Venezuela

Context: Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geologically, its mainland rests on the South American Plate. It has a total area of and a land area of , making Venezuela the 33rd largest country in the world. The territory it controls lies between latitudes 0° and 16°N and longitudes 59° and 74°W.

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Venezuela

Context: The highest temperature recorded was in Machiques, and the lowest temperature recorded was , it has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas (Mérida state), even though no official reports exist, lower temperatures in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada de Mérida are known.

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Venezuela

Context: For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Dennis which has been digitized and the records made available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia database. That database includes nearly 3,900 species of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and the true total number of fungal species already known from Venezuela is likely higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.

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Venezuela

Context: Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms of endemism. Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and 50% of amphibian species are endemic. Although the available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country. Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from Venezuela are unique to the country.

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Venezuela

Context: Venezuela was one of the few countries that did not enter an INDC at COP21. Many terrestrial ecosystems are considered endangered, specially the dry forest in the northern regions of the country and the coral reefs in the Caribbean coast.

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Venezuela

Context: There are some 105 protected areas in Venezuela, which cover around 26% of the country's continental, marine and insular surface.

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Venezuela

Context: The country is made up of three river basins: the Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin.

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Venezuela

Context: The second most important watershed is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of this region are usually short and of scarce and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the Catatumbo, which originates in Colombia and drains into the Maracaibo Lake basin. Among the rivers that reach the Maracaibo lake basin are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and the contributions of the smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers.

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Venezuela

Context: A minimum drains to the Lake Valencia basin. Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, Arauca, Caura, Meta, Barima, Portuguesa, Ventuari and Zulia, among others.

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Venezuela

Context: The country's main lakes are Lake Maracaibo -the largest in South America- open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other noteworthy bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon, the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon in the Andes. Navigation in Lake Maracaibo through the natural channel is useful for the mobilization of oil resources.

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Venezuela

Context: The Venezuelan natural landscape is the product of the interaction of tectonic plates that since the Paleozoic have contributed to its current appearance. On the formed structures, seven physical-natural units have been modeled, differentiated in their relief and in their natural resources.

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Venezuela

Context: The relief of Venezuela has the following characteristics: coastline with several peninsulas and islands, adenas of the Andes mountain range (north and northwest), Lake Maracaibo (between the chains, on the coast); Orinoco river delta, region of peneplains and plateaus (tepui, east of the Orinoco) that together form the Guyanas massif (plateaus, southeast of the country).

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Venezuela

Context: The oldest rock formations in South America are found in the complex basement of the Guyanas highlands and in the crystalline line of the Maritime and Cordillera massifs in Venezuela. The Venezuelan part of the Guyanas Altiplano consists of a large granite block of gneiss and other crystalline Archean rocks, with underlying layers of sandstone and shale clay.

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Venezuela

Context: They present a landscape with intermountain depressions (separated by mountains), mountainous areas, a massif and an island group.

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Venezuela

Context: The reliefs of mountain ranges contrast with those of the peninsula, coastal plains and intermountain depressions.

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Venezuela

Context: The basin of the lake and the plains of the Gulf of Venezuela make up two plains: the northern one, drier, and the southern one, humid and with swamps.

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Venezuela

Context: The corpulent volumes of mountain ranges and mountain ranges predominate, as well as intramontane valleys (located within the mountains).

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Venezuela

Context: They form extensive sedimentary basins, with a predominantly flat relief, except the eastern Llanos, which show plateaus, and the Unare depression, formed by the erosion of the mesa.

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Venezuela

Context: It exhibits a varied relief, shaped by different rocks, orogenic events and erosion over millions of years. That is why here there are peneplains, mountain ranges, foothills and the characteristic tepuis.

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Venezuela

Context: With few contrasts, it builds a complex system of lands and waters, with varied sedimentary contributions and innumerable channels and islands.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The valleys are undoubtedly the most important type of landscape in the Venezuelan territory, not because of their spatial extension, but because they are the environment where most of the country's population and economic activities are concentrated. On the other hand, there are valleys throughout almost all the national space, except in the great sedimentary basins of the Llanos and the depression of the Maracaibo Lake, except also in the Amazonian peneplains.

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Venezuela

Context: The Andean valleys, essentially agricultural, precociously populated but nowadays in loss of speed, do not confront the same problems of space occupation as the strongly urbanized and industrialized valleys of the central section of the Cordillera de la Costa. On the other hand, the unpopulated and practically untouched Guiana valleys are another category this area is called the Lost World ("Mundo Perdido").

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Venezuela

Context: The Andean valleys are undoubtedly the most impressive of the Venezuelan territory because of the energy of the encasing reliefs, whose summits often dominate the valley bottoms by 3,000 to 3,500 meters of relative altitude. They are also the most picturesque in terms of their style of habitat, forms of land use, handicraft production and all the traditions linked to these activities. these activities

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela has a great diversity of landscapes and climates, including arid and dry areas. The main desert in the country is in the state of Falcon near the city of Coro. It is now a protected park, the Médanos de Coro National Park. The park is the largest of its kind in Venezuela, covering 91 square kilometres. The landscape is dotted with cacti and other xerophytic plants that can survive in humidity-free conditions near the desert.

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Venezuela

Context: Desert wildlife includes mostly lizards, iguanas and other reptiles. Although less frequent, the desert is home to some foxes, giant anteaters and rabbits. There are also some native bird populations, such as the sparrowhawk, tropical mockingbird, scaly dove and crested quail.

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Venezuela

Context: Other desert areas in the country include part of the Guajira Desert in the Guajira Municipality in the north of Zulia State and facing the Gulf of Venezuela, the Médanos de Capanaparo in the Santos Luzardo National Park in Apure State, the Medanos de la Isla de Zapara in Zulia State, the so-called Hundición de Yay in the Andrés Eloy Blanco Municipality of Lara State, and the Urumaco Formation also in Falcón State.

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Venezuela

Context: The opposition's attempts to unseat Chávez included the 2002 Venezuelan "coup d'état" attempt, the Venezuelan general strike of 2002–2003, and the Venezuelan recall referendum, 2004, all of which failed. Chávez was re-elected in December 2006 but suffered a significant defeat in 2007 with the narrow rejection of the 2007 Venezuelan constitutional referendum, which had offered two packages of constitutional reforms aimed at deepening the Bolivarian Revolution.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The president may ask the National Assembly to pass an enabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in specified policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in the Assembly. Since 1959, six Venezuelan presidents have been granted such powers.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the "Asamblea Nacional" ("National Assembly"). The number of members is variable – each state and the Capital district elect three representatives plus the result of dividing the state population by 1.1% of the total population of the country. Three seats are reserved for representatives of Venezuela's indigenous peoples. For the 2011–2016 period the number of seats is 165. All deputies serve five-year terms.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The 2015 parliamentary elections were held on 6 December 2015 to elect the 164 deputies and three indigenous representatives of the National Assembly. In 2014, a series of protest and demonstrations began in Venezuela, attributed to inflation, violence and shortages in Venezuela. The government has accused the protest of being motivated by fascists, opposition leaders, capitalism and foreign influence, despite being largely peaceful.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: On 14 May 2016, the Organization of American States was considering the application of the Inter-American Democratic Charter sanctions for non-compliance to its own constitution.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: In March 2017, the Venezuelan Supreme Court took over law making powers from the National Assembly but reversed its decision the following day.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: On 26 April 2017, Venezuela announced its intention to withdraw from the OAS. Venezuelan Foreign Minister Delcy Rodríguez said that President Nicolás Maduro plans to publicly renounce Venezuela's membership on 27 April 2017. It will take two years for the country to formally leave. During this period, the country does not plan on participating in the OAS.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela is involved in a long-standing disagreement about the control of the Guayana Esequiba area.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela may suffer a deterioration of its power in international affairs if the global transition to renewable energy is completed. It is ranked 151 out of 156 countries in the index of Geopolitical Gains and Losses after energy transition (GeGaLo).

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The Bolivarian National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) are the overall unified military forces of Venezuela. It includes over 320,150 men and women, under Article 328 of the Constitution, in 5 components of Ground, Sea and Air. The components of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces are: the Venezuelan Army, the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, the Venezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan National Militia.

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Venezuela

Context: There are approximately 33 prisons holding about 50,000 inmates. They include; El Rodeo outside of Caracas, Yare Prison in the northern state of Miranda, and several others. Venezuela's prison system is heavily overcrowded; its facilities have capacity for only 14,000 prisoners.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela is divided into 23 states ("estados"), a capital district ("distrito capital") corresponding to the city of Caracas, and the Federal Dependencies ("Dependencias Federales", a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 municipalities ("municipios"); these are subdivided into over one thousand parishes ("parroquias"). The states are grouped into nine administrative regions ("regiones administrativas"), which were established in 1969 by presidential decree.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The country can be further divided into ten geographical areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest, holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela.

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Venezuela

Context: The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco, covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Insular Region includes all of Venezuela's island possessions: Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies. The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering Delta Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Additionally, the country maintains a historical claim on the territory it calls Guyana Esequiba, which is equivalent to about 160,000 square kilometers and corresponds to all the territory administered by Guyana west of the Esequibo River.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: In 1966 the British and Venezuelan governments signed the Geneva Agreement to resolve the conflict peacefully. In addition to this agreement, the Port of Spain Protocol of 1970 set a deadline to try to resolve the issue, without success to date.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela has a market-based mixed economy dominated by the petroleum sector, which accounts for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of government revenues. Per capita GDP for 2016 was estimated to be US$15,100, ranking 109th in the world. Venezuela has the least expensive petrol in the world because the consumer price of petrol is heavily subsidized. The private sector controls two-thirds of Venezuela's economy.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The Central Bank of Venezuela is responsible for developing monetary policy for the Venezuelan bolívar which is used as currency. The president of the Central Bank of Venezuela serves as the country's representative in the International Monetary Fund. The U.S.-based conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation, cited in "The Wall Street Journal", claims Venezuela has the weakest property rights in the world, scoring only 5.0 on a scale of 100; expropriation without compensation is not uncommon.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Tourism has been developed considerably in recent decades, particularly because of its favorable geographical position, the variety of landscapes, the richness of plant and wildlife, the artistic expressions and the privileged tropical climate of the country, which affords each region (especially the beaches) throughout the year.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Margarita Island is one of the top tourist destinations for enjoyment and relaxation. It is an island with a modern infrastructure, bordered by beautiful beaches suitable for extreme sports, and features castles, fortresses and churches of great cultural value.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Los Roques Archipelago is made up of a set of islands and keys that constitute one of the main tourist attractions in the country. With exotic crystalline beaches, Morrocoy is a national park, formed by small keys very close to the mainland, which have grown rapidly as one of the greatest tourist attractions in the Venezuelan Caribbean.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Canaima National Park extends over 30,000 km2 to the border with Guyana and Brazil, due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park in the world. About 65% of the park is occupied by rock plateaus called tepuis. These constitute a unique biological environment, also presenting great geological interest. Its steep cliffs and waterfalls (including Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world, at 1,002 m) form spectacular landscapes.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The state of Mérida, for the beauty of its Andean landscapes and its pleasant climate, is one of the main tourist centers of Venezuela. It has an extensive network of hotels not only in its capital city, but also throughout the state. Starting from the same city of Mérida, is the longest and highest cable car in the world, which reaches the Pico Espejo of 4,765 m. It is also necessary to recommend to travel through magnificent roads, the southern moors, where you can find good hotels and restaurants.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Shortages in Venezuela have been prevalent following the enactment of price controls and other policies during the economic policy of the Hugo Chávez government. Under the economic policy of the Nicolás Maduro government, greater shortages occurred due to the Venezuelan government's policy of withholding United States dollars from importers with price controls.

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Venezuela

Context: Shortages occur in regulated products, such as milk, various types of meat, coffee, rice, oil, flour, butter, and other goods including basic necessities like toilet paper, personal hygiene products, and even medicine. As a result of the shortages, Venezuelans must search for food, wait in lines for hours and sometimes settle without having certain products. Maduro's government has blamed the shortages on "bourgeois criminals" hoarding goods.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: A drought, combined with a lack of planning and maintenance, has caused a hydroelectricity shortage. To deal with lack of power supply, in April 2016 the Maduro government announced rolling blackouts and reduced the government workweek to only Monday and Tuesday. A multi-university study found that, in 2016 alone, about 75% of Venezuelans lost weight due to hunger, with the average losing about 8.6 kg (19 lbs) due to the lack of food.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: By late-2016 and into 2017, Venezuelans had to search for food on a daily basis, occasionally resorting to eating wild fruit or garbage, wait in lines for hours and sometimes settle without having certain products. By early 2017, priests began telling Venezuelans to label their garbage so needy individuals could feed on their refuse. In March 2017, Venezuela, with the largest oil reserves in the world, began having shortages of gasoline in some regions with reports that fuel imports had begun.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: In the first half of the 20th century, U.S. oil companies were heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interested only in purchasing concessions. In 1943 a new government introduced a 50/50 split in profits between the government and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newly installed democratic government, Hydrocarbons Minister Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, the consortium of oil-producing countries aiming to support the price of oil.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: In 1973, Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil industry outright, effective 1 January 1976, with Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding over a number of holding companies; in subsequent years, Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system in the U.S. and Europe. In the 1990s PDVSA became more independent from the government and presided over an "apertura" (opening) in which it invited in foreign investment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limits on foreign investment.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela has a limited national railway system, which has no active rail connections to other countries. The government of Hugo Chávez tried to invest in expanding it, but Venezuela's rail project is on hold due to Venezuela not being able to pay the $7.5 billion and owing China Railway nearly $500 million.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Several major cities have metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been operating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and Valencia Metro were opened more recently.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela has a road network of nearly in length, placing the country around 45th in the world; around a third of roads are paved.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: According to a 2014 study by sociologists of the Central University of Venezuela, over 1.5 million Venezuelans, or about 4% to 6% of the country's population, have left Venezuela since 1999 following the Bolivarian Revolution.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Ethnic minorities in Venezuela consist of groups that descend mainly from African or indigenous peoples; 2.8% identified themselves as "black" and 0.7% as "afrodescendiente" (Afro-descendant), 2.6% claimed to belong to indigenous peoples, and 1.2% answered "other races".

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Among indigenous people, 58% were Wayúu, 7% Warao, 5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu, 3% Cumanágoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima and 1% Yanomami; the remaining 9% consisted of other indigenous nations.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: According to an autosomal DNA genetic study conducted in 2008 by the University of Brasília (UNB), the composition of Venezuela's population is 60.60% of European contribution, 23% of indigenous contribution, and 16.30% of African contribution.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: According to the "World Refugee Survey 2008", published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylum seekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007, and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in 2007. Between 500,000 and one million illegal immigrants are estimated to be living in the country.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The total indigenous population of the country is estimated at 500 thousand people (2.8% of the total), distributed among 40 indigenous peoples. There are three uncontacted tribes living in Venezuela. The Constitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural, and multilingual character of the country and includes a chapter devoted to indigenous peoples' rights, which opened up spaces for their political inclusion at national and local level in 1999.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Most indigenous peoples are concentrated in eight states along Venezuela's borders with Brazil, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groups are the Wayuu (west), the Warao (east), the Yanomami (south), and the Pemon (southeast).

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Although most residents are monolingual Spanish speakers, many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In addition to Spanish, the Constitution recognizes more than thirty indigenous languages, including Wayuu, Warao, Pemón, and many others for the official use of the indigenous peoples, mostly with few speakers – less than 1% of the total population. Wayuu is the most spoken indigenous language with 170,000 speakers.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: According to a 2011 poll (GIS XXI), 88% of the population is Christian, primarily Roman Catholic (71%), and the remaining 17% Protestant, primarily Evangelicals (in Latin America Protestants are usually called "evangélicos"). 8% of Venezuelans are irreligious (atheist 2% and agnostic and 6% indifferent). Almost 3% of the population follow another religion (1% of these people practice Santería).

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The Jewish community has shrunk in recent years due to rising economic pressures and antisemitism in Venezuela, with the population declining from 22,000 in 1999 to less than 7,000 in 2015.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela has a national universal health care system. The current government has created a program to expand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Adentro, although its efficiency and work conditions have been criticized. It has been reported that many Misión Barrio Adentro clinics have been closed, and (as of December 2014) it is estimated that 80% of Barrio Adentro establishments in Venezuela are abandoned.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela had a total of 150 sewage treatment plants; however, 13% of the population lacked access to drinking water, but this number had been dropping.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: During the economic crisis observed under President Maduro's presidency, medical professionals were forced to perform outdated treatments on patients.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: By 2018, over half of all Venezuelan children had dropped out of school, with 58% of students quitting nationwide while areas near bordering countries saw more than 80% of their students leave. Nationwide, about 93% of schools do not meet the minimum requirements to operate and 77% do not have utilities such as food, water or electricity.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot made up of three main groups: The Indigenous Venezuelans, the Africans, and the Spanish. The first two cultures were in turn differentiated according to their tribes. Acculturation and assimilation, typical of a cultural syncretism, led to the Venezuelan culture of the present day, which is similar in many ways to the culture of the rest of Latin America, but still has its own unique characteristics.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Spanish influences can also be seen in the bullfights that take place in Venezuela, and in certain gastronomical features. Venezuela was also enriched by immigration streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially from France. Most recently, immigration from the United States, Spain, Italy, and Portugal has further enriched the already complex cultural mosaic (especially in large oil-producing cities).

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuelan art was initially dominated by religious motifs. However, in the late 19th century, artists began emphasizing historical and heroic representations of the country's struggle for independence. This move was led by Martín Tovar y Tovar. Modernism took over in the 20th century. Notable Venezuelan artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas, Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré; the kinetic artists Jesús Soto, Gego and Carlos Cruz-Diez; and contemporary artists such as Marisol and Yucef Merhi.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate indigenous societies. It was originally dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the Venezuelan War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos, Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual (He was also a childhood tutor and mentor of Simón Bolívar). Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplified by groups like Un Sólo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa. The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Traditional musical styles and songs mainly emerged in and around the "llanos" region, including, "Alma llanera" (by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez and Rafael Bolívar Coronado), "Florentino y el diablo" (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba), "Concierto en la llanura" by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and "Caballo viejo" (by Simón Díaz).

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: In the early 21st century, a movement known as "Movida Acústica Urbana" featured musicians trying to save some national traditions, creating their own original songs but using traditional instruments. Some groups following this movement are Tambor Urbano, Los Sinverguenzas, C4Trío, and Orozco Jam.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Afro-Venezuelan musical traditions are most intimately related to the festivals of the "black folk saints" San Juan and St. Benedict the Moor. Specific songs are related to the different stages of their festivals and processions, when the saints start their yearly "paseo" – stroll – through the community to dance with their people.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: The immense popularity of baseball in the country makes Venezuela a rarity among its South American neighbors—association football is the dominant sport in the continent. However, football, as well as basketball, are among the more popular sports played in Venezuela. Venezuela hosted the 2012 Basketball World Olympic Qualifying Tournament and the 2013 FIBA Basketball Americas Championship, which took place in the Poliedro de Caracas.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Although not as popular in Venezuela as the rest of South America, football, spearheaded by the Venezuela national football team is gaining popularity as well. The sport is also noted for having an increased focus during the World Cup. According to the CONMEBOL alphabetical rotation policy established in 2011, Venezuela is scheduled to host the Copa América every 40 years.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: Venezuela is also home to former Formula 1 driver, Pastor Maldonado. At the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix, he claimed his first pole and victory, and became the first and only Venezuelan to have done so in Formula 1 history. Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula 1 in Venezuela, helping to popularize the sport in the country.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Venezuela

Context: In the Winter Sports, Cesar Baena had represented the country since 2008 in Nordic Skiing, making history in the continent when been the first South American skier ever compete in a FIS Cross Country Ski World Cup on Düsseldorf 2009.

Question: متى إندلعة الحرب الأهلية في فنزويلا ؟


Rickets

Context: Rickets is a condition that results in weak or soft bones in children, and is caused by either dietary deficiency or genetic causes. Symptoms include bowed legs, stunted growth, bone pain, large forehead, and trouble sleeping. Complications may include bone deformities, bone pseudofractures and fractures, muscle spasms, or an abnormally curved spine.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Prevention for exclusively breastfed babies is vitamin D supplements. Otherwise, treatment depends on the underlying cause. If due to a lack of vitamin D, treatment is usually with vitamin D and calcium. This generally results in improvements within a few weeks. Bone deformities may also improve over time. Occasionally surgery may be performed to correct bone deformities. Genetic forms of the disease typically require specialized treatment.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Signs and symptoms of dietary deficiency rickets can include bone tenderness, and a susceptibility for bone fractures, particularly greenstick fractures. Early skeletal deformities can arise in infants such as soft, thinned skull bones – a condition known as craniotabes, which is the first sign of rickets; skull bossing may be present and a delayed closure of the fontanelles.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Hypocalcemia, a low level of calcium in the blood can result in tetany – uncontrolled muscle spasms. Dental problems can also arise.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: An X-ray or radiograph of an advanced sufferer from rickets tends to present in a classic way: the bowed legs (outward curve of long bone of the legs) and a deformed chest. Changes in the skull also occur causing a distinctive "square headed" appearance known as "caput quadratum". These deformities persist into adult life if not treated. Long-term consequences include permanent curvatures or disfiguration of the long bones, and a curved back.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Exclusively breast-fed infants may require rickets prevention by vitamin D supplementation or an increased exposure to sunlight.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: In sunny countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Bangladesh, there is sufficient endogenous vitamin D due to exposure to the sun. However, the disease occurs among older toddlers and children in these countries, which in these circumstances is attributed to low dietary calcium intakes due to a mainly cereal-based diet.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Diseases causing soft bones in infants, like hypophosphatasia or hypophosphatemia can also lead to rickets.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Strontium is allied with calcium uptake into bones; at excessive dietary levels strontium has a rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Rickets had historically been a problem in London, especially during the Industrial Revolution. Persistent thick fog and heavy industrial smog permeating the city blocked out significant amounts of sunlight to such an extent that up to 80 percent of children at one time had varying degrees of rickets in one form or the other. It is sometimes known "the English Disease" in some foreign languages (e.g. German: , Dutch: , Hungarian: ).

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Rickets is often a result of vitamin D3 deficiency. The correlation between human skin color and latitude is thought to be the result of positive selection to varying levels of solar ultraviolet radiation. Northern latitudes have selection for lighter skin that allows UV rays to produce vitamin D from 7-dehydrocholesterol. Conversely, latitudes near the equator have selection for darker skin that can block the majority of UV radiation to protect from toxic levels of vitamin D, as well as skin cancer.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: An anecdote often cited to support this hypothesis is that Arctic populations whose skin is relatively darker for their latitude, such as the Inuit, have a diet that is historically rich in vitamin D. Since these people acquire vitamin D through their diet, there is not a positive selective force to synthesize vitamin D from sunlight.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Environment mismatch: vitamin D deficiency arises from a mismatch between an individual's previous and current environment. This risk of mismatch increases with advances in transportation methods and increases in urban population size at high latitudes.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Similar to the environmental mismatch when dark-skinned people live at high latitudes, Rickets can also occur in religious communities that require long garments with hoods and veils. These hoods and veils act as sunlight barriers that prevent individuals from synthesizing vitamin D naturally from the sun.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: In a study by Mithal et al., vitamin D insufficiency of various countries was measured by lower 25-hydroxyvitamin D. 25(OH) D is an indicator of vitamin D insufficiency that can be easily measured. These percentages should be regarded as relative vitamin D levels, and not as predicting evidence for development of rickets.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Asian immigrants living in Europe have an increased risk for vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D insufficiency was found in 40% of non-Western immigrants in the Netherlands, and in more than 80% of Turkish and Moroccan immigrants.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: The Middle East, despite high rates of sun-exposure, has the highest rates of rickets worldwide. This can be explained by limited sun exposure due to cultural practices and lack of vitamin D supplementation for breast-feeding women. Up to 70% and 80% of adolescent girls in Iran and Saudi Arabia, respectively, have vitamin D insufficiency. Socioeconomic factors that limit a vitamin D rich diet also plays a role.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: In the United States, vitamin D insufficiency varies dramatically by ethnicity. Among females aged 70 years and older, the prevalence of low serum 25(OH) D levels was 28.5% for non-Hispanic whites, 55% for Mexican Americans, and 68% for non-Hispanic blacks. Among males, the prevalence was 23%, 45%, and 58%, respectively.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: A systematic review published in the Cochrane Library looked at children up to three years old in Turkey and China and found there was a beneficial association between vitamin D and rickets. In Turkey children getting vitamin D had only a 4% chance of developing rickets compared to children who received no medical intervention. In China, a combination of vitamin D, calcium and nutritional counseling was linked to a decreased risk of rickets.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Parents can supplement their nutritional intake with vitamin D enhanced beverages if they feel their child is at risk for vitamin D deficiency.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Treatment involves increasing dietary intake of calcium, phosphates and vitamin D. Exposure to ultraviolet B light (most easily obtained when the sun is highest in the sky), cod liver oil, halibut-liver oil, and viosterol are all sources of vitamin D.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: A sufficient amount of ultraviolet B light in sunlight each day and adequate supplies of calcium and phosphorus in the diet can prevent rickets. Darker-skinned people need to be exposed longer to the ultraviolet rays. The replacement of vitamin D has been proven to correct rickets using these methods of ultraviolet light therapy and medicine.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Recommendations are for 400 international units (IU) of vitamin D a day for infants and children. Children who do not get adequate amounts of vitamin D are at increased risk of rickets. Vitamin D is essential for allowing the body to uptake calcium for use in proper bone calcification and maintenance.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: Sufficient vitamin D levels can also be achieved through dietary supplementation and/or exposure to sunlight. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is the preferred form since it is more readily absorbed than vitamin D2. Most dermatologists recommend vitamin D supplementation as an alternative to unprotected ultraviolet exposure due to the increased risk of skin cancer associated with sun exposure. Endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is approximately 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), all infants, including those who are exclusively breast-fed, may need vitamin D supplementation until they start drinking at least of vitamin D-fortified milk or formula a day.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: In developed countries, rickets is a rare disease (incidence of less than 1 in 200,000). Recently, cases of rickets have been reported among children who are not fed enough vitamin D.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: In 2013/2014 there were fewer than 700 cases in England. In 2019 the number of cases hospitalised was said to be the highest in 50 years.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Rickets

Context: The word "rickets" may be from the Old English word ('to twist'), although because this is conjectured, several major dictionaries simply say "origin unknown". The name "rickets" is plural in form but usually singular in construction. The Greek word (, meaning 'in or of the spine') was later adopted as the scientific term for rickets, due chiefly to the words' similarity in sound.

Question: من أول من قام بتشخيص مرض الكساح لدى الأطفال ؟


Pessimism

Context: Pessimism is a negative mental attitude in which an undesirable outcome is anticipated from a given situation. Pessimists tend to focus on the negatives of life in general. A common question asked to test for pessimism is "Is the glass half empty or half full?"; in this situation, a pessimist is said to see the glass as half empty, while an optimist is said to see the glass as half full. Throughout history, the pessimistic disposition has had effects on all major areas of thinking.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: The term pessimism derives from the Latin word "pessimus" meaning 'the worst'. It was first used by Jesuit critics of Voltaire's 1759 novel "Candide, ou l'Optimisme". Voltaire was satirizing the philosophy of Leibniz who maintained that this was the 'best (optimum) of all possible worlds'. In their attacks on Voltaire, the Jesuits of the "Revue de Trévoux" accused him of "pessimisme".

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: In "Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks", Friedrich Nietzsche argued that the pre-Socratic philosophers such as Anaximander, Heraclitus (called "the Weeping Philosopher") and Parmenides represented a classical form of pessimism. Nietzsche saw Anaximander's philosophy as the "enigmatic proclamation of a true pessimist". Similarly, of Heraclitus' philosophy of flux and strife he wrote:

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Another Greek expressed a form of pessimism in his philosophy: the ancient Cyrenaic philosopher Hegesias (290 BCE). Like later pessimists, Hegesias argued that lasting happiness is impossible to achieve and that all we can do is to try to avoid pain as much as possible.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Complete happiness cannot possibly exist; for that the body is full of many sensations, and that the mind sympathizes with the body, and is troubled when that is troubled, and also that fortune prevents many things which we cherished in anticipation; so that for all these reasons, perfect happiness eludes our grasp.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Hegesias held that all external objects, events, and actions are indifferent to the wise man, even death: "for the foolish person it is expedient to live, but to the wise person it is a matter of indifference". According to Cicero, Hegesias wrote a book called "Death by Starvation", which supposedly persuaded many people that death was more desirable than life. Because of this, Ptolemy II Philadelphus banned Hegesias from teaching in Alexandria.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: From the 3rd century BCE, Stoicism propounded as an exercise "the premeditation of evils"—concentration on worst possible outcomes.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Rousseau saw the evolution of modern society as the replacement of natural egalitarianism by alienation and class distinction enforced by institutions of power. Thus "The Social Contract" opens with the famous phrase "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." Even the ruling classes are not free, in fact for Rousseau they are "greater slaves" because they require more esteem from others to rule and must therefore constantly live "outside themselves".

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: He pointed to motivators such as hunger, thirst, and sexuality as the fundamental features of the Will in action, which are always by nature unsatisfactory.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Moreover, the business of biological life is a war of all against all filled with constant physical pain and distress, not merely unsatisfied desires. There is also the constant dread of death on the horizon to consider, which makes human life worse than animals. Reason only compounds our suffering by allowing us to realize that biology's agenda is not something we would have chosen had we been given a choice, but it is ultimately helpless to prevent us from serving it.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Schopenhauer saw in artistic contemplation a temporary escape from the act of willing. He believed that through "losing yourself" in art one could sublimate the Will. However, he believed that only resignation from the pointless striving of the will to live through a form of asceticism (as those practiced by eastern monastics and by "saintly persons") could free oneself from the Will altogether.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Schopenhauer never used the term "pessimism" to describe his philosophy but he also didn't object when others called it that. Other common terms used to describe his thought were voluntarism and irrationalism which he also never used.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: There are several theories of epistemology which could arguably be said to be pessimistic in the sense that they consider it difficult or even impossible to obtain knowledge about the world. These ideas are generally related to nihilism, philosophical skepticism and relativism.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), analyzed rationalism, and in particular Immanuel Kant's "critical" philosophy to carry out a reductio ad absurdum according to which all rationalism reduces to nihilism, and thus it should be avoided and replaced with a return to some type of faith and revelation.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Intellectuals like Oliver James correlate economic progress with economic inequality, the stimulation of artificial needs, and affluenza. Anti-consumerists identify rising trends of conspicuous consumption and self-interested, image-conscious behavior in culture. Post-modernists like Jean Baudrillard have even argued that culture (and therefore our lives) now has no basis in reality whatsoever.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: During the financial crisis of 2007–08 in the United States, the neologism "pessimism porn" was coined to describe the alleged eschatological and survivalist thrill some people derive from predicting, reading and fantasizing about the collapse of civil society through the destruction of the world's economic system.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: The presence of 7 billion people aiming for first-world comforts…is clearly incompatible with the homeostasis of climate but also with chemistry, biological diversity and the economy of the system.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Some radical environmentalists, anti-globalization activists, and Neo-luddites can be said to hold to this type of pessimism about the effects of modern "progress". A more radical form of environmental pessimism is anarcho-primitivism which faults the agricultural revolution with giving rise to social stratification, coercion, and alienation. Some anarcho-primitivists promote deindustrialization, abandonment of modern technology and rewilding.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: One of the most radical pessimist organizations is the voluntary human extinction movement which argues for the extinction of the human race through antinatalism.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Pope Francis' controversial 2015 encyclical on ecological issues is rife with pessimistic assessments of the role of technology in the modern world.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Bibas writes that some criminal defense attorneys prefer to err on the side of pessimism: "Optimistic forecasts risk being proven disastrously wrong at trial, an embarrassing result that makes clients angry. On the other hand, if clients plead based on their lawyers' overly pessimistic advice, the cases do not go to trial and the clients are none the wiser."

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: In the ancient world, psychological pessimism was associated with melancholy, and was believed to be caused by an excess of black bile in the body.

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


Pessimism

Context: Wender and Klein point out that pessimism can be useful in some circumstances: "If one is subject to a series of defeats, it pays to adopt a conservative game plan of sitting back and waiting and letting others take the risks. Such waiting would be fostered by a pessimistic outlook. Similarly if one is raking in the chips of life, it pays to adopt an expansive risk-taking approach, and thus maximize access to scarce resources."

Question: ما هي الفلسفة التشاؤمية؟


William Hogarth

Context: William Hogarth (; 10 November 1697 – 26 October 1764) was an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist. His work ranges from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects", and he is perhaps best known for his series "A Harlot's Progress", "A Rake's Progress" and "Marriage A-la-Mode". Knowledge of his work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian".

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth was born in London to a lower-middle-class family. In his youth he took up an apprenticeship with an engraver, but did not complete the apprenticeship. His father underwent periods of mixed fortune, and was at one time imprisoned in lieu of outstanding debts, an event that is thought to have informed William's paintings and prints with a hard edge.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Influenced by French and Italian painting and engraving, Hogarth's works are mostly satirical caricatures, sometimes bawdily sexual, mostly of the first rank of realistic portraiture. They became widely popular and mass-produced via prints in his lifetime, and he was by far the most significant English artist of his generation. Charles Lamb deemed Hogarth's images to be books, filled with "the teeming, fruitful, suggestive meaning of words. Other pictures we look at; his pictures we read."

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, and Anne Gibbons. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in the Fleet Prison for five years. Hogarth never spoke of his father's imprisonment.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth became a member of the Rose and Crown Club, with Peter Tillemans, George Vertue, Michael Dahl, and other artists and connoisseurs.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: By April 1720, Hogarth was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms and shop bills and designing plates for booksellers.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the "Element of Earth". Morris heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter", and consequently declined the work when completed. Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, where the case was decided in his favour on 28 May 1728.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: These he himself valued highly, and they are among his best early works, though they are based on small book illustrations.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In the following years, he turned his attention to the production of small "conversation pieces" (i.e., groups in oil of full-length portraits from high. Among his efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were "The Fountaine Family" (c.1730), "The Assembly at Wanstead House", "The House of Commons examining Bambridge", and several pictures of the chief actors in John Gay's popular "The Beggar's Opera". One of his real-life subjects was Sarah Malcolm, whom he sketched two days before her execution.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: One of Hogarth's masterpieces of this period is the depiction of an amateur performance by children of John Dryden's "The Indian Emperour, or The Conquest of Mexico by Spaniards, being the Sequel of The Indian Queen" (1732–1735) at the home of John Conduitt, master of the mint, in St George's Street, Hanover Square.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In 1731, Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, a body of work that led to wide recognition. The collection of six scenes was entitled "A Harlot's Progress" and appeared first as paintings (now lost) before being published as engravings. "A Harlot's Progress" depicts the fate of a country girl who begins prostituting – the six scenes are chronological, starting with a meeting with a bawd and ending with a funeral ceremony that follows the character's death from venereal disease.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: When the success of "A Harlot's Progress" and "A Rake's Progress" resulted in numerous pirated reproductions by unscrupulous printsellers, Hogarth lobbied in parliament for greater legal control over the reproduction of his and other artists' work. The result was the Engravers' Copyright Act (known as 'Hogarth's Act'), which became law on 25 June 1735 and was the first copyright law to deal with visual works as well as the first to recognise the authorial rights of an individual artist.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In 1743–1745, Hogarth painted the six pictures of "Marriage A-la-Mode" (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper-class 18th-century society. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project and may be among his best-planned story serials.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In "Beer Street", people are shown as healthy, happy and prosperous, while in "Gin Lane", they are scrawny, lazy and careless. The woman at the front of "Gin Lane", who lets her baby fall to its death, echoes the tale of Judith Dufour, who strangled her baby so she could sell its clothes for gin money. The prints were published in support of the Gin Act 1751.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth's friend, the magistrate Henry Fielding, may have enlisted Hogarth to help with propaganda for the Gin Act; "Beer Street" and "Gin Lane" were issued shortly after his work "An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, and Related Writings", and addressed the same issues.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: The second shows Tom Nero has grown up to become a Hackney coach driver. His coach has overturned with a heavy load and his horse is lying on the ground, having broken its leg. He is beating it with the handle of his whip; its eye severely wounded. Other people around him are seen abusing their work animals and livestock, and a child is being run over by the wheel of a dray, as the drayman dozes off on the job.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In the third print, Tom is shown to be a murderer, surrounded by a mob of accusers. The woman he has apparently killed is lying on the ground, brutally slain, with a trunk and sack of stolen goods near by. One of the accusers holds a letter from the woman to Tom, speaking of how wronging her mistress upsets her conscience, but that she is resolved to do as he would have her, closing with: "I remain yours till death."

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: The fourth, titled "The Reward of Cruelty", shows Tom's withering corpse being publicly dissected by scientists after his execution by hanging; a noose still around his neck. The dissection reflects the Murder Act 1751, which allowed for the public dissection of criminals who had been hanged for murder.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth was also popular portrait painter. In 1745, he painted actor David Garrick as Richard III, for which he was paid £200, "which was more", he wrote, "than any English artist ever received for a single portrait." In 1746, a sketch of Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In 1740, he created a truthful, vivid full-length portrait of his friend, the philanthropic Captain Coram, for the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum. This portrait, and his unfinished oil sketch of a young fishwoman, entitled "The Shrimp Girl" (National Gallery, London), may be called masterpieces of British painting. There are also portraits of his wife, his two sisters, and of many other people; among them Bishop Hoadly and Bishop Herring.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Writer, art historian and politician, Horace Walpole, was also critical of Hogarth as a history painter, but did find value in his satirical prints.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth's history pictures include "The Pool of Bethesda" and "The Good Samaritan", executed in 1736–1737 for St Bartholomew's Hospital; "Moses brought before Pharaoh's Daughter", painted for the Foundling Hospital (1747, formerly at the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum); "Paul before Felix" (1748) at Lincoln's Inn; and his altarpiece for St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (1755–56).

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Back home, he immediately executed a painting of the subject in which he unkindly represented his enemies, the Frenchmen, as cringing, emaciated and superstitious people, while an enormous sirloin of beef arrives, destined for the English inn as a symbol of British prosperity and superiority. He claimed to have painted himself into the picture in the left corner sketching the gate, with a "soldier's hand upon my shoulder", running him in.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Notable Hogarth engravings in the 1740s include "The Enraged Musician" (1741), the six prints of "Marriage à-la-mode" (1745; executed by French artists under Hogarth's inspection), and "The Stage Coach or The Country Inn Yard" (1747).

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In 1745, Hogarth painted a self-portrait with his pug dog, Trump (now also in Tate Britain), which shows him as a learned artist supported by volumes of Shakespeare, Milton and Swift. In 1749, he represented the somewhat disorderly English troops on their "March of the Guards to Finchley" (formerly located in Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum).

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Others works included his ingenious "Satire on False Perspective" (1754); his satire on canvassing in his "Election" series (1755–1758; now in Sir John Soane's Museum); his ridicule of the English passion for cockfighting in "The Cockpit" (1759); his attack on Methodism in "Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism" (1762); his political anti-war satire in "The Times", plate I (1762); and his pessimistic view of all things in "Tailpiece, or The Bathos" (1764).

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: He drew from the highly moralizing Protestant tradition of Dutch genre painting, and the very vigorous satirical traditions of the English broadsheet and other types of popular print. In England the fine arts had little comedy in them before Hogarth. His prints were expensive, and remained so until early 19th-century reprints brought them to a wider audience.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: On 23 March 1729, Hogarth eloped with Jane Thornhill at Paddington Church, against the wishes of her father, the artist Sir James Thornhill.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: His main home was in Leicester Square (then known as Leicester Fields), but he bought a country retreat in Chiswick in 1749, the house now known as Hogarth's House and preserved as a museum, and spent time there for the rest of his life.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: The Hogarths had no children, although they fostered foundling children. He was a founding Governor of the Foundling Hospital.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Among his friends and acquaintances were many English artists and satirists of the period, such as Francis Hayman, Henry Fielding, and Laurence Sterne.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Mrs Lewis, who stayed on with Jane Hogarth in Leicester Fields, was the only non-familial person acknowledged financially in Hogarth's will and was left £100 (approximately £18,651.61 in 2020) for her "faithful services."

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth was buried at St. Nicholas Church, Chiswick, now in the west of London. His friend, actor David Garrick, composed the following inscription for his tombstone:

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Russell Banks' short story "Indisposed" is a fictional account of Hogarth's infidelity as told from the viewpoint of his wife, Jane. Hogarth was the lead character in Nick Dear's play "The Art of Success", whilst he is played by Toby Jones in the 2006 television film "A Harlot's Progress".

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Hogarth's House in Chiswick, west London, is now a museum; the major road junction next to it is named the Hogarth Roundabout. In 2014 both Hogarth's House and the Foundling Museum held special exhibitions to mark the 250th anniversary of his death.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In 2019, Sir John Soane's Museum, which owns both "The Rake's Progress" and "The Humours of an Election", held an exhibition which assembled all Hogarth's series of paintings, and his series of engravings, in one place for the first time.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: Stanley Kubrick based the cinematography of his 1975 period drama film, "Barry Lyndon", on several Hogarth paintings.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


William Hogarth

Context: In Roger Michell's 2003 film "The Mother", starring Anne Reid and Daniel Craig, the protagonists visit Hogarth's tomb during their first outing together. They read aloud the poem inscribed there and their shared admiration of Hogarth helps to affirm their connection with one another.

Question: ما هي أول أعمال الفنان الإنجليزي وليم هوجرت؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders that affect the development of the nervous system, leading to abnormal brain function which may affect emotion, learning ability, self-control, and memory. The effects of neurodevelopmental disorders tend to last for a person's lifetime.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Neurodevelopmental disorders are impairments of the growth and development of the brain and/or central nervous system. A narrower use of the term refers to a disorder of brain function that affects emotion, learning ability, self-control and memory which unfolds as an individual develops and grows.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: There are neurodevelopmental research projects examining potential new classifications of disorders including:

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: The multitude of neurodevelopmental disorders span a wide range of associated symptoms and severity, resulting in different degrees of mental, emotional, physical, and economic consequences for individuals, and in turn families, social groups, and society.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Less commonly known genetically determined neurodevelopmental disorders include Fragile X syndrome. Fragile X syndrome was first described in 1943 by Martin and Bell, studying persons with family history of sex-linked "mental defects". Rett syndrome, another X-linked disorder, produces severe functional limitations. Williams syndrome is caused by small deletions of genetic material from chromosome 7.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: The most common recurrent Copy Number Variant disorder is 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (formerly DiGeorge or velocardiofacial syndrome), followed by Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Systemic infections can result in neurodevelopmental consequences, when they occur in infancy and childhood of humans, but would not be called a primary neurodevelopmental disorder. For example HIV Infections of the head and brain, like brain abscesses, meningitis or encephalitis have a high risk of causing neurodevelopmental problems and eventually a disorder. For example, measles can progress to subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Some cases of schizophrenia may be related to congenital infections, though the majority are of unknown causes.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Metabolic disorders in either the mother or the child can cause neurodevelopmental disorders. Two examples are diabetes mellitus (a multifactorial disorder) and phenylketonuria (an inborn error of metabolism). Many such inherited diseases may directly affect the child's metabolism and neural development but less commonly they can indirectly affect the child during gestation. (See also teratology).

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: In a child, type 1 diabetes can produce neurodevelopmental damage by the effects of excess or insufficient glucose. The problems continue and may worsen throughout childhood if the diabetes is not well controlled. Type 2 diabetes may be preceded in its onset by impaired cognitive functioning.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: A non-diabetic fetus can also be subjected to glucose effects if its mother has undetected gestational diabetes. Maternal diabetes causes excessive birth size, making it harder for the infant to pass through the birth canal without injury or it can directly produce early neurodevelopmental deficits. Usually the neurodevelopmental symptoms will decrease in later childhood.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Phenylketonuria, also known as PKU, can induce neurodevelopmental problems and children with PKU require a strict diet to prevent intellectual disability and other disorders. In the maternal form of PKU, excessive maternal phenylalanine can be absorbed by the fetus even if the fetus has not inherited the disease. This can produce intellectual disability and other disorders.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Although it not clear yet as strong is the correlation between placenta and brain, a growing number of studies are linking placenta to fetal brain development.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Neurodevelopmental disorder

Context: Neurodevelopmental disorders are diagnosed by evaluating the presence of characteristic symptoms or behaviors in a child, typically after a parent, guardian, teacher, or other responsible adult has raised concerns to a doctor.

Question: ماهو النمو العصبي المتأخر عند الأطفال ؟


Blood type

Context: Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents of an individual. , a total of 43 human blood group systems are recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important blood group systems are ABO and Rh; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB, and O, with + or − denoting RhD status) for suitability in blood transfusion.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases; for example, the Kell antigen is sometimes associated with McLeod syndrome. Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen. The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural selection, is less common in population groups from areas having a high incidence of malaria.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: There is an agglutination reaction between similar antigen and antibody (for example, antigen A agglutinates the antibody A and antigen B agglutinates the antibody B). Thus, transfusion can be considered safe as long as the serum of the recipient does not contain antibodies for the blood cell antigens of the donor.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: The presence or absence of the Rh(D) antigen is signified by the + or − sign, so that, for example, the A− group is ABO type A and does not have the Rh (D) antigen.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: As with many other genetic traits, the distribution of ABO and Rh blood groups varies significantly between populations.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Following is a comparison of clinically relevant characteristics of antibodies against the main human blood group systems:

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Transfusion medicine is a specialized branch of hematology that is concerned with the study of blood groups, along with the work of a blood bank to provide a transfusion service for blood and other blood products. Across the world, blood products must be prescribed by a medical doctor (licensed physician or surgeon) in a similar way as medicines.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: The blood group may be included on identification tags or on tattoos worn by military personnel, in case they should need an emergency blood transfusion. Frontline German Waffen-SS had blood group tattoos during World War II.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Units of packed red cells are made by removing as much of the plasma as possible from whole blood units.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Clotting factors synthesized by modern recombinant methods are now in routine clinical use for hemophilia, as the risks of infection transmission that occur with pooled blood products are avoided.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: This same matching is done for other antigens of the Rh system as C, c, E and e and for other blood group systems with a known risk for immunization such as the Kell system in particular for females of child-bearing age or patients with known need for many transfusions.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Blood plasma compatibility is the inverse of red blood cell compatibility. Type AB plasma carries neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies and can be transfused to individuals of any blood group; but type AB patients can only receive type AB plasma. Type O carries both antibodies, so individuals of blood group O can receive plasma from any blood group, but type O plasma can be used only by type O recipients.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because of dilution.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Additionally, red blood cell surface antigens other than A, B and Rh D, might cause adverse reactions and sensitization, if they can bind to the corresponding antibodies to generate an immune response. Transfusions are further complicated because platelets and white blood cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens, and sensitization to platelet or WBC antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: For transfusions of plasma, this situation is reversed. Type O plasma, containing both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, can only be given to O recipients. The antibodies will attack the antigens on any other blood type. Conversely, AB plasma can be given to patients of any ABO blood group, because it does not contain any anti-A or anti-B antibodies.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Typically, blood type tests are performed through addition of a blood sample to a solution containing antibodies corresponding to each antigen. The presence of an antigen on the surface of the blood cells is indicated by agglutination. In these tests, rather than agglutination, a positive result is indicated by decolorization as red blood cells which bind to the nanoparticles are pulled toward a magnet and removed from solution.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Blood types were first discovered by an Austrian physician, Karl Landsteiner, working at the Pathological-Anatomical Institute of the University of Vienna (now Medical University of Vienna). In 1900, he found that blood sera from different persons would clump together (agglutinate) when mixed in test tubes, and not only that, some human blood also agglutinated with animal blood. He wrote a two-sentence footnote:

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: In 1928 the Permanent Commission on Biological Standardization adopted Landsteiner's proposal and stated:This classification became widely accepted; however, not all hospitals and doctors used blood typing for transfusion even in the late 1940s. The new system was gradually accepted and by the early 1950s, it was universally followed.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Blood type

Context: Hirszfeld and Dungern discovered the inheritance of blood types as Mendelian genetics in 1910 and the existence of sub-types of A in 1911. In 1927, Landsteiner, with Philip Levine, discovered the MN blood group system, and the P system. Development of the Coombs test in 1945, the advent of transfusion medicine, and the understanding of ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn led to discovery of more blood groups. , the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT) recognizes 41 blood groups.

Question: كم بيلغ عدد الزمر الدموية عند الإنسان؟


Science

Context: Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: The word "science" has been used in Middle English since the 14th century in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix , which was borrowed from the Latin word , meaning "knowledge, awareness, understanding". It is a noun derivative of the Latin meaning "knowing", and undisputedly derived from the Latin , the present participle "", meaning "to know".

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: There are many hypotheses for "science"'s ultimate word origin. According to Michiel de Vaan, Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist, may have its origin in the Proto-Italic language as or meaning "to know", which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as ", ", meaning "to incise". The "Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben" proposed is a back-formation of , meaning "to not know, be unfamiliar with", which may derive from Proto-Indo-European ' in Latin , or ', from "" meaning "to cut".

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science". In 1833, William Whewell coined the term "scientist" and the term first appeared in literature one year later in Mary Somerville's "On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences", published in the "Quarterly Review".

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Protoscience had existed since ancient history. This is shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and public works on a national scale.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq, where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished until the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen, began experimenting as a means to gain knowledge and disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision Avicenna's compilation of the Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and used until the 18th century.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: In the sixteenth century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the geocentric model where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: In the first half of the century, the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilizers improved human living standards globally. Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication and climate change came to the public's attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: During this period, scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding. The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race. A substantial amount of collaborations between countries were also made, despite armed conflicts.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964 led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches: natural science, social science, and formal science. Each of these branches comprises various specialized yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own nomenclature and expertise. Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one, such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer science. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek and it became popular again in the 20th century.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Scientific research can be labeled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis that affects parts of the social and life sciences. In subsequent investigations, the results of many scientific studies are proven to be unrepeatable. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad science," research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "scientific misconduct" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and error. It covers all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements like "creation science" is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations. Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conducts scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest. In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and upon completion, attain an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD. Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit environments.""

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: Science awards are usually given to individuals or organizations that has made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions, thus it is considered a great honor for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists are often awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, chemistry, and economics.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Science

Context: The education of science to the general public includes work in science content, scientific method, and some pedagogy. As a student goes to higher stages of formal education, the curriculum becomes more in depth. The traditional subjects that are usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although there are recent movements to include social and applied science as well.

Question: كيف يستحق أي نوع من العلم أن يسمى علماً ؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: Khashoggi was a Saudi journalist, author, and a former general manager and editor-in-chief of Al-Arab News Channel. He also served as editor for the Saudi newspaper "Al Watan", turning it into a platform for Saudi progressives.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: Khashoggi fled the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) in June 2017 and went into self-imposed exile in the US. He became a frequent contributor to publications like "The Washington Post"s global opinions section and continued to criticize the Saudi government from afar. He had been sharply critical of Saudi Arabia's crown prince, Mohammad bin Salman, and the country's king, Salman of Saudi Arabia. He also opposed the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: Khashoggi and Abdulaziz were also working on a short film, showing how the Saudi leadership was dividing the country, a website tracking human rights and the new foundation "Democracy for the Arab World Now" (DAWN) Khashoggi was forming. They tried to keep their work secret from Saudi persecution. In late September 2018, Khashoggi met with friends in London to discuss his various plans.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: Through their sophisticated spyware attack on Abdulaziz's phone, the Saudi regime would have had a direct line into Khashoggi's private thoughts, and access to hours of conversations between the two men. Abdulaziz recalled: "Jamal was very polite in public, but in private, he spoke more freely he was very very critical of the crown prince."

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 21 September, eleven days before Khashoggi was murdered in the Saudi consulate, he made a declaration of support for the Bees Movement. Using the Bee Army's first hashtag "what do you know about bees" he tweeted "They love their home country and defend it with truth and rights".

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 9 October, one week after his disappearance, "The Washington Post" published an article in which Hatice Cengiz, Khashoggi's fiancé, claimed that he had applied for U.S. citizenship.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 19 October, The Wilson Center issued a statement saying that they had offered him a fellowship at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (or Wilson Center), located in Washington, D.C.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 22 October, Marc Owen Jones, an assistant professor at Hamad Bin Khalifa University in Doha who researched Arab propaganda and has monitored Saudi Twitter bots for two years, said he has seen a massive surge in pro-regime Twitter activity, and in the creation of troll accounts, since Khashoggi went missing: "There was such a huge spike in October in bot accounts and the use of the hashtags praising the crown prince, it's absurd".

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: After Khashoggi's assassination, the Saudi cyber-operations were the focus of global scrutiny. The Government of Canada started an investigation in to those malicious cyberattacks.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: In December 2018 Omar Abdulaziz granted CNN access to his text messages with Jamal Khashoggi, where the two discussed their sharp criticism and political opposition to Mohammed bin Salman. Abdulaziz filed a lawsuit against an Israeli company NSO Group Technologies that allowed his smartphone to be taken over and his communications to be spied on by the Saudi regime.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: The Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University filed a lawsuit against five US intelligence services "seeking immediate release of records concerning U.S. intelligence agencies' compliance or non-compliance with their 'duty to warn' reporter Jamal Khashoggi of threats to his life or liberty". The Committee to Protect Journalists joined the legal effort.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: The Saudi government said that he had left the consulate via a back entrance. The Turkish government first said that he was still inside, and his fiancée and friends said that he was missing.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: The Turkish pro-government newspaper "Daily Sabah" reported on 18 October that neighbours to the consul's residence had observed an unusual barbecue party, which the paper suggested might have been to mask the smell from the incineration of the dismembered corpse: "We have been living here for twelve years but I have never seen them having a barbecue party. That day, they had a barbecue party in the garden."

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: "The Wall Street Journal" published reports from anonymous sources that Khashoggi was tortured in front of top Saudi diplomat Mohammad al-Otaibi, Saudi Arabia's consul general. Reuters reported that al-Otaibi left Istanbul for Riyadh on 16 October. His departure came hours before his home was expected to be searched in relation to the journalist's disappearance.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 20 October, the Saudi Foreign Ministry reported that a preliminary investigation showed that Khashoggi had died at the consulate while engaged in a fight, the first Saudi acknowledgement of Khashoggi's death. On 20 October, it was announced that Saud al-Qahtani and Ahmad Asiri had been fired by the Saudi royal court for involvement in Khashoggi's killing, according to the BBC.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 21 October, an anonymous Saudi official said Khashoggi had been threatened with drugging and kidnapping by Maher Mutreb, had resisted and was restrained with a chokehold, which killed him.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: According to Nazif Karaman of the "Daily Sabah", the audio recording from inside the consulate revealed that Khashoggi's last words were: "I'm suffocating... take this bag off my head, I'm claustrophobic." On 10 December, the details of the transcript of the audio were described to CNN by an anonymous source.

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟


Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi

Context: On 16 November, a "Hürriyet" columnist reported that Turkey has more evidence, including a second audio recording from the consulate, where the Saudi team reviews the plans on how to execute Khashoggi. He also reported that: "Turkish officials also did not confirm [Saudi prosecutor's claim] that Khashoggi was killed after they gave him a fatal dose of drug. They say that he was strangulated with a rope or something like a plastic bag."

Question: من سفيرالمملكة العربية السعودية بأسنطبول؟