Complex number

Context: Many mathematicians contributed to the development of complex numbers. The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and root extraction of complex numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli. A more abstract formalism for the complex numbers was further developed by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton, who extended this abstraction to the theory of quaternions.

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: The term "imaginary" for these quantities was coined by René Descartes in 1637, who was at pains to stress their unreal nature

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: In the 18th century complex numbers gained wider use, as it was noticed that formal manipulation of complex expressions could be used to simplify calculations involving trigonometric functions. For instance, in 1730 Abraham de Moivre noted that the complicated identities relating trigonometric functions of an integer multiple of an angle to powers of trigonometric functions of that angle could be simply re-expressed by the following well-known formula which bears his name, de Moivre's formula:

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: by formally manipulating complex power series and observed that this formula could be used to reduce any trigonometric identity to much simpler exponential identities.

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Complex number

Context: The idea of a complex number as a point in the complex plane (above) was first described by Danish–Norwegian mathematician Caspar Wessel in 1799, although it had been anticipated as early as 1685 in Wallis's "A Treatise of Algebra".

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: If one formerly contemplated this subject from a false point of view and therefore found a mysterious darkness, this is in large part attributable to clumsy terminology. Had one not called +1, -1, formula_31 positive, negative, or imaginary (or even impossible) units, but instead, say, direct, inverse, or lateral units, then there could scarcely have been talk of such darkness.

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Complex number

Context: In the beginning of the 19th century, other mathematicians discovered independently the geometrical representation of the complex numbers: Buée, Mourey, Warren, Français and his brother, Bellavitis.

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Complex number

Context: The English mathematician G.H. Hardy remarked that Gauss was the first mathematician to use complex numbers in 'a really confident and scientific way' although mathematicians such as Norwegian Niels Henrik Abel and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi were necessarily using them routinely before Gauss published his 1831 treatise.

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Complex number

Context: Augustin Louis Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann together brought the fundamental ideas of complex analysis to a high state of completion, commencing around 1825 in Cauchy's case.

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Complex number

Context: Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others. Important work (including a systematization) in complex multivariate calculus has been started at beginning of the 20th century. Important results have been achieved by Wilhelm Wirtinger in 1927.

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Complex number

Context: Complex numbers have a similar definition of equality to real numbers; two complex numbers and are equal if and only if both their real and imaginary parts are equal, that is, if and . Nonzero complex numbers written in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and their arguments differ by an integer multiple of .

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Unlike the real numbers, there is no natural ordering of the complex numbers. In particular, there is no linear ordering on the complex numbers that is compatible with addition and multiplication. Hence, the complex numbers do not have the structure of an ordered field. One explanation for this is that every non-trivial sum of squares in an ordered field is nonzero, and is a non-trivial sum of squares. Thus, complex numbers are naturally thought of as existing on a two-dimensional plane.

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Complex number

Context: The "complex conjugate" of the complex number is given by . It is denoted by either or . This unary operation on complex numbers cannot be expressed by applying only their basic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

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Complex number

Context: Geometrically, is the "reflection" of about the real axis. Conjugating twice gives the original complex number

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: which makes this operation an involution. The reflection leaves both the real part and the magnitude of unchanged, that is

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: The product of a complex number and its conjugate is known as the "absolute square". It is always a non-negative real number and equals the square of the magnitude of each:

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Complex number

Context: This property can be used to convert a fraction with a complex denominator to an equivalent fraction with a real denominator by expanding both numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the given denominator. This process is sometimes called "rationalization" of the denominator (although the denominator in the final expression might be an irrational real number), because it resembles the method to remove roots from simple expressions in a denominator.

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Complex number

Context: Conjugation is also employed in inversive geometry, a branch of geometry studying reflections more general than ones about a line. In the network analysis of electrical circuits, the complex conjugate is used in finding the equivalent impedance when the maximum power transfer theorem is looked for.

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Two complex numbers formula_44 and formula_45 are most easily added by separately adding their real and imaginary parts. That is to say:

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Multiplication of a complex number formula_44 and a real number can be done similarly by multiplying separately and the real and imaginary parts of :

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: In particular, subtraction can be done by negating the subtrahend (that is multiplying it with ) and adding the result to the minuend:

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex plane, addition has the following geometric interpretation: the sum of two complex numbers and , interpreted as points in the complex plane, is the point obtained by building a parallelogram from the three vertices , and the points of the arrows labeled and (provided that they are not on a line). Equivalently, calling these points , , respectively and the fourth point of the parallelogram the triangles and are congruent.

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: The rules of the distributive property, the commutative properties (of addition and multiplication), and the defining property apply to complex numbers. It follows that

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Complex number

Context: This can be used to express a division of an arbitrary complex number by a non-zero complex number as

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Formulas for multiplication, division and exponentiation are simpler in polar form than the corresponding formulas in Cartesian coordinates. Given two complex numbers and , because of the trigonometric identities

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Complex number

Context: In other words, the absolute values are multiplied and the arguments are added to yield the polar form of the product. For example, multiplying by corresponds to a quarter-turn counter-clockwise, which gives back . The picture at the right illustrates the multiplication of

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Complex number

Context: Since the real and imaginary part of are equal, the argument of that number is 45 degrees, or (in radian). On the other hand, it is also the sum of the angles at the origin of the red and blue triangles are arctan(1/3) and arctan(1/2), respectively. Thus, the formula

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: holds. As the arctan function can be approximated highly efficiently, formulas like this – known as Machin-like formulas – are used for high-precision approximations of .

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Complex number

Context: where is the signum function. This can be seen by squaring formula_60 to obtain . Here formula_64 is called the modulus of , and the square root sign indicates the square root with non-negative real part, called the principal square root; also formula_65 where .

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Analytic continuation allows extending this equality for every complex value of , and thus to define the complex exponentiation with base as

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Complex number

Context: This can be proved either by comparing the power series expansion of both members or by applying analytic continuation from the restriction of the equation to real arguments.

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Complex number

Context: formula_74 of the exponential function. For extending this to the complex domain, one can start from Euler's formula. It implies that, if a complex number formula_75 is written in polar form

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Complex number

Context: However, because cosine and sine are periodic functions, the addition of an integer multiple of to does not change . For example, , so both and are possible values for the natural logarithm of .

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Complex number

Context: If formula_82 is not a non-positive real number (a positive or a non-real number), the resulting principal value of the complex logarithm is obtained with . It is an analytic function outside the negative real numbers, but it cannot be prolongated to a function that is continuous at any negative real number formula_83, where the principal value is .

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Complex number

Context: It seems natural to extend this formula to complex values of , but there are some difficulties resulting from the fact that the complex logarithm is not really a function, but a multivalued function.

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Complex number

Context: It follows that if is as above, and if is another complex number, then the "exponentiation" is the multivalued function

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Complex number

Context: If, in the preceding formula, is an integer, then the sine and the cosine are independent of . Thus, if the exponent is an integer, then is well defined, and the exponentiation formula simplifies to de Moivre's formula:

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Complex number

Context: for . (Here formula_88 is the usual (positive) th root of the positive real number .) Because sine and cosine are periodic, other integer values of do not give other values.

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Complex number

Context: While the th root of a positive real number is chosen to be the "positive" real number satisfying , there is no natural way of distinguishing one particular complex th root of a complex number. Therefore, the th root is a -valued function of . This implies that, contrary to the case of positive real numbers, one has

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Complex number

Context: The set formula_8 of complex numbers is a field. Briefly, this means that the following facts hold: first, any two complex numbers can be added and multiplied to yield another complex number. Second, for any complex number , its additive inverse is also a complex number; and third, every nonzero complex number has a reciprocal complex number. Moreover, these operations satisfy a number of laws, for example the law of commutativity of addition and multiplication for any two complex numbers and :

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: These two laws and the other requirements on a field can be proven by the formulas given above, using the fact that the real numbers themselves form a field.

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Complex number

Context: Unlike the reals, formula_8 is not an ordered field, that is to say, it is not possible to define a relation that is compatible with the addition and multiplication. In fact, in any ordered field, the square of any element is necessarily positive, so precludes the existence of an ordering on formula_93

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Complex number

Context: When the underlying field for a mathematical topic or construct is the field of complex numbers, the topic's name is usually modified to reflect that fact. For example: complex analysis, complex matrix, complex polynomial, and complex Lie algebra.

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Complex number

Context: There are various proofs of this theorem, by either analytic methods such as Liouville's theorem, or topological ones such as the winding number, or a proof combining Galois theory and the fact that any real polynomial of "odd" degree has at least one real root.

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Complex number

Context: Because of this fact, theorems that hold "for any algebraically closed field" apply to formula_93 For example, any non-empty complex square matrix has at least one (complex) eigenvalue.

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Complex number

Context: Moreover, formula_8 has a nontrivial involutive automorphism (namely the complex conjugation), such that is in for any nonzero in formula_93

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Complex number

Context: Any field with these properties can be endowed with a topology by taking the sets as a base, where ranges over the field and ranges over . With this topology is isomorphic as a "topological" field to formula_93

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Complex number

Context: The only connected locally compact topological fields are formula_97 and formula_93 This gives another characterization of formula_8 as a topological field, since formula_8 can be distinguished from formula_97 because the nonzero complex numbers are connected, while the nonzero real numbers are not.

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Complex number

Context: William Rowan Hamilton introduced the approach to define the set formula_8 of complex numbers as the set formula_121 of of real numbers, in which the following rules for addition and multiplication are imposed:

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Complex number

Context: Though this low-level construction does accurately describe the structure of the complex numbers, the following equivalent definition reveals the algebraic nature of formula_8 more immediately. This characterization relies on the notion of fields and polynomials. A field is a set endowed with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations that behave as is familiar from, say, rational numbers. For example, the distributive law

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Complex number

Context: must hold for any three elements , and of a field. The set formula_97 of real numbers does form a field. A polynomial with real coefficients is an expression of the form

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Complex number

Context: where the are real numbers. The usual addition and multiplication of polynomials endows the set formula_127 of all such polynomials with a ring structure. This ring is called the polynomial ring over the real numbers.

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Complex number

Context: The formulas for addition and multiplication in the ring formula_130 modulo the relation , correspond to the formulas for addition and multiplication of complex numbers defined as ordered pairs. So the two definitions of the field formula_8 are isomorphic (as fields).

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Accepting that formula_8 is algebraically closed, since it is an algebraic extension of formula_133 in this approach, formula_8 is therefore the algebraic closure of formula_135

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Here the entries and are real numbers. As the sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form, these matrices form a subring of the ring matrices.

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Complex number

Context: is a ring isomorphism from the field of complex numbers to the ring of these matrices. This isomorphism associates the square of the absolute value of a complex number with the determinant of the corresponding matrix, and the conjugate of a complex number with the transpose of the matrix.

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Complex number

Context: The geometric description of the multiplication of complex numbers can also be expressed in terms of rotation matrices by using this correspondence between complex numbers and such matrices. The action of the matrix on a vector corresponds to the multiplication of by . In particular, if the determinant is , there is a real number such that the matrix has the form:

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: In this case, the action of the matrix on vectors and the multiplication by the complex number formula_139 are both the rotation of the angle .

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Complex number

Context: The notions of convergent series and continuous functions in (real) analysis have natural analogs in complex analysis. A sequence of complex numbers is said to converge if and only if its real and imaginary parts do. This is equivalent to the (ε, δ)-definition of limits, where the absolute value of real numbers is replaced by the one of complex numbers. From a more abstract point of view, formula_140, endowed with the metric

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Complex number

Context: Like in real analysis, this notion of convergence is used to construct a number of elementary functions: the "exponential function" , also written , is defined as the infinite series

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Complex number

Context: The series defining the real trigonometric functions sine and cosine, as well as the hyperbolic functions sinh and cosh, also carry over to complex arguments without change. For the other trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, such as tangent, things are slightly more complicated, as the defining series do not converge for all complex values. Therefore, one must define them either in terms of sine, cosine and exponential, or, equivalently, by using the method of analytic continuation.

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: for any complex number . It can be shown that any such solution – called complex logarithm of – satisfies

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Complex number

Context: where arg is the argument defined above, and ln the (real) natural logarithm. As arg is a multivalued function, unique only up to a multiple of , log is also multivalued. The principal value of log is often taken by restricting the imaginary part to the interval .

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Complex number

Context: and is multi-valued, except when is an integer. For , for some natural number , this recovers the non-uniqueness of th roots mentioned above.

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Complex number

Context: Complex numbers, unlike real numbers, do not in general satisfy the unmodified power and logarithm identities, particularly when naïvely treated as single-valued functions; see failure of power and logarithm identities. For example, they do not satisfy

Question: Kuka kehitti kompleksilukujen joukon?


Complex number

Context: Both sides of the equation are multivalued by the definition of complex exponentiation given here, and the values on the left are a subset of those on the right.

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Complex number

Context: A function "f": formula_140 → formula_140 is called holomorphic if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations. For example, any formula_133-linear map formula_140 → formula_140 can be written in the form

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Complex number

Context: with complex coefficients and . This map is holomorphic if and only if . The second summand formula_156 is real-differentiable, but does not satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations.

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Complex number

Context: Complex analysis shows some features not apparent in real analysis. For example, any two holomorphic functions and that agree on an arbitrarily small open subset of formula_140 necessarily agree everywhere. Meromorphic functions, functions that can locally be written as with a holomorphic function , still share some of the features of holomorphic functions. Other functions have essential singularities, such as at .

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Complex number

Context: Complex numbers have applications in many scientific areas, including signal processing, control theory, electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, cartography, and vibration analysis. Some of these applications are described below.

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Complex number

Context: Three non-collinear points formula_158 in the plane determine the shape of the triangle formula_159. Locating the points in the complex plane, this shape of a triangle may be expressed by complex arithmetic as

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Complex number

Context: The shape formula_161 of a triangle will remain the same, when the complex plane is transformed by translation or dilation (by an affine transformation), corresponding to the intuitive notion of shape, and describing similarity. Thus each triangle formula_159 is in a similarity class of triangles with the same shape.

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Complex number

Context: The Mandelbrot set is a popular example of a fractal formed on the complex plane. It is defined by plotting every location formula_163 where iterating the sequence formula_164 does not diverge when iterated infinitely. Similarly, Julia sets have the same rules, except where formula_163 remains constant.

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Complex number

Context: Another example is the Gaussian integers; that is, numbers of the form , where and are integers, which can be used to classify sums of squares.

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Complex number

Context: Analytic number theory studies numbers, often integers or rationals, by taking advantage of the fact that they can be regarded as complex numbers, in which analytic methods can be used. This is done by encoding number-theoretic information in complex-valued functions. For example, the Riemann zeta function is related to the distribution of prime numbers.

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Complex number

Context: In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute certain real-valued improper integrals, by means of complex-valued functions. Several methods exist to do this; see methods of contour integration.

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Complex number

Context: In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex roots of the characteristic equation of a linear differential equation or equation system and then attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form . Likewise, in difference equations, the complex roots of the characteristic equation of the difference equation system are used, to attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form .

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Complex number

Context: Eigendecomposition is a useful tool for computing matrix powers and matrix exponentials. However, it often requires the use of complex numbers, even if the matrix is real (for example, a rotation matrix).

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Complex number

Context: Complex numbers often generalize concepts originally conceived in the real numbers. For example, the conjugate transpose generalizes the transpose, hermitian matrices generalize symmetric matrices, and unitary matrices generalize orthogonal matrices.

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Complex number

Context: In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time domain to the complex frequency domain using the Laplace transform. The system's zeros and poles are then analyzed in the "complex plane". The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols plot techniques all make use of the complex plane.

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Complex number

Context: In the root locus method, it is important whether zeros and poles are in the left or right half planes, that is, have real part greater than or less than zero. If a linear, time-invariant (LTI) system has poles that are

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Complex number

Context: Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals. For given real functions representing actual physical quantities, often in terms of sines and cosines, corresponding complex functions are considered of which the real parts are the original quantities. For a sine wave of a given frequency, the absolute value of the corresponding is the amplitude and the argument is the phase.

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Complex number

Context: If Fourier analysis is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as complex-valued functions of the form

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Complex number

Context: where ω represents the angular frequency and the complex number "A" encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above.

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Complex number

Context: This use is also extended into digital signal processing and digital image processing, which utilize digital versions of Fourier analysis (and wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still images, and video signals.

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Complex number

Context: In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying voltages and currents. The treatment of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the impedance. This approach is called phasor calculus.

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Complex number

Context: In electrical engineering, the imaginary unit is denoted by , to avoid confusion with , which is generally in use to denote electric current, or, more particularly, , which is generally in use to denote instantaneous electric current.

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Complex number

Context: The complex-valued signal is called the analytic representation of the real-valued, measurable signal .

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Complex number

Context: The complex number field is intrinsic to the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics, where complex Hilbert spaces provide the context for one such formulation that is convenient and perhaps most standard. The original foundation formulas of quantum mechanics – the Schrödinger equation and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics – make use of complex numbers.

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Complex number

Context: In special and general relativity, some formulas for the metric on spacetime become simpler if one takes the time component of the spacetime continuum to be imaginary. (This approach is no longer standard in classical relativity, but is used in an essential way in quantum field theory.) Complex numbers are essential to spinors, which are a generalization of the tensors used in relativity.

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Complex number

Context: The process of extending the field formula_176 of reals to formula_1 is known as the Cayley–Dickson construction. It can be carried further to higher dimensions, yielding the quaternions formula_178 and octonions formula_179 which (as a real vector space) are of dimension 4 and 8, respectively.

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Complex number

Context: Just as by applying the construction to reals the property of ordering is lost, properties familiar from real and complex numbers vanish with each extension. The quaternions lose commutativity, that is, for some quaternions , and the multiplication of octonions, additionally to not being commutative, fails to be associative: for some octonions .

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Complex number

Context: Reals, complex numbers, quaternions and octonions are all normed division algebras over formula_176. By Hurwitz's theorem they are the only ones; the sedenions, the next step in the Cayley–Dickson construction, fail to have this structure.

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Complex number

Context: The Cayley–Dickson construction is closely related to the regular representation of formula_181 thought of as an formula_176-algebra (an -vector space with a multiplication), with respect to the basis . This means the following: the formula_176-linear map

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Complex number

Context: for some fixed complex number can be represented by a matrix (once a basis has been chosen). With respect to the basis , this matrix is

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Complex number

Context: that is, the one mentioned in the section on matrix representation of complex numbers above. While this is a linear representation of formula_1 in the 2 × 2 real matrices, it is not the only one. Any matrix

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Complex number

Context: is also isomorphic to the field formula_181 and gives an alternative complex structure on formula_190 This is generalized by the notion of a linear complex structure.

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Complex number

Context: Hypercomplex numbers also generalize formula_191 formula_181 formula_193 and formula_194 For example, this notion contains the split-complex numbers, which are elements of the ring formula_195 (as opposed to formula_196 for complex numbers). In this ring, the equation has four solutions.

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Complex number

Context: The fields formula_191 formula_203 and their finite field extensions, including formula_181 are called local fields.

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Caliphate

Context: A caliphate or khilāfah (, ) is an institution or public office governing a territory under Islamic rule. The person who holds this office carries the title of caliph (; , ) and is considered a politico-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim world (Ummah). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam that developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.

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Caliphate

Context: A few other states that existed through history have called themselves caliphates, including the Ayyubid Caliphate during the reign of Saladin (1174–1193), Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate in Northeast Africa (909–1171), the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in Iberia (929–1031), the Berber Almohad Caliphate in Morocco (1121–1269), the Fula Sokoto Caliphate in what is present-day northern Nigeria (1804–1903), and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in the 2010s.

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Caliphate

Context: The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of the Ummah (Islamic world), a caliph was a selected or elected position. Followers of Shia Islam however, believe in an Imamate rather than a Caliphate, that is to say a caliph should be an Imam chosen by Allah from the "Ahl al-Bayt" (the "Family of the House", Muhammad's direct descendants).

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title "malik "(King, ruler), or another from the same root.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The term "caliph" (), derives from the Arabic word "" (, ), which means "successor", "steward", or "deputy" and has traditionally been considered a shortening of "Khalīfat Rasūl Allāh" ("successor of the messenger of God"). However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was "successor "selected by" God".

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina) took place in the "Saqifah" (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Under the Rāshidun each region (Sultanate, Wilayah, or Emirate) of the Caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir). Muāwiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor ("Wali") of Syria, succeeded Ali as Caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In areas which were previously under Sasanian Empire or Byzantine rule, the Caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews, and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of Byzantine-Persian warfare.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary. Under the Umayyads, the Caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km2), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen and the sixth-largest ever to exist in history.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Ottoman Great Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of the Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over Al-Andalus, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: During the Umayyad dynasty, the Iberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from Damascus. The Umayyads lost the position of Caliph in Damascus in 750, and Abd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Almohad Caliphate (, from Arabic "", "the Monotheists" or "the Unifiers") was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until the piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the Marinid dynasty, in 1215. The last representative of the line, Idris al-Wathiq, was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western Maghreb.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Fatimid Caliphate was an Isma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based in Tunisia, that extended its rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant and the Hejaz.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building the city of Cairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar Louis Massignon dubbed the 4th century AH /10th century CE as the "Ismaili century in the history of Islam".

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Copts.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Ayyubid Empire overtook the Fatimids by incorporating the empire into the . However, Saladin himself has been a widely celebrated caliph in Islamic history.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were Caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India and the Ottoman Sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan Ali III and Sultan Abdülmecid I.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Around 1880 Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of World War I, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: After the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the military occupation of Constantinople and Treaty of Versailles (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) which imposed the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: On 3 March 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. Atatürk offered the caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid. The title was then claimed by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and Hejaz, leader of the Arab Revolt, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by ibn Saud in 1925.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the title "Ameer al-Mumineen" was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mohammed Omar, former head of the Taliban of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Muslim Brotherhood.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Bornu Caliphate, which was headed by the Bornu Emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger Kanem-Bornu Empire, its rulers held the title of Caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the British Colony of Nigeria and Northern Cameroons Protectorate. The British recognized them as the 'Sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became the 'Emirs of Bornu', another step down.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Indonesian Sultan of Yogyakarta historically used "Khalifatullah" (Caliph of God) as one of his many titles. In 2015 sultan Hamengkubuwono X renounced any claim to the Caliphate in order to facilitate his daughter's inheritance of the throne, as the theological opinion of the time was that a woman may hold the secular office of sultan but not the spiritual office of caliph.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Sokoto Caliphate was an Islamic state in what is now Nigeria led by Usman dan Fodio. Founded during the Fulani War in the early 19th century, it controlled one of the most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa prior to European conquest and colonisation. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power. The current head of the Sokoto Caliphate is Sa'adu Abubakar.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Toucouleur Empire, also known as the Tukular Empire, was one of the Fulani jihad states in sub-saharan Africa. It was eventually pacified and annexed by the French Republic, being incorporated into French West Africa.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Though non-political, some Sufi orders and the Ahmadiyya movement define themselves as caliphates. Their leaders are thus commonly referred to as "khalifas" (caliphs).

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In Sufism, tariqas (orders) are led by spiritual leaders (khilafah ruhaniyyah), the main khalifas, who nominate local khalifas to organize zaouias.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Sufi caliphates are not necessarily hereditary. Khalifas are aimed to serve the "silsilah" in relation to spiritual responsibilities and to propagate the teachings of the tariqa.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is a self-proclaimed Islamic revivalist movement founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, India, who claimed to be the promised Messiah and Mahdi, awaited by Muslims. He also claimed to be a follower-prophet subordinate to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. The group are traditionally shunned by the majority of Muslims.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate lay dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For the vast majority of Muslims the caliph, as leader of the ummah, "is cherished both as memory and ideal" as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally". The Islamic prophet Muhammad is reported to have prophesied:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The "" ("Caliphate State") was the name of an Islamist organization in Germany that was proclaimed at an event in Cologne in 1994 and banned in December 2001 after an amendment to the Association Act, which abolished the religious privilege. However, this caliphate was never institutionalized under international law, but only an intention for an Islamic "state within the state".

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The leader was initially , who was nicknamed "Khomeini of Cologne" by the German public. In Turkish media he was referred to as the "Dark Voice" (). At an event in honor of Kaplan in 1993, the German convert to Islam publicly "regretted" in front of hundreds of listeners that the Germans had not completely destroyed the Jews: "Like the Turks, we Germans have often had a good cause in history fought, although I have to admit that my grandfathers weren't thorough with our main enemy."

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: "Abu ʿIssa issued 'sad and funny' fatwas, as Abu al-Walid puts it, notably sanctioning the use of drugs. A nexus had been forged between [Abu Issa's group] and local drug smugglers. (The fatwa led one jihadist author to dismiss Abu Issa as the 'caliph of the Muslims among drug traffickers and takfir') Abu ʿIssa also prohibited the use of paper currency and ordered his men to burn their passports."

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The territory under his control "did not extend beyond a few small towns" in Afghanistan's Kunar province. Eventually he did not even control this area after the Taliban took it over in the late 1990s. The caliphate then moved to London, where they "preaching to a mostly skeptical jihadi intelligentsia about the obligation of establishing a caliphate". They succeeded in attracting some jihadis (Yahya al-Bahrumi, Abu Umar al Kuwaiti) who later joined the Islamic State.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Abu Issa died in 2014, "after spending most of his final years in prison in London" Abu Umar al Kuwaiti became a judge for the Islamic state but was later executed for extremism after he "took takfir to new levels... pronouncing death sentences for apostasy on those who were ignorant of scripture -- and then pronouncing takfir on those too reluctant to pronounce takfir."

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The members of the Ahmadiyya community believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate (Arabic: "Khilāfah") is the continuation of the Islamic caliphate, first being the "Rāshidūn" (rightly guided) Caliphate (of Righteous Caliphs). This is believed to have been suspended with Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad and re-established with the appearance of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908, the founder of the movement) whom Ahmadis identify as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Abul A'la Maududi believed the caliph was not just an individual ruler who had to be restored, but was man's representation of God's authority on Earth:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Muslim Brotherhood advocates pan-Islamic unity and the implementation of Islamic law. Founder Hassan al-Banna wrote about the restoration of the Caliphate.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: One transnational group whose ideology was based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state is Hizb ut-Tahrir (literally, "Party of Liberation"). It is particularly strong in Central Asia and Europe and is growing in strength in the Arab world. It is based on the claim that Muslims can prove that God exists and that the Qur'an is the word of God. Hizb ut-Tahrir's stated strategy is a non-violent political and intellectual struggle.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In Southeast Asia, groups such as Jemaah Islamiyah aimed to establish a Caliphate across Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and parts of Thailand, the Philippines and Cambodia.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Quran uses the term "khalifa" twice. First, in al-Baqara, 30, it refers to God creating humanity as his "khalifa" on Earth. Second, in Sad, 26, it addresses King David as God's "khalifa "and reminds him of his obligation to rule with justice.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In addition, the following excerpt from the Quran, known as the 'Istikhlaf Verse', is used by some to argue for a Quranic basis for Caliphate:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In the above verse, the word "Khulifa" (the plural of "Khalifa") has been variously translated as "successors" and "ones who accede to power".

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Several schools of jurisprudence and thought within Sunni Islam argue that to govern a state by Sharia is, by definition, to rule via the Caliphate and use the following verses to sustain their claim.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The following "hadith" from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal can be understood to prophesy two eras of Caliphate (both on the lines/precepts of prophethood).

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: In the above, the first era of Caliphate is commonly accepted by Muslims to be that of the Rashidun Caliphate.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Hisham ibn Urwah reported on the authority of Abu Saleh on the authority of Abu Hurairah that Muhammad said:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Many Islamic texts, including several ahadith, state that the Mahdi will be elected caliph and rule over a caliphate. A number of Islamic figures titled themselves both "caliph" and "al-Mahdi", including the first Abbasid caliph As-Saffah.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Al-Habbab Ibn ul-Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at the thaqifa hall) of Bani Sa’ida: Upon this Abu Bakr replied:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Sahaba agreed to this and selected Abu Bakr as their first Khaleef. Habbab ibn Mundhir who suggested the idea of two Ameers corrected himself and was the first to give Abu Bakr the Bay'ah. This indicates an Ijma as-Sahaba of all of the Sahaba. Ali ibni abi Talib, who was attending the body of Muhammad at the time, also consented to this.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Scholars like Al-Mawardi, Ibn Hazm, Ahmad al-Qalqashandi, and Al-Sha`rani stated that the global Muslim community can have only one leader at any given time. Al-Nawawi and Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad declared it impermissible to give oaths of loyalty to more than one leader.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Shia scholars have expressed similar opinions. However, the Shia school of thought states that the leader must not be appointed by the Islamic ummah, but must be appointed by God.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Al-Qurtubi said that the caliph is the "pillar upon which other pillars rest", and said of the Quranic verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph":

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Traditionally, Sunni Muslim madhhabs all agreed that a Caliph must be a descendant of the Quraysh. Al-Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Ismailis believe in the Imamate principle mentioned above, but they need not be secular rulers as well.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The Majlis al-Shura (literally "consultative assembly") was a representation of the idea of consultative governance. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down after being impeached through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority is in agreement they have the option to launch a revolution. Many noted that this option is to be exercised only after factoring in the potential cost of life.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Various Islamic lawyers, however, place multiple conditions and stipulations on the execution of such a law, making it difficult to implement. For example, the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, and during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate, capital punishment was suspended until the effects of the drought passed.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: Islamic jurists later formulated the concept that all classes were subject to the law of the land, and no person is above the law; officials and private citizens alike have a duty to obey the same law. Furthermore, a Qadi (Islamic judge) was not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, race, colour, kinship or prejudice. In a number of cases, Caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to render their verdict.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the system of legal scholars and jurists responsible for the rule of law was replaced by the codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century:

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: "Zakat" (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of the first Islamic State, established by Allah's Messenger at Medina. The taxes (including "Zakat" and "Jizya") collected in the treasury ("Bayt al-mal") of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows and the disabled.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Caliphate

Context: During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, a number of the Arab tribes, who had accepted Islam at the hand of The Prophet Muhammad, rebelled and refused to continue to pay the Zakat, leading to the Ridda Wars. Caliph Umar added to the duties of the state an allowance, paid on behalf of every man woman and child, starting at birth, creating the world's first state run social welfare program.

Question: Mitä tarkoittaa sanonta 'kalifiksi kalifin paikalle'?


Demographics of India

Context: India is the second most populated country in the world with a sixth of the world's population. According to the population stood at .

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Between 1975 and 2010, the population doubled to 1.2 billion, reaching the billion mark in 1998. India is projected to surpass China to become the world's most populous country by 2024. It is expected to become the first country to be home to more than 1.5 billion people by 2030, and its population is set to reach 1.7 billion by 2050. Its population growth rate is 0.98%, down from 2.3% from 1972 to 1983, ranking 112th in the world in 2017.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The sex ratio was 944 females for 1000 males in 2016, and 940 per 1000 in 2011. This ratio has been showing an upwards trend for the last two decades after a continuous decline in the last century.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The following table lists estimates for the population of India (including what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh) from prehistory up until 1820. It includes estimates and growth rates according to five economic historians, along with interpolated estimates and overall aggregate averages derived from their estimates.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The population grew from the South Asian Stone Age in 10,000 BC to the Maurya Empire in 200 BC at a steadily increasing growth rate, before population growth slowed down in the Early Medival Era up to 700 AD, and then started decreasing the up to 1500 AD.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Under Mughal Empire, India experienced a high economic and demographic upsurge, due to Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production. 15% of the population lived in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the population in 19th-century British India and contemporary Europe up until the 19th century. Those estimates were criticized by Tim Dyson, who considers them exaggerations. According to Dyson, urbanization of the Mughal empire was less than 9%

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman. It is based on fairly good data for the entire years. Sources: Our World in Data and Gapminder Foundation.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The population of India under the British Raj (including what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh) according to censuses:

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a million, and the three cities with populations over eight million: Delhi, Greater Mumbai (Bombay), and Kolkata (Calcutta).

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Mortality rates fell in the period 1920–45, primarily due to biological immunisation. Suggestions that it was the benefits of colonialism are refuted by academic thinking: "There can be no serious, informed belief… that… late colonial era mortality diminished and population grew rapidly because of improvements in income, living standards, nutrition, environmental standards, sanitation or health policies, nor was there a cultural transformation…".

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: India occupies 2.41% of the world's land area but supports over 18% of the world's population. At the 2001 census 72.2% of the population lived in about 638,000 villages and the remaining 27.8% lived in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: India's population exceeded that of the entire continent of Africa by 200 million people in 2010. However, because Africa's population growth is nearly double that of India, it is expected to surpass both China and India by 2025.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The table below summarises India's demographics (excluding the Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state due to cancellation of census results) according to religion at the 2011 census in per cent. The data are "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); the 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and the 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir. Missing citing/reference for "Changes in religious demagraphics over time" table below.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The table below represents the infant mortality rate trends in India, based on sex, over the last 15 years. In the urban areas of India, average male infant mortality rates are slightly higher than average female infant mortality rates.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: 41.03% of the Indians speak Hindi while the rest speak Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Maithili, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and a variety of other languages. There are a total of 122 languages and 234 mother tongues. The 22 languages are Languages specified in the Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution and 100 non-specified languages.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The table immediately below excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state due to cancellation of census results.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The TFR (total number of children born per women) by religion in 2005–2006 was: Hindus, 2.7; Muslims, 3.1; Christians, 2.4; and Sikhs, 2.0.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: See Languages of India and List of Indian languages by total speakers. There are 216 languages with more than 10,000 native speakers in India. The largest of these is Hindi with some 337 million, and the second largest is Bengali with 238 million. 22 languages are recognised as official languages. In India, there are 1,652 languages and dialects in total.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Caste and community statistics as recorded from "Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission" ("SEBC) or Mandal Commission of 1979. This was completed in 1983."

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: India is projected to overtake China as the world's most populous nation by 2027. These projections make assumptions about future fertility and death rates which may not turn out to be correct in the event. Fertility rates also vary from region to region, with some higher than the national average and some lower than China's.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: The national Census of India does not recognise racial or ethnic groups within India, but recognises many of the tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and Tribes (see list of Scheduled Tribes in India).

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: For a list of ethnic groups in the Republic of India (as well as neighbouring countries) see ethnic groups of the Indian subcontinent.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Y-Chromosome DNA Y-DNA represents the male lineage, The Indian Y-chromosome pool may be summarised as follows where haplogroups R-M420, H, R2, L and NOP comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA represents the female lineage. The Indian mitochondrial DNA is primarily made up of Haplogroup M

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Demographics of India

Context: Numerous genomic studies have been conducted in the last 15 years to seek insights into India's demographic and cultural diversity. These studies paint a complex and conflicting picture.

Question: Mikä on Intian asukasluku?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Born on Lesbos, Khizr began his naval career as a corsair under his elder brother Oruç Reis. In 1516, the brothers captured Algiers from Spain, with Oruç declaring himself as Sultan. Following Oruç's death in 1518, Khizr inherited his brother's nickname, "Barbarossa" ("Redbeard" in Italian). He also received the honorary name "Hayreddin" (from Arabic "Khayr ad-Din", "goodness of the faith" or "best of the faith"). In 1529, Barbarossa retook the Peñón of Algiers from the Spaniards.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1533, Barbarossa was appointed Kapudan Pasha (Grand admiral) of the Ottoman Navy by Suleiman the Magnificent. He led an embassy to France in the same year, conquered Tunis in 1534, achieved a decisive victory over the Holy League at Preveza in 1538, and conducted joint campaigns with the French in the 1540s. Barbarossa retired to Constantinople in 1545 and died the following year.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Khizr was born sometime between 1466 and 1478 in Palaiokipos on the island of Midilli (Lesbos), a son of an Ottoman "sipahi" father, Yakup Ağa, of

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Oruç was a very successful seaman. He also learned to speak Italian, Spanish, French, Greek, and Arabic in the early years of his career. While returning from a trading expedition in Tripoli, Lebanon, with his younger brother, Ilyas, they were attacked by the Knights of St John.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Ilyas was killed in the fight, and Oruç was wounded. Their father's boat was captured, and Oruç was taken as a prisoner and detained in Bodrum Castle at Bodrum for nearly three years. Upon learning the location of his brother, Khizr went to Bodrum and managed to help Oruç escape.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: On his way back to Lesbos, he stopped at Euboea and captured three galleons and another ship. Reaching Mytilene with these captured vessels, Oruç learned that Korkut, who was the brother of the new Ottoman sultan Selim I, had fled to Egypt to avoid being killed because of succession disputes – a common practice at that time.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Fearing trouble due to his well-known association with the exiled Ottoman prince, Oruç sailed to Egypt, where he met Korkut in Cairo and managed to get an audience with the Mamluk Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri, who gave him another ship and entrusted him with the task of raiding the coasts of Italy and the islands of the Mediterranean that were controlled by Christians. After spending the winter in Cairo, he set sail from Alexandria and frequently operated along the coasts of Liguria and Sicily.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1503, Oruç managed to seize three more ships and made the island of Djerba his new base, thus moving his operations to the Western Mediterranean. Khizr joined Oruç at Djerba. In 1504, the brothers contacted Abu Abdallah Muhammad IV al-Mutawakkil, ruler of Tunis, and asked permission to use the strategically located port of La Goulette for their operations.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: They were granted the right to do so on the condition of giving one-third of their spoils to the sultan. Oruç, in command of small

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1509, Ishak also left Mytilene and joined his brothers at La Goulette. The fame of Oruç increased when, between 1504 and 1510, he transported Muslim Mudéjars from Christian Spain to North Africa. His efforts of helping the Muslims of Spain in need and transporting them to safer lands earned him the honorific name Baba Oruç (Father Oruç), which eventually – due to the similarity in sound – evolved in Spain, France, and Italy into Barbarossa (meaning "Redbeard" in Italian).

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1510, the three brothers raided Capo Passero in Sicily and repulsed Spanish attacks on Bougie, Oran and Algiers. In August 1511, they raided the areas around Reggio Calabria in southern Italy. In August 1512, the exiled ruler of Bougie invited the brothers to drive out the Spaniards, and during the battle Oruç lost his left arm. This incident earned him the nickname "Gümüş Kol" ("Silver Arm" in Turkish), in reference to the silver prosthetic device that he used in place of his missing limb.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1515, they captured several galleons, a galley and three barques at Majorca. Still in 1515, Oruç sent precious gifts to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I, who, in return, sent him two galleys and two swords encrusted with diamonds. In 1516, joined by Kurtoğlu (Curtogoli), the brothers besieged the Castle of Elba, before heading once more towards Liguria, where they captured 12 ships and damaged 28 others.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1516, the three brothers succeeded in capturing Jijel and Algiers from the Spaniards and eventually assumed control over the city and surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the Beni Ziyad dynasty, to flee.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: The Spaniards of Algiers sought refuge on the island of Peñón and asked Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor to intervene, but the Spanish fleet failed to expel the brothers from Algiers.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: For Oruç, the best protection against Spain was to join the Ottoman Empire, his homeland and Spain's main rival. For this, he had to relinquish his title of Sultan of Algiers to the Ottomans. He did this in 1517 and offered Algiers to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The Sultan accepted Algiers as an Ottoman "sanjak" ("province"), appointed Oruç Governor of Algiers and Chief Sea Governor of the West Mediterranean, and promised to support him with janissaries, galleys and cannon.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: The Spaniards ordered Abu Zayan, whom they had appointed the new ruler of Tlemcen and Oran, to attack Oruç Reis overland, but Oruç learned of the plan and pre-emptively attacked Tlemcen, capturing the city and executing Abu Zayan in the Fall of Tlemcen (1517). The only survivor of Abu Zayan's dynasty was Sheikh Buhammud, who escaped to Oran and called for Spain's assistance.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: After consolidating his power and declaring himself Sultan of Algiers, Oruç sought to expand his territory inland and took Miliana, Medea and Ténès. He became known for fitting sails to cannons for transport through the deserts of North Africa. In 1517, the brothers raided Capo Limiti, and, later, Capo Rizzuto, Calabria.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In May 1518, Emperor Charles V arrived at Oran and was received at the port by Sheikh Buhammud and the Spanish governor of the city, Diego de Córdoba, marquis of Comares, who commanded a force of 10,000 Spanish soldiers. Joined by thousands of local Bedouins, the Spaniards marched overland towards Tlemcen. Oruç and Ishak awaited them in the city with 1,500 Turkish and 5,000 Moorish soldiers. They defended Tlemcen for 20 days, but were eventually killed in combat by the forces of Garcia de Tineo.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: After the death of his older brother and feeling that his position was under threat, Khayr al-Din contacted Selim I, offered his allegiance and obtained Ottoman assistance in 1519. Given the title of "Beylerbey" by Sultan Selim I, along with janissaries, galleys and cannon, inherited his brother's position, his name (Barbarossa) and his mission.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1522, he sent his ships, under the command of Kurtoğlu, to participate in the Ottoman conquest of Rhodes, which resulted in the departure of the Knights of St John from that island on 1 January 1523.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In July 1526, Barbarossa appeared once again in Messina and raided the coasts of Campania. In 1527, he raided many ports and castles on the coasts of Italy and Spain. In May 1529, he captured the Spanish fort on the island of Peñón of Algiers. In August 1529, he attacked the Mediterranean coasts of Spain, and later, answering Andalusia's requests for help in crossing the straight of Gibraltar, he transported 70,000 mudéjars to Algiers in seven consecutive journeys.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1533, Barbarossa sent an embassy to the king of France, Francis I, the Ottoman embassy to France (1533). Francis I would in turn dispatch Antonio Rincon to Barbarossa in North Africa and then to Suleiman the Magnificent in Asia Minor. Following a second embassy, the Ottoman embassy to France (1534), Francis I sent his ambassador Jehan de la Forest to Hayreddin Barbarossa, asking for his naval support against the Habsburg:

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1534, Barbarossa set sail from Constantinople with 80 galleys, and in April, he recaptured Coron, Patras and Lepanto from the Spaniards. In July 1534, he crossed the Strait of Messina and raided the Calabrian coasts, capturing a substantial number of ships around Reggio Calabria as well as the Castle of San Lucido. He later destroyed the port of Cetraro and the ships harbored there.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Also in July 1534, he appeared in Campania and sacked the islands of Capri and Procida before bombarding the ports in the Gulf of Naples. He then appeared in Lazio, shelled Gaeta and in August landed at Villa Santa Lucia, Sperlonga, Fondi, Terracina and Ostia on the River Tiber, causing the church bells in Rome to sound the alarm. He sailed south, appearing at Ponza, Sicily and Sardinia, before capturing Tunis in August 1534 and sending the Hafsid Sultan Mulay Hassan fleeing.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Charles dispatched an agent to offer Barbarossa "the lordship of North Africa" for his changed loyalty, or if that failed, to assassinate him. However, upon rejecting the offer, Barbarossa decapitated the agent with a scimitar.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1536, Barbarossa was called back to Constantinople to take command of 200 ships in a naval attack on the Habsburg Kingdom of Naples. In July 1537, he landed at Otranto and captured the city, as well as the Fortress of Castro and the city of Ugento in Apulia.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In February 1538, Pope Paul III succeeded in assembling a Holy League (composed of the Papacy, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the Republic of Venice and the Maltese Knights) against the Ottomans, but Barbarossa's forces led by Sinan Reis defeated its combined fleet, commanded by Andrea Doria, at the Battle of Preveza in September 1538. This victory secured Ottoman dominance over the Mediterranean for the next 33 years, until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Eventually, a violent storm disrupted Charles's landing operations. Andrea Doria took his fleet away into open waters to avoid being wrecked on the shore, but much of the Spanish fleet went aground. After some indecisive fighting on land, Charles had to abandon the effort and withdraw his severely battered force.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In 1543, Barbarossa headed towards Marseilles to assist France, then an ally of the Ottoman Empire, and cruised the western Mediterranean with a fleet of 210 ships (70 galleys, 40 galliots and 100 other warships carrying 14,000 Turkish soldiers, thus an overall total of 30,000 Ottoman troops). On his way, while passing through the Strait of Messina, he asked Diego Gaetani, governor of Reggio Calabria, to surrender his city. Gaetani responded with cannon fire, which killed three Turkish sailors.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Barbarossa, angered by the response, besieged and captured the city. He then landed on the coasts of Campania and Lazio and, from the mouth of the Tiber, threatened Rome, but France intervened in favor of the pope's city. Barbarossa then raided several Italian and Spanish islands and coastal settlements before laying the Siege of Nice and capturing the city on 5 August 1543 on behalf of the French king, Francis I.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Barbarossa then successfully repulsed further Spanish attacks on southern France, but was recalled to Istanbul after Charles V and Suleiman had agreed to a truce in 1544.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: He then captured Montiano and occupied Porto Ercole and the Isle of Giglio. He later assaulted Civitavecchia, but Leone Strozzi, the French envoy, convinced Barbarossa to lift the siege.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: He finally returned to Constantinople and, in 1545, left the city for his final naval expeditions, during which he bombarded the ports of the Spanish mainland and landed at Majorca and Menorca for the last time. He then sailed back to Constantinople and built a palace on the Bosphorus, in the present-day quarter of Büyükdere in the Sarıyer district.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha died in 1546 in his seaside palace in the Büyükdere neighbourhood of Istanbul, on the northwestern shores of the Bosphorus. He is buried in the tall mausoleum ("türbe") near the ferry port of the district of Beşiktaş on the European side of Istanbul, which was built in 1541 by the famous architect Mimar Sinan, at the site where his fleet used to assemble. His memorial was built in 1944, next to his mausoleum.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: The Arabic calligraphy at the top of the standard reads, "" ("nasrun mina'llāhi wa fatḥhun qarībun wa bashshiri'l-mu’minīna yā muḥammad"), translated as "Victory from Allah and an eminent conquest; and give good tidings to the believers, O Muhammad." The text comes from verse 61:13 of the Quran, with the addition of "O Muhammad", since the last part of the verse addresses the Islamic prophet, Muhammad.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Within the four crescents are the names, from right to left, beginning at the top right, of the first four caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali – whose rule of the Islamic state after Muhammad is referred to as the Rashidun Caliphate.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: The two-bladed sword represents Dhu'l-Fiqar, a famous sword in Islamic history, belonging first to Muhammad and then Ali. To the left of the sword's hilt is a small hand.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Hayreddin Barbarossa established the Ottoman supremacy in the Mediterranean, which lasted until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. However, even after their defeat in Lepanto, the Ottomans quickly rebuilt their fleet, gained Cyprus and other territories in Morea and Dalmatia from the Republic of Venice between 1571 and 1572, and reconquered Tunisia from Spain in 1574.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: However, during these centuries of great seamen such as Kemal Reis before him; his brother Oruç Reis and other contemporaries Turgut Reis, Salih Reis, Piri Reis and Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis; or Piyale Pasha, Murat Reis, Seydi Ali Reis, Uluç Ali Reis and Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis after him, few other Ottoman admirals ever achieved the overwhelming naval power of Hayreddin Barbarossa.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: His mausoleum is in the Barbaros Park of Beşiktaş, Istanbul, where his statue also stands, next to the Istanbul Naval Museum. On the back of the statue are verses by the Turkish poet Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, which may be translated as follows:

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Barbaros Boulevard starts from his mausoleum on the Bosphorus and runs up to the Levent and Maslak business districts and beyond. The port of Üsküdar and Eminönü (before 10 January 2009, Kadıköy) in Beşiktaş is named after him.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: In the centuries following his death, even today, Turkish seamen salute his mausoleum with a cannon shot before leaving for naval operations and battles.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: Outside Turkey, or the wider Islamic world, the prolific British historian of naval military history, Edward Keble Chatterton, considered him "the greatest pirate that has ever lived, and one of the cleverest tacticians and strategists the Mediterranean ever bore on its waters"; noting that "his death was received by Christian Europe with a sigh of the greatest relief."

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Hayreddin Barbarossa

Context: It should also be noted that name of Hector Barbossa, a fictional character in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series, is a derivative of Hayreddin Barbarossa's.

Question: Milloin Hayreddin Barbarossa oli aktiivinen?


Allies of World War I

Context: The Allies of World War I or Entente Powers were a coalition of countries led by France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States against the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, and their colonies during the First World War (1914–1918).

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: When the war began in 1914, the Central Powers were opposed by the Triple Entente, formed in 1907 when the agreement between Britain and the Russian Empire complemented existing agreements between Britain, the French Third Republic Russia, and France.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In the East, between 7 and 9 August the Russians entered German East Prussia on 7 August, Austrian Eastern Galicia. Japan joined the Entente by declaring war on Germany on 23 August, then Austria on 25 August. On 2 September, Japanese forces surrounded the German Treaty Port of Tsingtao (now Qingdao) in China and occupied German colonies in the Pacific, including the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: Despite its membership of the Triple Alliance, Italy remained neutral until 23 May 1915 when it joined the Entente, declaring war on Austria but not Germany. On 17 January 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente; this was offset when Germany declared war on Portugal in March 1916, while Romania commenced hostilities against Austria on 27 August.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war as a co-belligerent, along with the associated allies of Liberia, Siam and Greece. After the 1917 October Revolution, Russia left the Entente and agreed to a separate peace with the Central Powers with the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Romania was forced to do the same in the May 1918 Treaty of Bucharest but on 10 November, it repudiated the Treaty and once more declared war on the Central Powers.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: These changes meant the Allies who negotiated the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 included France, Britain, Italy, Japan and the US; Part One of the Treaty agreed to the establishment of the League of Nations on 25 January 1919. This came into being on 16 January 1920 with Britain, France, Italy and Japan as permanent members of the Executive Council; the US Senate voted against ratification of the Treaty of Versailles on 19 March, thus preventing the US from joining the League.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: For much of the 19th century, Britain sought to maintain the European balance of power without formal alliances, a policy known as splendid isolation. This left it dangerously exposed as Europe divided into opposing power blocs and the 1895–1905 Conservative government negotiated first the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance, then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with France. The first tangible result of this shift was British support for France against Germany in the 1905 Moroccan Crisis.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: The 1905–1915 Liberal government continued this re-alignment with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. Like the Anglo-Japanese and Entente agreements, it focused on settling colonial disputes but by doing so paved the way for wider co-operation and allowed Britain to refocus resources in response to German naval expansion.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: Since control of Belgium allowed an opponent to threaten invasion or blockade British trade, preventing it was a long-standing British strategic interest. Under Article VII of the 1839 Treaty of London, Britain guaranteed Belgian neutrality against aggression by any other state, by force if required. Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg later dismissed this as a 'scrap of paper,' but British law officers routinely confirmed it as a binding legal obligation and its importance was well understood by Germany.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: As late as 1 August, a clear majority of the Liberal government and its supporters wanted to stay out of the war. While Liberal leaders H. H. Asquith and Edward Grey considered Britain legally and morally committed to support France regardless, waiting until Germany triggered the 1839 Treaty provided the best chance of preserving Liberal party unity.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: The German high command was aware entering Belgium would lead to British intervention but decided the risk was acceptable; they expected a short war while their ambassador in London claimed troubles in Ireland would prevent Britain from assisting France. On 3 August, Germany demanded unimpeded progress through any part of Belgium and when this was refused, invaded early on the morning of 4 August.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In addition to its own territory, Russia viewed itself as the defender of its fellow Slavs and on 30 July, mobilised in support of Serbia. In response, Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August, followed by Austria-Hungary on 6th; after Ottoman warships bombarded Odessa in late October, the Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: French defeat in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War led to the loss of the two provinces of Alsace-Lorraine and the establishment of the Third Republic. The suppression of the Paris Commune by the new regime caused deep political divisions and led to a series of bitter political struggles, such as the Dreyfus affair. As a result, aggressive nationalism or Revanchism was one of the few areas to unite the French.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In response to Germany's declaration of war on Russia, France issued a general mobilisation in expectation of war on 2 August and on 3 August, Germany also declared war on France. Germany's ultimatum to Belgium brought Britain into the war on 4 August, although France did not declare war on Austria-Hungary until 12 August.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: Prior to the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan was a semi-feudal, largely agrarian state with few natural resources and limited technology. By 1914, it had transformed itself into a modern industrial state, with a powerful military; by defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War during 1894–1895, it established itself as the primary power in East Asia and colonised the then-unified Korea and Formosa, now modern Taiwan.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: With Japan as an ally in the Far East, John Fisher, First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1910, was able to refocus British naval resources in the North Sea to counter the threat from the Imperial German Navy. The Alliance was renewed in 1911; in 1914, Japan joined the Entente in return for German territories in the Pacific, greatly annoying the Australian government which also wanted them.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: The 1882 Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was renewed at regular intervals, but was compromised by conflicting objectives between Italy and Austria in the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Italian nationalists referred to Austrian-held Istria (including Trieste and Fiume) and Trento as 'the lost territories', making the Alliance so controversial that the terms were kept secret until it expired in 1915.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: Alberto Pollio, the pro-Austrian Chief of Staff of the Italian Army, died on 1 July 1914, taking many of the prospects for Italian support with him. The Italian Prime Minister Antonio Salandra argued that as the Alliance was defensive in nature, Austria's aggression against Serbia and Italy's exclusion from the decision-making process meant it was not obliged to join them.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: Under the April 1915 Treaty of London, Italy agreed to join the Entente in return for Italian-populated territories of Austria-Hungary and other concessions; in return, it declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915 as required, although not on Germany until 1916. Italian resentment at the difference between the promises of 1915 and the actual results of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles would be powerful factors in the rise of Benito Mussolini.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire; with Russian support, it gained full independence after the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War. Many Serbs viewed Russia as protector of the South Slavs in general but also specifically against Bulgaria, where Russian objectives increasingly collided with Bulgarian nationalism.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: When Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, Russia responded by creating the Balkan League to prevent further Austrian expansion. Austria viewed Serbia with hostility partly due to its links with Russia, whose claim to be the protector of South Slavs extended to those within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, such as the Czechs and Slovaks. Serbia also potentially gave Russia the ability to achieve their long-held objective of capturing Constantinople and the Dardanelles.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: As a result of the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest, Serbia increased its territory by 100% and its population by 64%. However, it now faced a hostile Austria-Hungary, a resentful Bulgaria and opposition by Albanian nationalists. Germany too had ambitions in the Ottoman Empire, the centrepiece being the planned Berlin–Baghdad railway, with Serbia the only section not controlled by a pro-German state.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In 1830, the southern provinces of the Netherlands broke away to form the Kingdom of Belgium and their independence was confirmed by the 1839 Treaty of London. Article VII of the Treaty required Belgium to remain perpetually neutral and committed Austria, France, Germany and Russia to guarantee that against aggression by any other state, including the signatories.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: On 3 August, a German ultimatum demanded unimpeded progress through any part of Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded and the Belgian government called for British assistance under the 1839 Treaty; by the end of 1914, over 95% of the country was occupied but the Belgian Army held their lines on the Yser Front throughout the war.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In the Belgian Congo, 25,000 Congolese troops plus an estimated 260,000 porters joined British forces in the 1916 East African Campaign. By 1917, they controlled the western part of German East Africa which would become the Belgian League of Nations Mandate of Ruanda-Urundi or modern-day Rwanda and Burundi.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In 1913, the Greek monarch George I was assassinated; he was succeeded by his son Constantine who had attended Heidelberg University, served in a Prussian regiment and married Sophia of Prussia, sister of Emperor William II. These links and a belief the Central Powers would win the war combined to make Constantine pro-German. Venizelos himself favoured the Entente, partly due to their ability to block the maritime trade routes required for Greek imports.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: As a result, Greece initially remained neutral but in March 1915, the Entente offered concessions to join the Dardanelles campaign. Arguments over whether to accept led to the National Schism, with an Entente-backed administration under Venizelos in Crete, and a Royalist one led by Constantine in Athens that supported the Central Powers.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?


Allies of World War I

Context: In addition to the lack of substantive gains from the Balkan Wars, there were long-running internal divisions between those who like Nicholas I preferred an independent Montenegro and those who advocated union with Serbia. In July 1914, Montenegro was not only militarily and economically exhausted, but also faced a multitude of political, economic and social issues.

Question: Mitkä maat luetaan ympärysvaltoihin ensimmäisen maailmansodan aikana?