep. "Deep ocean," which is anything below 200 meters (660 ft.), covers about 66% of Earth's surface. This figure does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be . The British naval vessel "Challenger II" surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the "Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical and horizontal zones defined by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be divided into further regions categorized by light abundance and by depth.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to depth and temperature:

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two sub regions based on distance from land: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves and hence includes coastal waters, whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Ocean warming accounts for over 90% of Earth's energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2020. About one third of that extra heat has been estimated to propagate to depths below 700 meters.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences. Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements. They have different origins, such as tides for tidal currents, or wind and waves for surface currents.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are quasiperiodic; associated with the influence of the moon and sun pull on the ocean water. Tidal currents may form various complex patterns in certain places, most notably around headlands. Non-periodic or non-tidal currents are created by the action of winds and changes in density of water. In littoral zones, breaking waves are so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2 knots.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as "drift currents"). These currents can decompose in one quasi-permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (which vary on timescales of a couple of seconds). The quasi-permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions and thereby also affecting air temperature and precipitation in coastal regions and further inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in sailing, surfing and navigation. These motions profoundly affect ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer from sea sickness.

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Ocean

Context: Constructive interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off waves that can lead to tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: In the open ocean tidal ranges are less than 1 meter, but in coastal areas these tidal ranges increase to more than 10 meters in some areas. Some of the largest tidal ranges in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Canada, reaching up to 16 meters. Other locations with record high tidal ranges include the Bristol Channel between England and Wales, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the Río Gallegos in Argentina.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life on Earth, forms part of the carbon cycle and water cycle, and – as a huge heat reservoir – influences climate and weather patterns.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Salinity has a major influence on the density of seawater. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around −2 °C at atmospheric pressure.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The waters in different regions of the ocean have quite different temperature and salinity characteristics. This is due to differences in the local water balance (precipitation vs. evaporation) and the "sea to air" temperature gradients. These characteristics can vary widely among ocean regions. The table below provides an illustration of the sort of values usually encountered.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The ocean waters contain many chemical elements as dissolved ions. Elements dissolved in ocean waters have a wide range of concentrations. Some elements have very high concentrations of several grams per liter, such as sodium and chloride, together making up the majority of ocean salts. Other elements, such as iron, are present at tiny concentrations of just a few nanograms (10−9 grams) per liter.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region. The diversity of life in the ocean is immense, including:

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The ocean has been linked to human activity throughout history. These activities serve a wide variety of purposes, including navigation and exploration, naval warfare, travel, shipping and trade, food production (e.g. fishing, whaling, seaweed farming, aquaculture), leisure (cruising, sailing, recreational boat fishing, scuba diving), power generation (see marine energy and offshore wind power), extractive industries (offshore drilling and deep sea mining), freshwater production via desalination.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: "Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters. Today, this concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: There are two major international legal organizations that are involved in ocean governance on a global scale, namely the International Maritime Organization and the United Nations. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), which was ratified in 1958 is responsible mainly for maritime safety, liability and compensation and they have held some conventions on marine pollution related to shipping incidents. Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through many negative influences, such as marine pollution (including marine debris and microplastics) overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change on oceans.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: It may be necessary to consider marine protection within a national, regional and international context. Marine protection could also have synergistic effects – for instance, according to a study, a global network of MPAs designed to improve fisheries productivity could substantially increase future catch.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, review, clarifications and standardization – enables the evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and can serve as a guide for any subsequent efforts to improve, plan and monitor marine protection quality and extents. Examples are the efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal of the "Global Deal For Nature" and the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("life below water").

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, which are made of hydrocarbons instead of water. However, there is strong evidence for "subsurface" water oceans' existence elsewhere in the Solar System. The best-established candidates for subsurface water oceans in the Solar System are Jupiter's moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto; and Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans. In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be "common" in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


Ocean

Context: The inner structure of gas giants remain poorly understood. Scientists suspect that, under extreme pressure, hydrogen would act as a supercritical fluid, hence the likelihood of "oceans" of liquid hydrogen deep in the interior of gas giants like Jupiter.

Question: ما هو ثاني محيطات العالم مساحة ؟


C++

Context: Initially, Stroustrup's "C with Classes" added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining and default arguments.

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C++

Context: In 1982, Stroustrup started to develop a successor to C with Classes, which he named "C++" (++ being the increment operator in C) after going through several other names. New features were added, including virtual functions, function name and operator overloading, references, constants, type-safe free-store memory allocation (new/delete), improved type checking, and BCPL style single-line comments with two forward slashes (//). Furthermore, Stroustrup developed a new, standalone compiler for C++, Cfront.

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C++

Context: In 1984, Stroustrup implemented the first stream input/output library. The idea of providing an output operator rather than a named output function was suggested by Doug McIlroy (who had previously suggested Unix pipes).

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C++

Context: In 1989, C++ 2.0 was released, followed by the updated second edition of "The C++ Programming Language" in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, "The Annotated C++ Reference Manual" was published. This work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type.

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C++

Context: In 1998, C++98 was released, standardizing the language, and a minor update (C++03) was released in 2003.

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C++

Context: After C++98, C++ evolved relatively slowly until, in 2011, the C++11 standard was released, adding numerous new features, enlarging the standard library further, and providing more facilities to C++ programmers. After a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions were introduced in C++17. After becoming finalized in February 2020, a draft of the C++20 standard was approved on 4 September 2020 and officially published on 15 December 2020.

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C++

Context: On January 3, 2018, Stroustrup was announced as the 2018 winner of the Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering, "for conceptualizing and developing the C++ programming language".

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C++

Context: C++ ranked fourth on the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages, after Python, C and Java.

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C++

Context: According to Stroustrup, "the name signifies the evolutionary nature of the changes from C". This name is credited to Rick Mascitti (mid-1983) and was first used in December 1983. When Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit. The name comes from C's ++ operator (which increments the value of a variable) and a common naming convention of using "+" to indicate an enhanced computer program.

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C++

Context: During C++'s development period, the language had been referred to as "new C" and "C with Classes" before acquiring its final name.

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C++

Context: C++ is standardized by an ISO working group known as JTC1/SC22/WG21. So far, it has published six revisions of the C++ standard and is currently working on the next revision, C++23.

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C++

Context: In 1998, the ISO working group standardized C++ for the first time as "ISO/IEC 14882:1998", which is informally known as "C++98". In 2003, it published a new version of the C++ standard called "ISO/IEC 14882:2003", which fixed problems identified in C++98.

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C++

Context: The next major revision of the standard was informally referred to as "C++0x", but it was not released until 2011. C++11 (14882:2011) included many additions to both the core language and the standard library.

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C++

Context: In 2014, C++14 (also known as C++1y) was released as a small extension to C++11, featuring mainly bug fixes and small improvements. The Draft International Standard ballot procedures completed in mid-August 2014.

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C++

Context: After C++14, a major revision C++17, informally known as C++1z, was completed by the ISO C++ committee in mid July 2017 and was approved and published in December 2017.

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C++

Context: More technical specifications are in development and pending approval, including new set of concurrency extensions.

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C++

Context: The C++ language has two main components: a direct mapping of hardware features provided primarily by the C subset, and zero-overhead abstractions based on those mappings. Stroustrup describes C++ as "a light-weight abstraction programming language [designed] for building and using efficient and elegant abstractions"; and "offering both hardware access and abstraction is the basis of C++. Doing it efficiently is what distinguishes it from other languages."

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C++

Context: C++ inherits most of C's syntax. The following is Bjarne Stroustrup's version of the Hello world program that uses the C++ Standard Library stream facility to write a message to standard output:

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C++

Context: As in C, C++ supports four types of memory management: static storage duration objects, thread storage duration objects, automatic storage duration objects, and dynamic storage duration objects.

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C++

Context: Static storage duration objects are created before codice_1 is entered (see exceptions below) and destroyed in reverse order of creation after codice_1 exits. The exact order of creation is not specified by the standard (though there are some rules defined below) to allow implementations some freedom in how to organize their implementation. More formally, objects of this type have a lifespan that "shall last for the duration of the program".

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C++

Context: Variables of this type are very similar to static storage duration objects. The main difference is the creation time is just prior to thread creation and destruction is done after the thread has been joined.

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C++

Context: The most common variable types in C++ are local variables inside a function or block, and temporary variables. The common feature about automatic variables is that they have a lifetime that is limited to the scope of the variable. They are created and potentially initialized at the point of declaration (see below for details) and destroyed in the "reverse" order of creation when the scope is left. This is implemented by allocation on the stack.

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C++

Context: Local variables are created as the point of execution passes the declaration point. If the variable has a constructor or initializer this is used to define the initial state of the object. Local variables are destroyed when the local block or function that they are declared in is closed. C++ destructors for local variables are called at the end of the object lifetime, allowing a discipline for automatic resource management termed RAII, which is widely used in C++.

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C++

Context: Member variables are created when the parent object is created. Array members are initialized from 0 to the last member of the array in order. Member variables are destroyed when the parent object is destroyed in the reverse order of creation. i.e. If the parent is an "automatic object" then it will be destroyed when it goes out of scope which triggers the destruction of all its members.

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C++

Context: Temporary variables are created as the result of expression evaluation and are destroyed when the statement containing the expression has been fully evaluated (usually at the codice_5 at the end of a statement).

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C++

Context: These objects have a dynamic lifespan and can be created directly with a call to and destroyed explicitly with a call to . C++ also supports codice_6 and codice_7, from C, but these are not compatible with and . Use of returns an address to the allocated memory. The C++ Core Guidelines advise against using directly for creating dynamic objects in favor of smart pointers through for single ownership and for reference-counted multiple ownership, which were introduced in C++11.

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C++

Context: In addition, templates are a compile-time mechanism in C++ that is Turing-complete, meaning that any computation expressible by a computer program can be computed, in some form, by a template metaprogram prior to runtime.

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C++

Context: In summary, a template is a compile-time parameterized function or class written without knowledge of the specific arguments used to instantiate it. After instantiation, the resulting code is equivalent to code written specifically for the passed arguments. In this manner, templates provide a way to decouple generic, broadly applicable aspects of functions and classes (encoded in templates) from specific aspects (encoded in template parameters) without sacrificing performance due to abstraction.

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C++

Context: C++ introduces object-oriented programming (OOP) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the four features commonly present in OOP (and some non-OOP) languages: abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. One distinguishing feature of C++ classes compared to classes in other programming languages is support for deterministic destructors, which in turn provide support for the Resource Acquisition is Initialization (RAII) concept.

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C++

Context: It is generally considered good practice to make all data private or protected, and to make public only those functions that are part of a minimal interface for users of the class. This can hide the details of data implementation, allowing the designer to later fundamentally change the implementation without changing the interface in any way.

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C++

Context: C++ provides more than 35 operators, covering basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, comparisons, logical operations and others. Almost all operators can be overloaded for user-defined types, with a few notable exceptions such as member access (codice_8 and codice_9) as well as the conditional operator. The rich set of overloadable operators is central to making user-defined types in C++ seem like built-in types.

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C++

Context: Overloadable operators are also an essential part of many advanced C++ programming techniques, such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change the precedence of calculations involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the operator uses (any operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to execution). Overloaded "codice_10" and "codice_11" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.

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C++

Context: Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act differently under different circumstances.

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C++

Context: C++ supports several kinds of "static" (resolved at compile-time) and "dynamic" (resolved at run-time) polymorphisms, supported by the language features described above. Compile-time polymorphism does not allow for certain run-time decisions, while runtime polymorphism typically incurs a performance penalty.

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C++

Context: Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name but with different arguments (i.e. "ad hoc" polymorphism). The functions are distinguished by the number or types of their formal parameters. Thus, the same function name can refer to different functions depending on the context in which it is used. The type returned by the function is not used to distinguish overloaded functions and differing return types would result in a compile-time error message.

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C++

Context: Variable pointers and references to a base class type in C++ can also refer to objects of any derived classes of that type. This allows arrays and other kinds of containers to hold pointers to objects of differing types (references cannot be directly held in containers). This enables dynamic (run-time) polymorphism, where the referred objects can behave differently, depending on their (actual, derived) types.

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C++

Context: C++ provides support for anonymous functions, also known as lambda expressions, with the following form:

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C++

Context: If the lambda takes no parameters, and no return type or other specifiers are used, the () can be omitted, that is,

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C++

Context: The [capture] list supports the definition of closures. Such lambda expressions are defined in the standard as syntactic sugar for an unnamed function object.

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C++

Context: The exception-causing code is placed inside a try block. The exceptions are handled in separate catch blocks (the handlers); each try block can have multiple exception handlers, as it is visible in the example below.

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C++

Context: It is also possible to raise exceptions purposefully, using the throw keyword; these exceptions are handled in the usual way. In some cases, exceptions cannot be used due to technical reasons. One such example is a critical component of an embedded system, where every operation must be guaranteed to complete within a specified amount of time. This cannot be determined with exceptions as no tools exist to determine the maximum time required for an exception to be handled.

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C++

Context: Unlike signal handling, in which the handling function is called from the point of failure, exception handling exits the current scope before the catch block is entered, which may be located in the current function or any of the previous function calls currently on the stack.

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C++

Context: A large part of the C++ library is based on the Standard Template Library (STL). Useful tools provided by the STL include containers as the collections of objects (such as vectors and lists), iterators that provide array-like access to containers, and algorithms that perform operations such as searching and sorting.

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C++

Context: Furthermore, (multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets are provided, all of which export compatible interfaces. Therefore, using templates it is possible to write generic algorithms that work with any container or on any sequence defined by iterators. As in C, the features of the library are accessed by using the #include directive to include a standard header. The C++ Standard Library provides 105 standard headers, of which 27 are deprecated.

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C++

Context: Most C++ compilers, and all major ones, provide a standards-conforming implementation of the C++ standard library.

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C++

Context: The C++ Core Guidelines are an initiative led by Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of C++, and Herb Sutter, the convener and chair of the C++ ISO Working Group, to help programmers write 'Modern C++' by using best practices for the language standards C++11 and newer, and to help developers of compilers and static checking tools to create rules for catching bad programming practices.

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C++

Context: The Guidelines are accompanied by the Guideline Support Library (GSL), a header only library of types and functions to implement the Core Guidelines and static checker tools for enforcing Guideline rules.

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C++

Context: To give compiler vendors greater freedom, the C++ standards committee decided not to dictate the implementation of name mangling, exception handling, and other implementation-specific features. The downside of this decision is that object code produced by different compilers is expected to be incompatible. There were, however, attempts to standardize compilers for particular machines or operating systems (for example C++ ABI), though they seem to be largely abandoned now.

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C++

Context: C++ is often considered to be a superset of C but this is not strictly true. Most C code can easily be made to compile correctly in C++ but there are a few differences that cause some valid C code to be invalid or behave differently in C++. For example, C allows implicit conversion from void* to other pointer types but C++ does not (for type safety reasons). Also, C++ defines many new keywords, such as new and class, which may be used as identifiers (for example, variable names) in a C program.

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C++

Context: To intermix C and C++ code, any function declaration or definition that is to be called from/used both in C and C++ must be declared with C linkage by placing it within an extern "C" {/*...*/} block. Such a function may not rely on features depending on name mangling (i.e., function overloading).

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C++

Context: Despite its widespread adoption, some notable programmers have criticized the C++ language, including Linus Torvalds, Richard Stallman, Joshua Bloch, Ken Thompson and Donald Knuth.

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C++

Context: Stroustrup campaigned for years and years and years, way beyond any sort of technical contributions he made to the language, to get it adopted and used. And he sort of ran all the standards committees with a whip and a chair. And he said "no" to no one. He put every feature in that language that ever existed. It wasn't cleanly designed—it was just the union of everything that came along. And I think it suffered drastically from that.

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C++

Context: However Brian Kernighan, also a colleague at Bell Labs, disputes this assessment: C++ has been enormously influential. ... Lots of people say C++ is too big and too complicated etc. etc. but in fact it is a very powerful language and pretty much everything that is in there is there for a really sound reason: it is not somebody doing random invention, it is actually people trying to solve real world problems. Now a lot of the programs that we take for granted today, that we just use, are C++ programs.

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C++

Context: Stroustrup himself comments that C++ semantics are much cleaner than its syntax: "within C++, there is a much smaller and cleaner language struggling to get out".

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C++

Context: Other complaints may include a lack of reflection or garbage collection, long compilation times, perceived feature creep, and verbose error messages, particularly from template metaprogramming.

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X-ray

Context: The earliest experimenter thought to have (unknowingly) produced X-rays was William Morgan. In 1785, he presented a paper to the Royal Society of London describing the effects of passing electrical currents through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow created by X-rays. This work was further explored by Humphry Davy and his assistant Michael Faraday.

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X-ray

Context: In 1889, Ukrainian-born Ivan Puluj, a lecturer in experimental physics at the Prague Polytechnic who since 1877 had been constructing various designs of gas-filled tubes to investigate their properties, published a paper on how sealed photographic plates became dark when exposed to the emanations from the tubes.

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X-ray

Context: Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. He based it on the electromagnetic theory of light. However, he did not work with actual X-rays.

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X-ray

Context: In 1894, Nikola Tesla noticed damaged film in his lab that seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments and began investigating this invisible, radiant energy. After Röntgen identified the X-ray, Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design, as well as Crookes tubes.

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X-ray

Context: Röntgen discovered their medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said "I have seen my death."

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X-ray

Context: Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications. Along with his 28 December Physical-Medical Society submission, he sent a letter to physicians he knew around Europe (January 1, 1896). News (and the creation of "shadowgrams") spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray (of a hand). Through February, there were 46 experimenters taking up the technique in North America alone.

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X-ray

Context: The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On February 14, 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.

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X-ray

Context: Hall-Edwards developed a cancer (then called X-ray dermatitis) sufficiently advanced by 1904 to cause him to write papers and give public addresses on the dangers of X-rays. He lost his personal battle and his left arm had to be amputated at the elbow in 1908, and four fingers on his right arm soon thereafter, leaving only a thumb. He died of cancer in 1926. His left hand is kept at Birmingham University.

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X-ray

Context: The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation cold cathode or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920.

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X-ray

Context: In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming invented the thermionic diode, the first kind of vacuum tube. This used a hot cathode that caused an electric current to flow in a vacuum. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called "Coolidge tubes", completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920.

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X-ray

Context: In about 1906, the physicist Charles Barkla discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic X-ray spectrum. He won the 1917 Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.

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X-ray

Context: In 1912, Max von Laue, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of Paul Peter Ewald, William Henry Bragg, and William Lawrence Bragg, gave birth to the field of X-ray crystallography.

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X-ray

Context: In 1913, Henry Moseley performed crystallography experiments with X-rays emanating from various metals and formulated Moseley's law which relates the frequency of the X-rays to the atomic number of the metal.

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X-ray

Context: The Coolidge X-ray tube was invented the same year by William D. Coolidge. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. Modern X-ray tubes are based on this design, often employing the use of rotating targets which allow for significantly higher heat dissipation than static targets, further allowing higher quantity X-ray output for use in high powered applications such as rotational CT scanners.

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X-ray

Context: The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of radiation therapy) was pioneered by Major John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of X-ray dermatitis on his arm.

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X-ray

Context: In 1914, Marie Curie developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in World War I. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate.

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X-ray

Context: From the early 1920s through to the 1950s, X-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s, leading to the practice's eventual end that decade.

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X-ray

Context: The Chandra X-ray Observatory, launched on July 23, 1999, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the universe which produce X-rays. Unlike visible light, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features stars being torn apart by black holes, galactic collisions, and novae, and neutron stars that build up layers of plasma that then explode into space.

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X-ray

Context: An X-ray laser device was proposed as part of the Reagan Administration's Strategic Defense Initiative in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser "blaster" or death ray, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was defunded (though was later revived by the second Bush Administration as National Missile Defense using different technologies).

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X-ray

Context: Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.

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X-ray

Context: X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high-resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals.

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X-ray

Context: A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a characteristic X-ray or an Auger electron. These effects can be used for elemental detection through X-ray spectroscopy or Auger electron spectroscopy.

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X-ray

Context: Rayleigh scattering is the dominant elastic scattering mechanism in the X-ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1.

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X-ray

Context: Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.

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X-ray

Context: The maximum energy of the produced X-ray photon is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:

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X-ray

Context: So, the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV.

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X-ray

Context: Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of the electric power consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.

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X-ray

Context: A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is synchrotron radiation, which is generated by particle accelerators. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent collimation, and linear polarization.

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X-ray

Context: Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15 keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by triboelectric charging. The intensity of X-ray triboluminescence is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.

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X-ray

Context: X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or particle-induced X-ray emission is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production cross section is proportional to "Z"12"Z"2−4, where "Z"1 refers to the atomic number of the ion, "Z"2 refers to that of the target atom. An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Since Röntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for medical imaging. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject. Up to 2010, five billion medical imaging examinations had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Projectional radiography is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using X-ray radiation. Bones contain a high concentration of calcium, which, due to its relatively high atomic number, absorbs X-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an X-ray filter, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called "hardening" the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) X-rays.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where tomographic images or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can be combined into a three-dimensional image of the inside of the body and used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for the management (including palliation) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy X-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. X-rays are classified as a carcinogen by both the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer and the U.S. government. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to computed tomography (CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5–2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 0.5 to 4 mrem. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up to 6 (digital) to 18 (film) mrem, for a yearly average of up to 40 mrem.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Early photon tomography or EPT (as of 2015) along with other techniques are being researched as potential alternatives to X-rays for imaging applications.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the ionization of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the wiggler at the ID11 at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility is one example of such high intensity.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the charge generated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the absorbed dose:

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


X-ray

Context: The equivalent dose is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the absorbed dose.

Question: من هو رونغتن؟


Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird is a group of satellites operated by Eutelsat, located at 13°E over the Equator (orbital position) and with a transmitting footprint over Asia, Europe, North Africa, Americas and the Middle East.

Question: متى أطلق قمر هوتبيرد؟


Hot Bird

Context: Only digital radio and television channels are transmitted by the Hot Bird constellation, both free-to-air and encrypted. In addition there are a few interactive and IP services. The satellites currently operate at 13° East and are numbered 13B, 13C and 13E. The satellites have been broadcasting digital-only since TV5Monde switched off its analogue signal in 2010.

Question: متى أطلق قمر هوتبيرد؟


Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 3 was launched by Ariane 44LP on 2 September 1997 and intended to be moved to 10°E to become Eurobird 10. During the drift from 13°E to 10°E, the satellite suffered loss of power from one solar array. It was nevertheless successfully moved to 10°E, but could only operate at a reduced capacity. Since then, it is operating at 4°E under the name Eurobird 4. At last it was moved to 75°E and renamed to ABS_1B. It has reached end-of-life.

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 4 was launched by Ariane 42P on 27 February 1998 and redeployed to 7°W in July 2006, becoming Atlantic Bird 4 / Nilesat 103.

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 5 was launched by Atlas-2A on 9 October 1998 and re-located to 25.5°E and renamed Eurobird 2. Six transponders are leased to Arabsat under the name Badr 2, after having been called Arabsat 2D.

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 6 was launched by Atlas V 401 on 21 July 2002. Starting on 12 June 2009, the day of Iranian elections, deliberate interference affecting this satellite was traced to Iran. Hot Bird 6 is the primary carrier for BBC Persian Television. As of 2013, it was replaced by Hot Bird 10 (Hot Bird 13D).

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 7 was lost in December 2002 during the Ariane 5 ECA launch. Its replacement, Hot Bird 7A (a Spacebus 3000B3) was successfully launched on 11 March 2006. Hotbird 7A was renamed Eurobird 9A in February 2009.

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Hot Bird

Context: In December 2011 Eutelsat announced, that their satellite assets will be renamed under a unified brand name effective from March 2012. This satellite became Eutelsat 9A. In 2016 it was renamed Hotbird 13E.

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 8 was launched by Proton on 5 August 2006. With a launch mass of 4.9 tonnes, Hot Bird 8 is the largest and the most powerful broadcast satellite serving Europe.

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 9 was launched by Ariane 5 ECA in December 2008. Its entry into service enabled the Hot Bird 7A satellite to be redeployed to 9° East and rebranded Eurobird 9A, increasing capacity to 38 transponders at this orbital position.

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Hot Bird

Context: Hot Bird 10 was launched by Ariane 5 ECA in February 2009 with NSS-9, Spirale A and Spirale B. It was initially commissioned as Atlantic Bird 4A at 7°W. When Atlantic Bird 7 became operational, it was renamed Eutelsat 3C and was colocated with Eutelsat 3A at 3° East. Later it became Hotbird 13D and in 2016 Eutelsat 33E. This satellite is located at 33° East.

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William Golding

Context: Golding took his B.A. degree with Second Class Honours in the summer of 1934, and later that year a book of his "Poems" was published by Macmillan & Co, with the help of his Oxford friend, the anthroposophist Adam Bittleston.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: . After a year in Oxford studying for a Diploma of Education, he was a schoolmaster teaching English and music at Maidstone Grammar School 1938 – 1940, before moving to Bishop Wordsworth's School, Salisbury, in April 1940. There he taught English, Philosophy, Greek, and drama until joining the navy on the 18th December 1940, reporting for duty at HMS Raleigh. He returned in 1945 and taught the same subjects until 1961.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: Golding was engaged to Molly Evans, a woman from Marlborough, who was well liked by both of his parents. However, he broke off the engagement and married Ann Brookfield, an analytical chemist, on 30 September 1939. They had two children, David (born September, 1940) and Judith (born July, 1945).

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: During World War II, Golding joined the Royal Navy in 1940. He served on a destroyer which was briefly involved in the pursuit and sinking of the German battleship "Bismarck". Golding participated in the invasion of Normandy on D-Day, commanding a landing craft that fired salvoes of rockets onto the beaches. He was also in action at Walcheren in October and November 1944, during which time 10 out of 27 assault craft that went into the attack were sunk.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: The crisis did inevitably affect Golding's output, and his next novel, "Darkness Visible", would be published twelve years after "The Pyramid"; a far cry from the prolific author who had produced six novels in thirteen years since the start of his career. But, despite this, the extent of Golding's recovery is evident from the fact that this was only the first of six further novels that Golding completed before his death.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: In 1985, Golding and his wife moved to a house called Tullimaar in Perranarworthal, near Truro, Cornwall. He died of heart failure eight years later on 19 June 1993. His body was buried in the parish churchyard of Bowerchalke near his former home and the Wiltshire county border with Hampshire and Dorset.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: On his death he left the draft of a novel, "The Double Tongue", set in ancient Delphi, which was published posthumously in 1995.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: Golding won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for "Darkness Visible" in 1979, and the Booker Prize for "Rites of Passage" in 1980. In 1983 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, and was according to the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" "an unexpected and even contentious choice".

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


William Golding

Context: In 1988 Golding was appointed a Knight Bachelor. In September 1993, only a few months after his unexpected death, the First International William Golding Conference was held in France, where Golding's presence had been promised and was eagerly expected.

Question: ما هي جنسية الكاتب ويليام غولدنغ؟


Pringles

Context: Pringles is an American brand of stackable potato-based crisps. Originally sold by Procter & Gamble (P&G) in 1968 and marketed as "Pringle's Newfangled Potato Chips", the brand was sold in 2012 to the current owner, Kellogg's.

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Pringles

Context: As of 2011, Pringles were sold in more than 140 countries. In 2012, Pringles were the fourth most popular snack brand after Lay's, Doritos and Cheetos (all manufactured by Frito-Lay), with 2.2% market share globally.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: In the mid-1960s another P&G researcher, Alexander Liepa of Montgomery, Ohio, restarted Baur's work and succeeded in improving the taste. Although Baur designed the shape of the Pringles chip, Liepa's name is on the patent. Gene Wolfe, a mechanical engineer and author known for science fiction and fantasy novels, helped develop the machine that cooks them.

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Pringles

Context: P&G began selling Pringles in Indiana in 1968. By 1975, they were available across most of the US, and by 1991 were distributed internationally.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: As of 2015, there are 5 Pringles factories worldwide: in Jackson, Tennessee; Mechelen, Belgium; Johor, Malaysia; Kutno, Poland; and Fujian, China.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: Pringles also produces several "tortilla" and "multi-grain" varieties which have some of their base starch ingredients replaced with corn flour, rice, wheat bran, black beans, and barley flour. At one point in the early 1990s, "Corn Pringles" were available; the canister was black and had cartoon images of corn. The chips were made of corn and resembled a corn chip in flavor and texture. Rice Pringles were also available in the UK although they have since been discontinued.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: One serving of about 16 Pringles (Original flavor) contains 150 calories, 2.5 g of saturated fat, 150 mg of sodium, 110 mg of potassium, and 1 g of protein.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: Pringles are available in several flavors. Until the 1980s, only the original flavor was available in the US. Standard flavors in the US include original, salt and vinegar, sour cream and onion, cheddar cheese, ranch dressing, barbecue, hot and spicy, and loaded baked potato. Some flavors are distributed only to limited market areas; for example, prawn cocktail, wasabi, and curry flavors have been available in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: Two limited-market flavors, cheeseburger and "Taco Night", were recalled in March 2010 as a safety precaution after "Salmonella" was found in a Basic Food Flavors plant which produced the flavor-enhancing hydrolyzed vegetable protein used in those flavors.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: Pringles is advertised in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Ireland with the slogan "Once you pop, the fun don't stop" along with the original slogan "Once you pop, you can't stop!"

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: The original Pringles television commercials were written, produced and directed by Thomas Scott Cadden (composer of the original Mr. Clean jingle) in 1968, while working at Tatham-Laird and Kudner Advertising Agency in Chicago.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: By the 1980s, the company launched the "Pringle Jingle", whose lyrics were "Once you taste the flavor ("It's a deep-fried taste!"), then you get the fever ("With a crispy crunch!"), then you've got the fever for the flavor of a Pringle!"

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: The Pringles logo is a stylized cartoon caricature of the head of a male figure (officially known as "Julius Pringles" or abbreviated as "Mr. P") designed by Louis R. Dixon, with a large mustache and parted bangs (until 2001, the character had eyebrows and his bow tie framed the product name; in 1998, the bangs and lips were removed from the logo, and his head was widened a little). In 2020, the character was again revised with a minimalistic approach.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: The mascot's name originated with a Wikipedia hoax; in 2006, an editor inserted the then-hoax 'Julius' into the Pringles Wikipedia article, which was subsequently picked up by other news outlets. Prior to this the mascot was officially known only as "Mr. P", no first name. By 2013, the name had spread and Kellogg formally acknowledged Julius Pringles.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: The can has been criticized for being difficult to recycle due to the multiple materials used in its construction.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: In 2013, Lucasfilm and Pringles jointly commissioned crowdsourcing video studio Tongal for a commercial, with a total of $75,000 in prize money distributed to seven finalists.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Pringles

Context: The aerodynamics of Pringles chips (as well as other consumer products) have been optimized for food processing using supercomputers. Kellogs has used this fact in a 2022 Pringles advertisement campaign.

Question: متى تأسست شركة البرينغلز؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: At its first summit meeting in Cairo in 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organization representing the Palestinian people. The Palestinian National Council convened in Jerusalem on 28 May 1964. After concluding the meeting, the PLO was founded on 2 June 1964. Its stated "complementary goals" were Arab unity and the liberation of Palestine.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The ideology of the PLO was formulated in the founding year, 1964, in the Palestinian National Covenant. In 1968, the Charter was replaced by a comprehensively revised version.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Until 1993, the only promoted option was armed struggle. From the signing of the Oslo Accords, negotiation and diplomacy became the only official policy.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: In April 1996, a large number of articles, which were inconsistent with the Oslo Accords, were wholly or partially nullified.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: At the core of the PLO's ideology is the belief that Zionists had unjustly expelled the Palestinians from Palestine and established a Jewish state in place under the pretext of having historic and Jewish ties with Palestine. The PLO demanded that Palestinian refugees be allowed to return to their homes. This is expressed in the National Covenant:

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Article 2 of the Charter states that ″Palestine, with the boundaries it had during the British mandate, is an indivisible territorial unit″, meaning that there is no place for a Jewish state. This article was adapted in 1996 to meet the Oslo Accords.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Article 3 reads: ″The Palestinian Arab people possess the legal right to their homeland and have the right to determine their destiny after achieving the liberation of their country in accordance with their wishes and entirely of their own accord and will″.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The PLO and its dominating faction, Fatah, are often contrasted to more religious orientated factions like Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). All, however, represent a predominant Muslim population. Practically the whole population of the Territories is Muslim, mostly Sunni. Around 50,000 (ca 1%) of the 4.6 million Palestinians in the occupied Palestinian territories (OPT) are Palestinian Christian.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Under President Arafat, the Fatah-dominated Palestinian Authority adopted the 2003 Amended Basic Law, which stipulates Islam as the sole official religion in Palestine and the principles of Islamic sharia as a principal source of legislation. The draft Constitution contains the same provisions. The draft Constitution was formulated by a Constitutional Committee, established by Arafat in 1999 and endorsed by the PLO.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The Palestinian National Charter describes the ideology of the PLO. A constitution, named "Fundamental Law", was adopted, which dictates the inner structure of the organization and the representation of the Palestinian people. A draft Constitution was written in 1963, to rule the PLO until free general elections among all the Palestinians in all the countries in which they resided could be held. The Constitution was revised in 1968.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The PNC serves as the parliament for all Palestinians inside and outside of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including Jerusalem. The PLO is governed internally by its "Fundamental Law", which describes the powers and the relations between the organs of the PLO.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Ahmad Shukeiri was the first Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee from 1964 to 1967. In 1967, he was replaced by Yahia Hammuda. Yasser Arafat occupied the position from 1969 until his death in 2004. He was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen).

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The 1993–1995 Oslo Accords deliberately detached the Palestinian population in the Occupied Palestinian Territories from the PLO and the Palestinians in exile by creating a Palestinian Authority (PA) for the Territories. A separate parliament and government were established. Mahmoud Abbas was one of the architects of the Oslo Accords.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Although many in the PLO opposed the Oslo Agreements, the executive committee and the Central Council approved the Accords. It marked the beginning of the PLO's decline, as the PA came to replace the PLO as the prime Palestinian political institution. Political factions within the PLO that had opposed the Oslo process were marginalized.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The PLO managed to overcome the separation by uniting the power in PLO and PA in one individual, Yasser Arafat. In 2002, Arafat held the functions of Chairman of the PLO/Executive Committee; Chairman of Fatah, the dominating faction within the PLO; as well as President of the Palestinian National Authority. He also controlled the Palestinian National Security Forces.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Only during the Hamas-led PA Government in 2006–2007 did the PLO resurface. After Hamas took over Gaza in 2007, Abbas issued a decree suspending the PLC and some sections of the Palestinian Basic Law, and appointed Salam Fayyad as prime minister.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: On 4 February 1969, Fatah founder, Arafat, was elected Chairman of the PLO in Cairo. Since, Fatah has been the dominant factor within the PLO, which still continues in 2015.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The Palestine Liberation Organization is recognized by the Arab League as "the "sole and legitimate" representative of the Palestinian people", and by the United Nations as "the representative of the Palestinian people".

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The PLO was designated a terrorist organization by the United States in 1987, but in 1988, a presidential waiver was issued, which permitted contact with the organization. Most of the rest of the world recognized the PLO as the legitimate representatives of the Palestinian people from the mid-1970s onwards (after the PLO's admission to the UN as an observer.)

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: In 1993, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat recognized the State of Israel in an official letter to its prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin. In response to Arafat's letter, Israel decided to revise its stance toward the PLO and to recognize the organization as the representative of the Palestinian people. This led to the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: After the Palestinian Declaration of Independence the PLO's representation was renamed Palestine. On 7 July 1998, this status was extended to allow participation in General Assembly debates, though not in voting.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: By September 2012, with their application for full membership stalled due to the inability of Security Council members to 'make a unanimous recommendation', the PLO had decided to pursue an upgrade in status from "observer entity" to "non-member observer state". On 29 November 2012, Resolution 67/19 passed, upgrading Palestine to "non-member observer State" status in the United Nations. The new status equates Palestine's with that of the Holy See.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: Following the failure of the armies of Egypt and Syria to defeat Israel in October 1973 Yom Kippur War, which broke the status quo existing since June 1967 Six-Day War, the PLO began formulating a strategic alternative. Now, they intended to establish a "national authority" over every territory they would be able to reconquer. From 1 to 9 June 1974, the Palestine National Council held its 12th meeting in Cairo. On 8 June, the Ten Point Program was adopted. The Program stated:

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: By "every part of Palestinian territory that is liberated" was implicitly meant the West Bank and Gaza Strip, albeit presented as an interim goal. The final goal remained "completing the liberation of all Palestinian territory" and "recover all their national rights and, first and foremost, their rights to return and to self-determination on the whole of the soil of their homeland". Also UN Resolution 242 was still rejected.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The PLO began their militancy campaign from its inception with an attack on Israel's National Water Carrier in January 1965. The group used guerrilla tactics to attack Israel from their bases in Jordan (including the West Bank), Lebanon, Egypt (Gaza Strip), and Syria.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The most notable of what were considered terrorist acts committed by member organizations of the PLO were:

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: From 1967 to September 1970 the PLO, with passive support from Jordan, fought a war of attrition with Israel. During this time, the PLO launched artillery attacks on the moshavim and kibbutzim of Bet Shean Valley Regional Council, while fedayeen launched numerous attacks on Israeli forces. Israel raided the PLO camps in Jordan, including Karameh, withdrawing only under Jordanian military pressure.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: After the appointment of Ariel Sharon to the post of Minister of Defense in 1981, the Israeli government policy of allowing political growth to occur in the occupied West Bank and Gaza strip changed. The Israeli government tried, unsuccessfully, to dictate terms of political growth by replacing local pro-PLO leaders with an Israeli civil administration.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: In 1982, the PLO relocated to Tunis, Tunisia after it was driven out of Lebanon by Israel during the 1982 Lebanon War. Following massive raids by Israeli forces in Beirut, it is estimated that 8,000 PLO fighters evacuated the city and dispersed.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: On 1 October 1985, in Operation Wooden Leg, Israeli Air Force F-15s bombed the PLO's Tunis headquarters, killing more than 60 people.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Palestine Liberation Organization

Context: The PLO has been sued in the United States by families of those killed or injured in attacks by Palestinians. One lawsuit was settled prior to going to trial. The other went to trial. The PLO was found liable for the death and injuries of US citizens in a number of terrorist attacks in Israel from 2001 to 2004 and ordered to pay a judgment of $655.5 million. The verdict was overturned on appeal for a lack of US federal jurisdiction over actions committed overseas.

Question: من هى أول حركة تحرير فلسطينية ؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: The Mahfouz family were devout Muslims and Mahfouz had a strict Islamic upbringing. In an interview, he elaborated on the stern religious climate at home during his childhood. He stated that "You would never have thought that an artist would emerge from that family."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 had a strong effect on Mahfouz, although he was at the time only seven years old. From the window he saw British soldiers firing at the demonstrators in an effort to disperse them. According to Mahfouz, "You could say ... that the one thing which most shook the security of my childhood was the 1919 revolution", he later said.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: In his early years, Mahfouz read extensively and was influenced by Hafiz Najib, Taha Hussein and Salama Moussa, the Fabian intellectual.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Mahfouz's prose is characterised by the blunt expression of his ideas. His written works cover a broad range of topics, including the controversial and taboo such as socialism, homosexuality, and God. Writing about some of these subjects was prohibited in Egypt.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: His 1966 novel "Tharthara Fawq Al-Nīl" (Adrift on the Nile) is one of his most popular works. It was later made into a film called "Chitchat on the Nile" during the régime of Anwar al-Sadat. The story criticizes the decadence of Egyptian society during the Nasser era. It was banned by Sadat to avoid provoking Egyptians who still loved former president Nasser. Copies of the banned book were hard to find prior to the late 1990s.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: In the 1960s, Mahfouz further developed the theme that humanity is moving further away from God in his existentialist novels. In "The Thief and the Dogs" (1961) he depicted the fate of a Marxist thief who has been released from prison and plans revenge.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Many of his novels were first published in serialized form, including "Children of Gebelawi" and "Midaq Alley" which was also adapted into a Mexican film starring Salma Hayek called "El callejón de los milagros".

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Most of Mahfouz's writings deal mainly with politics, a fact he acknowledged: "In all my writings, you will find politics. You may find a story which ignores love or any other subject, but not politics; it is the very axis of our thinking".

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: He espoused Egyptian nationalism in many of his works, and expressed sympathies for the post-World-War-era Wafd Party. He was also attracted to socialist and democratic ideals early in his youth. The influence of socialist ideals is strongly reflected in his first two novels, "Al-Khalili" and "New Cairo", as well as many of his later works. Parallel to his sympathy for socialism and democracy was his antipathy towards Islamic extremism.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Mahfouz's writing influenced a new generation of Egyptian lawyers, including Nabil Mounir and Reda Aslan.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: "The alleys, the houses, the palaces and mosques and the people who live among them are evoked as vividly in Mahfouz's work as the streets of London were conjured by Dickens."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: "Throughout Naguib Mahfouz's fiction there is a pervasive sense of metaphor, of a literary artist who is using his fiction to speak directly and unequivocally to the condition of his country. His work is imbued with love for Egypt and its people, but it is also utterly honest and unsentimental."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: "Mahfouz's work is freshly nuanced and hauntingly lyrical. The Nobel Prize acknowledges the universal significance of [his] fiction."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: "Mr. Mahfouz embodied the essence of what makes the bruising, raucous, chaotic human anthill of Cairo possible."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Mahfouz was awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Arab writer to have won the award. Shortly after winning the prize Mahfouz was quoted as saying:

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Because Mahfouz found traveling to Sweden difficult at his age, he did not attend the award ceremony.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Mahfouz did not shrink from controversy outside of his work. As a consequence of his support for Sadat's Camp David peace treaty with Israel in 1978, his books were banned in many Arab countries until after he won the Nobel Prize. Like many Egyptian writers and intellectuals, Mahfouz was on an Islamic fundamentalist "death list".

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: He defended British-Indian writer Salman Rushdie after Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini condemned Rushdie to death in a 1989 fatwa, but also criticized Rushdie's novel "The Satanic Verses" as "insulting" to Islam. Mahfouz believed in freedom of expression, and, although he did not personally agree with Rushdie's work, he spoke out against the "fatwa" condemning him to death for it.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: In 1989, after Ayatollah Khomeini's "fatwa" calling for Rushdie and his publishers to be killed, Mahfouz called Khomeini a terrorist. Shortly after, Mahfouz joined 80 other intellectuals in declaring that "no blasphemy harms Islam and Muslims so much as the call for murdering a writer."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: The publication of "The Satanic Verses" revived the controversy surrounding Mahfouz's novel "Children of Gebelawi". Death threats against Mahfouz followed, including one from the "blind sheikh," Egyptian-born Omar Abdul-Rahman. Mahfouz was given police protection, but in 1994 an extremist succeeded in attacking the 82-year-old novelist by stabbing him in the neck outside his Cairo home.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Mahfouz remained a bachelor until age 43 because he believed that, with its numerous restrictions and limitations, marriage would hamper his literary future. "I was afraid of marriage . . . especially when I saw how busy my brothers and sisters were with social events because of it. This one went to visit people, that one invited people. I had the impression that married life would take up all my time. I saw myself drowning in visits and parties. No freedom."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: However, in 1954, he quietly married a Coptic Orthodox woman from Alexandria, Atiyyatallah Ibrahim, with whom he had two daughters, Fatima and Umm Kalthum. The couple initially lived on a houseboat in the Agouza section of Cairo on the west bank of the Nile, then moved to an apartment along the river in the same area. Mahfouz avoided public exposure, especially inquiries into his private life, which might have become, as he put it, "a silly topic in journals and radio programs."

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟


Naguib Mahfouz

Context: Mahfouz distinctly did not like to travel. Belgrade was one of the few cities to which he gladly went and he expressed great respect for Serbia.

Question: ما الرواية التي نال على اثرها نجيب محفوظ جائزة نوبل في الآدب؟