Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a revolution against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability:

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Various Islamic lawyers do, however, place multiple conditions, and stipulations—e.g., the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty—before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known that, during a time of drought during the Rashidun caliphate, capital punishments were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Islamic jurists later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land. A Qadi (Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender, colour, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the rule of law were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: "Bait-ul-Maal" (lit., "the house of money") was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad, there was no permanent Bait-ul-Mal or public treasury. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure, thereby making a public treasury unnecessary.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by Abdur Rahman bin Awf and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the "bait ul maal", which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: "Zakāt" () is the Islamic equivalent of a luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5% of their dormant wealth ("viz.", that over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. All and only those persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level (nisab) were collected from. The "nisab" did not include one's primary residence, primary transportation, a moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc. "Zakāt" is one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: "Jizya" or "jizyah" (; Ottoman Turkish: cizye). It was a per capita tax imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. Slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick, hermits and the poor were all exempt. It is important to note that, in addition to the exemptions, some needy non-Muslims were given stipends by the state.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: "Fay" was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural mineral reserves.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: "Ghanimah" or "Khums" represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: After the Battle of Yarmouk and Battle of al-Qadisiyyah the Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly, a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: On the amount of the allowance there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The evaluation greatly contributed to the prosperity of the citizens as trade increased, and their contributions to the "bait al maal" increased accordingly.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The mosques were not merely places for offering prayers, but also community centers where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar, as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the west. Al-Masjid an-Nabawi and Masjid al-Haram were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan, who not only expanded them but also beautified them on a large scale.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry, which could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for "Bait-ul-Mal" animals.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The stark differences in these two views has led to sectarian tension that has even culminated in violence.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the seventh century, serving alongside the Rashidun navy. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Rashidun army was divided into infantry and light cavalry. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


Rashidun Caliphate

Context: The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of Cyprus, the famous Battle of the Masts up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by Umayyad, naval cove of privateer in La Garde-Freinet by Cordoban Emirate, and the Sack of Rome by the Aghlabids in later era

Question: من أول الخلفاء الراشدين؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: The imperial Council of Ministers was re-established in late 1905, as a part of the large-scale government reform caused by the First Russian Revolution. All ministries and departments became parts of a single national administration. The Committee of Ministers functioned simultaneously with the second session of the Council of Ministers for six more months; Count Sergei Witte participated on both entities until the abolition of the committee on April (5 May) 1906.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: By the order of Emperor Nicholas II, the second session of the Council of Ministers began on October (1 November) 1905, following the formation of the State Duma. Shortly after the February Revolution and the inception of the Russian Provisional Government on (15) March 1917, Georgy Lvov from the Constitutional Democratic Party became Minister-Chairman, who was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky in July.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: In November 1917 the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolshevik faction of Russian social democrats led by Vladimir Lenin. The Council of People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Republic became the new governmental body, which was chaired from 1917–24 by Lenin. That body was renamed Council of Ministers following a decree of the Supreme Council on 23 March 1946. The same was made in other republics of the Soviet Union.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: The youngest head of government by his accession to office was Sergey Kiriyenko (1998), at age 35, and the oldest Ivan Goremykin (1914), at age 74.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: The modern government type in Russia came after the establishment of the Council of Ministers on 1 November 1905, created for the "management and union action principal chiefs of departments on subjects like law and senior public administration", and modelled on the relevant institutions within the constitutional states, when all the ministries and directorates have been declared part of the unified state management. The first Prime Minister was Count Sergei Witte, who was appointed on 6 November 1905.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: After the alleged abdication of Nicholas II from the throne in favor of his brother Michael, Michael also abdicated, before the convening of the Constituent Assembly. On 14 September 1917, the Russian Republic was proclaimed. At this period, a provisional government was formed and the Prime Minister was the head of state.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: The heads of government of the Russian State during the Civil War were "de facto" Prime Ministers in exile.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: Since the creation of the Russian Soviet Republic its cabinet was styled as the "Council of People's Commissars". Between the creation of the USSR on 30 December 1922 and the formation of its own Council of People's Commissars on 6 July 1923, the Council of People's Commissars of Russia temporarily acted as the government of the USSR. On 23 March 1946, the Council of People's Commissars was renamed into the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


List of heads of government of Russia

Context: As of 07 2022, there are eight living former prime ministers. The most recent death of a former prime minister was that of Yevgeny Primakov (1998–1999) on 26 June 2015, aged 85.

Question: من رئيس الإمبراطورية الروسية لسنة2010 ؟


Infrared

Context: Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when changing rotational-vibrational movements. It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range.

Question: متى تم اكتشاف الاشعه تحت الحمراء ؟


Infrared

Context: Military and civilian applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm (micrometers). Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis, environmental monitoring, industrial facility inspections, detection of grow-ops, remote temperature sensing, short-range wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting.

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Infrared

Context: Sunlight, at an effective temperature of 5,780 kelvins (5,510 °C, 9,940 °F), is composed of near-thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level. Of this energy, 527 watts is infrared radiation, 445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the infrared radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers.

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Infrared

Context: On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, some thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. However, black-body, or thermal, radiation is continuous: it gives off radiation at all wavelengths. Of these natural thermal radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.

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Infrared

Context: NIR and SWIR together is sometimes called "reflected infrared", whereas MWIR and LWIR is sometimes referred to as "thermal infrared".

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Infrared

Context: The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) recommended the division of infrared radiation into the following three bands:

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Infrared

Context: These divisions are not precise and can vary depending on the publication. The three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space.

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Infrared

Context: The most common photometric system used in astronomy allocates capital letters to different spectral regions according to filters used; I, J, H, and K cover the near-infrared wavelengths; L, M, N, and Q refer to the mid-infrared region. These letters are commonly understood in reference to atmospheric windows and appear, for instance, in the titles of many papers.

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Infrared

Context: In optical communications, the part of the infrared spectrum that is used is divided into seven bands based on availability of light sources, transmitting/absorbing materials (fibers), and detectors:

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Infrared

Context: The C-band is the dominant band for long-distance telecommunication networks. The S and L bands are based on less well established technology, and are not as widely deployed.

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Infrared

Context: Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

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Infrared

Context: The use of infrared light and night vision devices should not be confused with thermal imaging, which creates images based on differences in surface temperature by detecting infrared radiation (heat) that emanates from objects and their surrounding environment.

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Infrared

Context: Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known). This is termed thermography, or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed pyrometry. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to greatly reduced production costs.

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Infrared

Context: A hyperspectral image is a "picture" containing continuous spectrum through a wide spectral range at each pixel. Hyperspectral imaging is gaining importance in the field of applied spectroscopy particularly with NIR, SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR spectral regions. Typical applications include biological, mineralogical, defence, and industrial measurements.

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Infrared

Context: Thermal infrared hyperspectral imaging can be similarly performed using a thermographic camera, with the fundamental difference that each pixel contains a full LWIR spectrum. Consequently, chemical identification of the object can be performed without a need for an external light source such as the Sun or the Moon. Such cameras are typically applied for geological measurements, outdoor surveillance and UAV applications.

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Infrared

Context: Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source. For example, it is used in infrared saunas to heat the occupants. It may also be used in other heating applications, such as to remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). Infrared radiation is used in cooking, known as broiling or grilling. One energy advantage is that the IR energy heats only opaque objects, such as food, rather than the air around them.

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Infrared

Context: Infrared heating is also becoming more popular in industrial manufacturing processes, e.g. curing of coatings, forming of plastics, annealing, plastic welding, and print drying. In these applications, infrared heaters replace convection ovens and contact heating.

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Infrared

Context: A variety of technologies or proposed technologies take advantage of infrared emissions to cool buildings or other systems. The LWIR (8–15 μm) region is especially useful since some radiation at these wavelengths can escape into space through the atmosphere.

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Infrared

Context: Free space optical communication using infrared lasers can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a communications link in an urban area operating at up to 4 gigabit/s, compared to the cost of burying fiber optic cable, except for the radiation damage. "Since the eye cannot detect IR, blinking or closing the eyes to help prevent or reduce damage may not happen."

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Infrared

Context: Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.

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Infrared

Context: IR data transmission of encoded audio versions of printed signs is being researched as an aid for visually impaired people through the RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage) project.

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Infrared

Context: In the semiconductor industry, infrared light can be used to characterize materials such as thin films and periodic trench structures. By measuring the reflectance of light from the surface of a semiconductor wafer, the index of refraction (n) and the extinction Coefficient (k) can be determined via the Forouhi–Bloomer dispersion equations. The reflectance from the infrared light can also be used to determine the critical dimension, depth, and sidewall angle of high aspect ratio trench structures.

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Infrared

Context: Weather satellites equipped with scanning radiometers produce thermal or infrared images, which can then enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. The scanning is typically in the range 10.3–12.5 μm (IR4 and IR5 channels).

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Infrared

Context: These infrared pictures can depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream, which are valuable to the shipping industry. Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color-digitized techniques, the gray-shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.

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Infrared

Context: The main water vapour channel at 6.40 to 7.08 μm can be imaged by some weather satellites and shows the amount of moisture in the atmosphere.

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Infrared

Context: In the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere. These trends provide information on long-term changes in Earth's climate. It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into global warming, together with solar radiation.

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Infrared

Context: A pyrgeometer is utilized in this field of research to perform continuous outdoor measurements. This is a broadband infrared radiometer with sensitivity for infrared radiation between approximately 4.5 μm and 50 μm.

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Infrared

Context: Astronomers observe objects in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum using optical components, including mirrors, lenses and solid state digital detectors. For this reason it is classified as part of optical astronomy. To form an image, the components of an infrared telescope need to be carefully shielded from heat sources, and the detectors are chilled using liquid helium.

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Infrared

Context: Infrared light is also useful for observing the cores of active galaxies, which are often cloaked in gas and dust. Distant galaxies with a high redshift will have the peak portion of their spectrum shifted toward longer wavelengths, so they are more readily observed in the infrared.

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Infrared

Context: Recent progress in the design of infrared-sensitive cameras makes it possible to discover and depict not only underpaintings and pentimenti, but entire paintings that were later overpainted by the artist. Notable examples are Picasso's "Woman Ironing" and "Blue Room", where in both cases a portrait of a man has been made visible under the painting as it is known today.

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Infrared

Context: Similar uses of infrared are made by conservators and scientists on various types of objects, especially very old written documents such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Roman works in the Villa of the Papyri, and the Silk Road texts found in the Dunhuang Caves. Carbon black used in ink can show up extremely well.

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Infrared

Context: The pit viper has a pair of infrared sensory pits on its head. There is uncertainty regarding the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system.

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Infrared

Context: Other organisms that have thermoreceptive organs are pythons (family Pythonidae), some boas (family Boidae), the Common Vampire Bat ("Desmodus rotundus"), a variety of jewel beetles ("Melanophila acuminata"), darkly pigmented butterflies ("Pachliopta aristolochiae" and "Troides rhadamantus plateni"), and possibly blood-sucking bugs ("Triatoma infestans").

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Infrared

Context: Although near-infrared vision (780–1,000 nm) has long been deemed impossible due to noise in visual pigments, sensation of near-infrared light was reported in the common carp and in three cichlid species. Fish use NIR to capture prey and for phototactic swimming orientation. NIR sensation in fish may be relevant under poor lighting conditions during twilight and in turbid surface waters.

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Infrared

Context: Near-infrared light, or photobiomodulation, is used for treatment of chemotherapy-induced oral ulceration as well as wound healing. There is some work relating to anti-herpes virus treatment. Research projects include work on central nervous system healing effects via cytochrome c oxidase upregulation and other possible mechanisms.

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Infrared

Context: Strong infrared radiation in certain industry high-heat settings may be hazardous to the eyes, resulting in damage or blindness to the user. Since the radiation is invisible, special IR-proof goggles must be worn in such places.

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Jim Bridenstine

Context: On September 1, 2017, President Donald Trump nominated Bridenstine to be the Administrator of NASA; he was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on April 19, 2018, by a party-line vote of 50–49. Bridenstine was on the Committee on Science, Space and Technology during his time in Congress. He is the first elected official to be appointed NASA Administrator.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine stepped down as the head of NASA on January 20, 2021, to make way for a new leader in the Biden Administration. Former Senator and astronaut Bill Nelson was announced on March 19, 2021, as his chosen successor.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine was born on June 15, 1975, in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He grew up in Arlington, Texas, the son of an elementary school teacher and an accountant, where he became an Eagle Scout.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: His family moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma, during his junior year of high school, and during his senior year he was captain of the Jenks High School swim team and Oklahoma Swimmer of the Year; as of mid-2016, was one of a team of four that held the Oklahoma state record in the 200-meter freestyle relay for age group 17–18.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine graduated from Jenks High School in 1993, and earned a scholarship to Rice University in Houston, Texas, but injured his shoulder during his second year; he took five years to graduate, in 1998. He triple majored with a Bachelor of Arts in Economics, Psychology, and Business. He later received a Master's in Business Administration from Cornell University, awarded in 2009.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine joined the Navy in May 1998, after graduating from Rice University. He was a Naval Aviator in both the active duty United States Navy and the United States Naval Reserve. He flew the E-2C "Hawkeye" aircraft as part of a carrier air wing with the U.S. Navy and in Central and South America in support of the War on Drugs with the Naval Reserve. He later moved to the F-18 Hornet and flew at the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center, in Nevada

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In 2006, Bridenstine bought stock in the Rocket Racing League (RRL), which planned to begin races in 2008. In January 2007, he met with Tulsa city officials, asking for support for establishing a team in that city, and later in 2007 he invested in an RRL team.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In 2007, after the end of his active duty in the Navy, Bridenstine moved to Orlando, Florida, where he worked at Wyle Laboratories, a defense consulting firm. In 2008, Bridenstine and his family moved back to Tulsa to be closer to his family, and he became the chief pilot for the Tulsa team of the RRL.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In 2010, Bridenstine began serving in the Navy Reserve. In 2015, two years after become a U.S. Representative, he transferred his Reserve commission and joined the Oklahoma Air National Guard.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In September 2011, Bridenstine launched a campaign to unseat five-term incumbent U.S. Congressman John Sullivan. Bridenstine won the June 2012 Republican primary election with 54% of the vote. Although he identified with the Tea Party and was perceived as running to Sullivan's right, Bridenstine's actual policy statements differed little from those of Sullivan.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine had effectively clinched a seat in Congress by ousting Sullivan in the Republican primary. The 1st is a heavily Republican district with a Cook Partisan Voting Index of R+16, and has been in Republican hands since 1987. In the November 2012 general election, Bridenstine defeated Democratic nominee John Olson 63%–32%, winning all five counties in the district.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine ran unopposed in the 2014 election. His top campaign contributors were Northrop Grumman, Latshaw Drilling, American Optometric Association, Citizens United and the Every Republican is Crucial Political Action Committee.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: He received $29,000 from donors associated with the Turquoise Council of Americans and Eurasians and the Assembly of the Friends of Azerbaijan (AFAZ), per an analysis of OpenSecrets.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine retained his seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in the 2016 election. Following the 2016 presidential election, Bridenstine was viewed as a possible candidate for either NASA administrator or Secretary of the Air Force under the Donald Trump administration. Bridenstine had already declared that he would not run for re-election in 2018 after making a three-term pledge.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine sat on the Committee on Armed Services and Committee on Science, Space and Technology during the 113th, 114th, and 115th Congresses.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Within the Armed Services Committee, Bridenstine has sat on the Subcommittee on Seapower and Projection Forces and Subcommittee on Strategic Forces. Within the Science Committee, Bridenstine has sat on the Subcommittee on Environment (Chairman) and Subcommittee on Space. He is a member of the Freedom Caucus and the House Baltic Caucus.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: "CNN" found that Bridenstine's Facebook, YouTube and Twitter accounts had been entirely deleted, while most of the interviews on his Soundcloud were deleted, at a time when Congress would be examining his record for his confirmation hearing.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Eric Stallmer, president of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation, said he was "very impressed with [Bridenstine's] deep knowledge of space technology issues and his record of strong leadership in promoting positive change." The decision to pick Bridenstine was also praised by Senator Ted Cruz.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: According to "Science Magazine", "many expect that Bridenstine, who has written about the commercial potential of exploiting lunar resources, could shift the agency's emphasis [from its long-term mission of sending humans to Mars] toward the moon." "ABC News" wrote that Bridenstine was in favor of both human missions to the Moon and Mars.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: The U.S. Senate confirmed Bridenstine on April 19, 2018, by a party-line vote of 50–49. He became the first member of Congress to lead NASA. Bridenstine was sworn in by Vice President Mike Pence at the NASA Headquarters building in Washington, D.C. on April 23, 2018.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine established a working relationship with SpaceX CEO and Founder Elon Musk. Following the DM-1 mission in March 2019, Musk posited the need for humans to have a base on the Moon, to which Bridenstine responded, "that's the goal."

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine played a huge role in implementing President Trump's Space Policy Directive One and developed the planned architecture for a return to the Moon. Bridenstine later named the program the Artemis program. Bridenstine also decided that the lunar lander for the Artemis program would be developed commercially similar to the model used for NASA's Commercial Crew Program.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Following the end of his tenure as NASA Administrator, Bridenstine returned to his hometown of Tulsa, Oklahoma. On January 25, 2021, Acorn Growth Companies announced that he was hired as a dedicated senior advisor.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: On April 1, 2021, Bridenstine joined the board of directors of satellite operator Viasat in his second private sector role since stepping down as NASA's administrator.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: On April 7, 2021, Denver-based Voyager Space Holdings, which has been buying businesses to build a vertically integrated space exploration company, announced they had appointed Bridenstine to chair its advisory board. Dylan Taylor, chairman and CEO of Voyager, said Bridenstine's expertise would help guide the company's "aggressive and ambitious growth plan."

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: Bridenstine focused heavily on space policy during his tenure in Congress, stating "[o]ur very way of life depends on space, the way we communicate, the way we navigate, the way we produce food and energy, the way we conduct banking." In April 2016 at the 32nd Annual Space Symposium, Bridenstine introduced H.R. 4945, the American Space Renaissance Act, comprehensive reform legislation with provisions affecting national security, civil, and commercial space policy.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In addition, Bridenstine proposed legislation related to the regulatory process overseeing certain non-traditional space activities, and helped secure funding for the Federal Aviation Administration's Office of Commercial Space Transportation. Recognizing his efforts, in 2015 SpaceNews named Bridenstine as one of five game changers in the world in space.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In the 114th Congress, Bridenstine was the Chairman of the Environment Subcommittee of the House Science, Space, and Technology Committee. In that role, he pushed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration "... to integrate commercial data into its weather forecasting models." In September 2016, NOAA awarded two contracts to private weather satellite firms to provide data for its use.

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: In 2017, Bridenstine supported James Langevin's legislation requiring the Defense Department to report on the effects of climate change on military installations and strategic battle plans. According to journalist Keith Cowing, Bridenstine's support for the Langevin amendment "was widely seen as being instrumental in its passage."

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Jim Bridenstine

Context: By May 2018, Bridenstine had reversed his public position on climate change. At a town hall meeting in Washington D.C., Bridenstine said that "I fully believe and know that the climate is changing. I also know that we humans beings are contributing to it in a major way. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. We're putting it into the atmosphere in volumes that we haven't seen, and that greenhouse gas is warming the planet. That is absolutely happening, and we are responsible for it."

Question: من هو رئيس وكالة ناسا ؟


Christianity

Context: Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' (), probably coming from , "prepare the way of the Lord." According to , the term "Christian" (, ), meaning "followers of Christ" in reference to Jesus's disciples, was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity/Christianism" (, ) was by Ignatius of Antioch around 100 AD.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are also differences of interpretations and opinions of the Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. "Jesus is Lord" is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with the World Council of Churches.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Nicene Creed was formulated, largely in response to Arianism, at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively, and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Chalcedonian Definition, or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox, taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also perfectly united into one person.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Athanasian Creed, received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance."

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Most Christians (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Protestant alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in history. Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based. According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The New Testament mentions several post-resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", before Jesus' ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week, which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible. In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Greek word "trias" is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom". The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent, "trinitas", appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian. In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics, Orthodox and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence. Those who have attained this goal are called "saints" (Latin "sanctus", "holy").

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Depending on the specific denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, the Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), prayer (including the Lord's Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have ordained clergy who lead regular communal worship services.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Many ritualistic Christian churches make a distinction between sacred language, liturgical language and vernacular language. The three important languages in the early Christian era were: Latin, Greek and Syriac.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Services of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as liturgy. Justin Martyr described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his "First Apology" () to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: In Christian belief and practice, a "sacrament" is a rite, instituted by Christ, that confers grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word "sacramentum", which was used to translate the Greek word for "mystery". Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist; however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: Confirmation (Chrismation in the Eastern tradition), Holy Orders (or ordination), Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony (see Christian views on marriage).

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: In addition to this, the Church of the East has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include Holy Leaven (Melka) and the sign of the cross.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the liturgical year. The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of seasons, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of paraments and vestments for clergy, scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christianity has not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians and some modern denominations, invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times. Tertullian, in his book "De Corona", tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads. Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century. Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word "ichthys" (fish) forming an acrostic for the Greek phrase "Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter" (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ), (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove and olive branch (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer, which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer. The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the "Didache" and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The "Apostolic Tradition" directed that the sign of the cross be used by Christians during the minor exorcism of baptism, during ablutions before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in is "theopneustos", which literally means "God-breathed".

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles inerrant. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version. Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and "Divine Principle" in the Unification Church.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called "theoria") could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The "literal" sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The "spiritual" sense is further subdivided into:

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: This formative period was followed by the early bishops, whom Christians consider the successors of Christ's apostles. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and the study of them is called patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: King Tiridates III made Christianity the state religion in Armenia between 301 and 314, thus Armenia became the first officially Christian state. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Around 500, St. Benedict set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries. Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland, and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: In the 7th century, Muslims conquered Syria (including Jerusalem), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to Islam, and placing the rest under a separate legal status. Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with Persia. Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of Carolingian leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the Frankish Kingdom.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration. In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons. In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy, various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the Reformation, Martin Luther posted the "Ninety-five Theses" 1517 against the sale of indulgences. Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the Magisterial Reformation as corrupted. Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation, which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform. The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own, particularly in the Czech Republic and Estonia, while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians, most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic), Tuvalu (Reformed), Tonga (Methodist), Norway (Lutheran), Costa Rica (Catholic), the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran), England (Anglican), Georgia (Georgian Orthodox), Greece (Greek Orthodox), Iceland (Lutheran), Liechtenstein (Catholic), Malta (Catholic), Monaco (Catholic), and Vatican City (Catholic).

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: There is a diversity of doctrines and liturgical practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary ecclesiologically in their views on a classification of Christian denominations. The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant (such as Lutheran and Anglican) denominations.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India), and Armenian Apostolic churches. These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically. These churches are generally not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion. Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia, Egypt, Turkey, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of the Middle East and India. An Eastern Christian body of autocephalous churches, its bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination, and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Ancient Church of the East distinguished itself from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964. It is one of the Assyrian churches that claim continuity with the historical Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia. It is officially headquartered in the city of Baghdad, Iraq. The majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organized in the Anglican Communion. Some, but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and creedalism of other Christian communities by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.<ref name="Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey"></ref>

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, Unitarian Churches emerged from the Reformed tradition in the 16th century; the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is an example of such a denomination that arose in this era. They adopted the Anabaptist doctrine of credobaptism.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church, include the word "Catholic" in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church, but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobors and Molokans, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Esoteric Christians, such as The Christian Community, regard Christianity as a mystery religion and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices, hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many historians even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy, science and technology, medicine, fine arts and architecture, politics, literatures, music, and business. According to "100 Years of Nobel Prizes" a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: "Postchristianity" is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The other way was an institutional union with united churches, a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada, and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions. The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation". The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies. The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume "Adversus Christianos" as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus.

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Christianity

Context: Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism. New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in "The Christ Myth Theory and its problems".

Question: متى انتشر الدين المسيحي ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The experiences of Muslim women ( "Muslimāt", singular مسلمة "Muslimah") vary widely between and within different societies. At the same time, their adherence to Islam is a shared factor that affects their lives to a varying degree and gives them a common identity that may serve to bridge the wide cultural, social, and economic differences between them.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Many women are mentioned in the Quran, but only one is named, Mary, and she is named more times than she is in the Bible. There is even a whole chapter named after her in the Quran that is Surah Maryam. According to the Quran, divine grace surrounded Mary from birth, and, as a young woman, she received a message from God through the archangel Gabriel that God had chosen her, purified her, and had preferred her above all "the women of the worlds".

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: There is considerable variation as to how the above religious and legal sources are interpreted within the Sunni branch of Islam. In particular, extremist and fundamentalist Sunni movements such as Wahhabis and Salafists tend to reject Islamic mysticism and theology outright; this has profound implications for the way that women are perceived within these ideological sects. Conversely, within Islamic Orthodoxy, both the established theological schools and Sufism are at least somewhat influential.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: There are four sources of influence under Islam for Muslim women. The first two, the Quran and "ḥadīth" literature, are considered primary sources, while the other two are secondary and derived sources that differ between various Muslim sects and schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The secondary sources of influence include "ijmā"', "qiyās", "fatwā", and "ijtihad".

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: "Women" or "Sūrat an-Nisāʼ" is the fourth chapter of the Quran. The title of the surah derives from the numerous references to women throughout the chapter, including verses 4:34 and 4:127 – 4:130.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Gender roles in Islam are simultaneously colored by two Quranic precepts: (i) spiritual equality between women and men; and (ii) the idea that women are meant to exemplify femininity, and men masculinity.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Islam's basic view of women and men postulates a complementarity of functions: like everything else in the universe, humanity has been created in a pair (Sūrat al-Dhāriyāt, 51:49)neither can be complete without the other. In Islamic cosmological thinking, the universe is perceived as an equilibrium built on harmonious polar relationships between the pairs that make up all things. Moreover, all outward phenomena are reflections of inward noumena and ultimately of God.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The emphasis which Islam places upon the feminine/masculine polarity (and therefore complementarity) results in a separation of social functions. In general, a woman's sphere of operation is the home in which she is the dominant figureand a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. Women are highly respected in many aspects of domestic life such as being praised for their knowledge as ritual specialists, healers, caretakers, and those who arrange marriages in their community.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: However, this separation is not, in practice, as rigid as it appears. There are many examplesboth in the early history of Islam and in the contemporary worldof Muslim women who have played prominent roles in public life, including being sultanas, queens, elected heads of state and wealthy businesswomen. Moreover, it is important to recognize that in Islam, home and family are firmly situated at the centre of life in this world and of society: a man's work cannot take precedence over the private realm.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The Quran dedicates numerous verses to Muslim women, their role, duties and rights, in addition to "Sura" 4 with 176 verses named "An-Nisa" ("Women"). And according to Hadith, prophet Muhammad commanded his male followers to be kind towards their wives.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: James E. Lindsay states that Islam encouraged religious education of Muslim women. According to a "ḥadīth" in "Saḥih Muslim" variously attributed to Aisha and Muhammad, the women of the "ansar" were praiseworthy because shame did not prevent them from asking detailed questions about Islamic law.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: During the colonial era, until the early 20th century, there was a gender struggle among Muslims living under the British Empire; educating women was viewed as a prelude to social chaos, a threat to the moral order, and man's world was viewed as a source of Muslim identity. Muslim women in British India, nevertheless, pressed for their rights independently of men; by the 1930s, 2.5 million girls had entered schools, of which 0.5 million were Muslims.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Some scholars contend that Islamic nations have the world's highest gender gap in education. The 2012 World Economic Forum annual gender gap study finds the 17 out of 18 worst performing nations, out of a total of 135 nations, are the following members of Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, (Nepal), Turkey, Oman, Egypt, Iran, Mali, Morocco, Côte d'Ivoire, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Chad, Pakistan, and Yemen.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In the United States, a recent study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that Muslim American women (73%) are more likely than Muslim American men (57%) to achieve higher education (post-high school education or higher).

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Some scholars refer to verse 28:23 in the Quran and to Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife, a merchant before and after converting to Islam, as indications that Muslim women may undertake employment outside their homes.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Traditional interpretations of Islam require a woman to have her husband's permission to leave the house and take up employment, though scholars such as Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa and Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Ebrahim Jannaati have said that women do not require a husband's permission to leave the house and work.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: During medieval times, the labor force in Spanish Caliphate included women in diverse occupations and economic activities such as farming, construction workers, textile workers, managing slave girls, collecting taxes from prostitutes, as well as presidents of guilds, creditors, religious scholars.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In the 12th century, Ibn Rushd claimed that women were equal to men in all respects and possessed equal capacities to shine, citing examples of female warriors among the Arabs, Greeks and Africans to support his case. In the early history of Islam, examples of notable female Muslims who fought during the Muslim conquests and Fitna (civil wars) as soldiers or generals included Nusaybah bint Ka'ab a.k.a. Umm Amarah, Aisha, Kahula and Wafeira.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Medieval Bimarestan or hospitals included female staff as female nurses. Muslim hospitals were also the first to employ female physicians, such as Banu Zuhr family who served the Almohad caliph ruler Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur in the 12th century. This was necessary due to the segregation of male and female patients in Islamic hospitals. Later in the 15th century, female surgeons were employed at Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's "Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye" (Imperial Surgery).

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In the United States, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that, "Instead of hiding, Muslim women responded to a Trump win with greater giving." Nearly 30% of Muslim women vs. 19% of Muslim men have increased their donations to an organization associated with their faith community since the 2016 US presidential election, demonstrating a level of financial independence and influence.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: According to all schools of Islamic law, the injunctions of the sharia of Islam apply to all Muslims, male and female, who have reached the age of maturityand only to them. All Muslims are in principle equal before the law. The Quran especially emphasises that its injunctions concern both men and women in several verses where both are addressed clearly and in a distinct manner, such as in Sūrat al-Aḥzāb at 33:35 ('Verily, men who surrender unto God, and women who surrender...').

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Most Muslim-majority countries, and some countries with a considerable population of Muslim minorities, follow a mixed legal system, with positive laws and state courts, as well as "sharia"-based religious laws and religious courts. Those countries that use sharia for legal matters involving women, adopt it mostly for personal law; however, a few Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen also have sharia-based criminal laws.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Other than applicable laws to Muslim women, there is gender-based variation in the process of testimony and acceptable forms of evidence in legal matters. Some Islamic jurists have held that certain types of testimony by women may not be accepted. In other cases, the testimony of two women equals that of one man.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Quranic principles, especially the teaching of "zakāh" or purification of wealth, encourage women to own, invest, save and distribute their earnings and savings according to their discretion. These also acknowledge and enforce the right of women to participate in various economic activities.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Bernard Lewis says that classical Islamic civilization granted free Muslim women relatively more property rights than women in the West, even as it sanctified three basic inequalities between master and slave, man and woman, believer and unbeliever. Even in cases where property rights were granted in the West, they were very limited and covered only upper-class women. Over time, while women's rights have improved elsewhere, those in many Muslim-dominated countries have remained comparatively restricted.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Property rights enabled some Muslim women to possess substantial assets and fund charitable endowments. In mid-sixteenth century Istanbul, 36.8% of charitable endowments (awqāf) were founded by women. In eighteenth century Cairo, 126 out of 496 charitable foundations (25.4%) were endowed by women. Between 1770 and 1840, 241 out of 468 or 51% of charitable endowments in Aleppo were founded by women.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The Islamic teaching of going out of one's way to treat women equitably in financial dealings is exemplified by a story featuring Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā (700–767) – the founder of the Ḥanafī School of Law, who in his earlier life was a textile merchant in a garrison town – and a woman who came to his store offering to sell Abū Ḥanīfa a silk garment. The author and investment banker Harris Irfan narrates the story as follows:

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Rape is considered a serious sexual crime in Islam, and can be defined in Islamic law as: "Forcible illegal sexual intercourse by a man with a woman who is not legally married to him, without her free will and consent".

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Sharia law makes a distinction between adultery and rape and applies different rules. According to Professor Oliver Leaman, the required testimony of four male witnesses having seen the actual penetration applies to illicit sexual relations (i.e. adultery and fornication), not to rape. The requirements for proof of rape are less stringent:

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In the case of rape, the adult male perpetrator (i.e. rapist) of such an act is to receive the ḥadd zinā, but the non-consenting or invalidly consenting female (i.e. rape victim) is to be regarded as innocent of zinā and relieved of the ḥadd punishment.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Rape laws in a number of Muslim-majority countries have been a subject of controversy. In some of these countries, such as Morocco, the penal code is neither based on Islamic law nor significantly influenced by it, while in other cases, such as Pakistan's Hudood Ordinances, the code incorporates elements of Islamic law.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In Afghanistan and Dubai, some women who made accusations of rape have been charged with fornication or adultery. This law was amended in Pakistan in 2006.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Ibn Taymiyyah wrote:"فَمَا كَانَ مِنْ الشَّهَادَاتِ لَا يُخَافُ فِيهِ الضَّلَالُ فِي الْعَادَةِ لَمْ تَكُنْ فِيهِ عَلَى نِصْفِ رَجُلٍ"

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Sharia law addresses domestic violence through the concept of darar or harm that encompasses several types of abuse against a spouse, including physical abuse. The laws concerning darar state that if a woman is being harmed in her marriage, she can have it annulled: physically assaulting a wife violates the marriage contract and is grounds for immediate divorce.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Sharia court records from the Ottoman period illustrate the ability of women to seek justice when subject to physical abuse: as a notable 1687 case from Aleppo demonstrates, courts gave out penalties such as corporal punishment to abusive husbands.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: A sixteenth-century fatwa issued by the Şeyhülislam (Shaykh al-Islam, the highest religious authority in the jurisdiction) of the Ottoman Empire stated that in the event of a judge becoming aware of serious spousal abuse, he has the legal authority to prevent the husband hurting his wife "by whatever means possible", including ordering their separation (at the request of the wife).

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Some scholars claim Islamic law, such as verse 4:34 of Quran, allows and encourages domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects "nushuz" (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife. Other scholars claim wife beating, for "nashizah", is not consistent with modern perspectives of Quran.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: There are a number of translations of this verse from the Arabic original, and all vary to some extent. Some Muslims, such as Islamic feminist groups, argue that Muslim men use the text as an excuse for domestic violence.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Mu'awiyah asked: Messenger of Allah, what is the right of the wife of one of us over him? He replied: That you should give her food when you eat, clothe her when you clothe yourself, do not strike her on the face, do not revile her or separate yourself from her except in the house. Abu Dawud said: The meaning of "do not revile her" is, as you say: "May Allah revile you".

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Another hadith narration of the Farewell Sermon appears in Sunan Ibn Majah. The Arabic phrase mentioned above is here translated, "hit them, but without causing injury or leaving a mark."

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Some conservative translations suggest Muslim husbands are permitted to use "light force" on their wives, and others claim permissibly to strike them with a Miswak and chastise them. The relationship between Islam and domestic violence is disputed by some Islamic scholars.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Among classical Muslim authors, the notion of love was developed along three conceptual lines, conceived in an ascending hierarchical order: natural love, intellectual love, and divine love. The notion of 'ishq or passionate love is absent in the Qur'an and was introduced by the Persian writer Ahmad Ghazali.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In Sufism, romantic love is viewed as a metaphysical metaphor for the love of God. However, the importance of love extends beyond the metaphorical. This is evident in the romantic relationship between Rumi, who is widely recognised as the greatest poet of Sufism, and his mentor Shams Tabrizi. IbnʿArabī posited also that for a man, sex with a woman is the occasion for experiencing God's 'greatest self-disclosure' (the position is similar vice versa):

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The most intense and perfect contemplation of God is through women, and the most intense union is the conjugal act.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Prominent figures in Islamic mysticism have elaborated on this theme. Ibn 'Arabī reflected on the above ḥadīth as follows: "...he [Muḥammad] mentioned women [as one of three things from God's world made lovable to him]. Do you think that which would take him far from his Lord was made lovable to him? Of course not. That which would bring him near to his Lord was made lovable to him.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: "He who knows the measure of women and their mystery will not renounce love for them. On the contrary, one of the perfections of the gnostic is love for them, for this is a prophetic heritage and a divine love. For the Prophet said, '[women] were made lovable to me.' Hence he ascribed his love for them only to God. Ponder this chapter – you will see wonders!"

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Ibn 'Arabī held that witnessing God in the female human form is the most perfect mode of witnessing: if Muḥammad was made to love women, it is because women reflect God.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Rūmī connected women with the female attributes of the Divine: "She [woman] is the radiance of God, she is not your beloved. She is the Creator – you could say that she is not created."

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: According to Gai Eaton, there are several other ḥadīths on the same theme which underline Muḥammad's teaching on the importance of loving women:

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Another well-known ḥadīth explicitly states that loving conduct towards one's wife is synonymous with advanced religious understanding:

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Both the concept and the reality of beauty are of exceptional importance in the Islamic religion: beauty (iḥsān, also translated as "virtue", "excellence", and "making beautiful") is the third element of the canonical definition of Islam after belief (īmān) and practice (islām). At 53:31, the Quran emphasises the importance of avoiding ugly actions, while at 10:26 it states: "Those who do what is beautiful will receive the most beautiful and increase [or more than this]."

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband (even temporarily, after payment of a sum of money to the man or the man's family), by contrast, is not permitted.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Muḥammad quite deliberately did not recommend cousin marriage as his "sunnah" or path to be followed; out of his thirteen wives, only one – the seventh, Zaynab bint Jahsh, a divorceé said by historians to have been very beautiful – was his cousin. The rest of his wives came from diverse social and even religious backgrounds, with Safiyya bint Huyayy and Rayhana bint Zayd being of Jewish origin.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In the interests of transparency, clandestine marriages are not permitted under Islamic law; weddings must be public – a commitment made before society. The European Council for Fatwa and Research has ruled that a state registration of a marriage between Muslims, if attended by two witnesses, fulfills the minimum requirements for a religious marriage under the sharia because it demonstrates (a) mutual consent; and (b) a public declaration of commitment.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Child marriage, which was once a globally accepted phenomenon, has come to be discouraged in most countries, but it persists to some extent in some select parts of the Muslim world.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Additionally, according to Islamic law, if a Muslim man wishes to marry a Christian or Jewish woman, he must get to know her parents and ask for permission to marry their daughter.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The majority of Muslim scholars have historically read Surah 60, verse 10, which forbids female converts from returning to their non-Muslim husbands, as an injunction against any Muslim women marrying non-Muslim men.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The Quran considers the love between men and women to be a Sign of God. This said, the Quran also permits men to first admonish, then lightly tap or push and even beat her, if he suspects "nushuz" (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In this context, the Muslim caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab (584–644) believed that a married woman had the right to sex at least once every four days, while according to the hadith scholar, jurist and mystic Abu Talib al-Makki (d.996), "if [a husband] knows that [his wife] needs more, he is obliged to comply".

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Muhammad underlined the importance of foreplay and emotional intimacy in sexual relations, as the following hadith illustrates:

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: "[The Prophet Muḥammad said] 'Not one of you should fall upon his wife like an animal; but let there first be a messenger between you.'

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Islamic luminaries expanded on this theme. The philosopher, mystic and jurist Al-Ghazālī (c.1058–1111) stated that "Sex should begin with gentle words and kissing", while the Indian scholar al-Zabīdī (1732–1790) added to this exhortation in his commentary on Al-Ghazālī's magnum opus, "The Revival of the Religious Sciences" ("Iḥiyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn"): "This should include not only the cheeks and lips; and then he should caress the breasts and nipples, and every part of her body."

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Classical Islamic scholars have written extensively about the art and desirability of husband and wife attaining simultaneous orgasms; Al-Ghazali gives the following counsel in his key work, "The Revival of the Religious Sciences" ("Iḥiyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn"):

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: "When he has come to his orgasm ("inzal"), he should wait for his wife until she comes to her orgasm likewise; for her climax may well come slowly. If he arouses her desire, and then sits back from her, this will hurt her, and any disparity in their orgasms will certainly produce a sense of estrangement. A simultaneous orgasm will be the most delightful for her, especially since her husband will be distracted by his own orgasm from her, and she will not therefore be afflicted by shyness."

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: According to Quran and "Sahih Muslim", two primary sources of sharia, Islam permits only vaginal sex.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: There is disagreement among Islamic scholars on proper interpretation of Islamic law on permissible sex between a husband and wife, with claims that non-vaginal sex within a marriage is disapproved but not forbidden. Anal intercourse and sex during menstruation are prohibited, as is violence and force against a partner's will. However, these are the only restrictions; as the Quran says at 2:223 (Sūratu l-Baqarah): 'Your women are your fields; go to your women as you wish'.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Islam requires both husband and wife/wives to meet their conjugal duties. Religious qadis (judges) have admonished the man or women who fail to meet these duties.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Notwithstanding these facts, there is a belief amongst some Muslims – particularly though not entirely exclusively in (sub-Saharan) Africa – that female circumcision (specifically the cutting of the prepuce or hood of the clitoris) is religiously vindicated by the existence of a handful of ḥadīths which apparently recommend it. However, these ḥadīths are generally regarded as inauthentic, unreliable and weak, and therefore as having no legislative foundation and/or practical application.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Sheikh Abbas el Hocine Bencheikh, a diplomat and Rector of the L'institut Musulman at the Grande Mosquée de Paris, pointed to the total lack of Islamic theological justification for female circumcision: "If circumcision for the man (though not compulsory) has an aesthetic and hygienic purpose, there is no existing religious Islamic text of value to be considered in favour of female excision, as proven by the fact that this practice is totally non-existent in most of the Islamic countries."

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In the twenty-first century, a number of high-ranking religious offices within the OIC have urged the cessation of all forms of FGM:

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: According to UNICEF (2014), twenty-six of the twenty-nine countries in which female genital mutilation is classified as 'concentrated' are in sub-Saharan Africa: there is no recorded prevalence in any non-African OIC member state outside Yemen (19% prevalence) and Iraq (8%).

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: This verse not only explains the divorce rights of women in Islam, it sets out "iddah" to prevent illegal custody of divorcing husband's child by a woman, specifies that each gender has divorce rights, and that men are a degree above women.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: The Hanbali jurist Ibn Qudama explains that a man is entitled to have sexual relations with his concubines, to employ her service, to hire her out and to marry her. However he is not allowed to sell or transfer ownership of his concubines. Concubines were at times housed in harems which maintained their modesty and privilege. Some harems were guarded by eunuchs.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: In regards to female slaves, who are termed, 'what your right hands possess', Ibn Kathir in his Tafsir exegesis of Al-Mu'minoon 23:5–6, writes that "a man is allowed to have sexual relations with his slave-girl as with his wife". Malik ibn Anas cites a report in which "Umar b. al-Khattab says that when a female slave gives birth to a child by her master, then the slave becomes an "umm walad" (mother of a child, concubine)." Ibn al-Humam adds that the slave-owner must acknowledge the kinship of the child.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: With the coming of the Quranic revelation, the family replaced the tribe as the basic unit of Arab society, and today the family is still the primary means of social organisation in the Islamic world. As in many other traditional societies, the family in Muslim-majority countries is not restricted to the nuclear model solely consisting of parents and children, but is instead typically made up of a larger extended family network which includes grandparents, uncles, aunts, in-laws and cousins.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: "A woman questioned the Prophet [Muḥammad]: 'Men go to war and have a great reward for that, so what do women have.' He answered: 'When a woman is pregnant, she has the reward of someone who spends the whole night praying and the whole day fasting; when the contractions strike her, no one knows how much reward God gives her for having to go through this, and when she delivers her child, then for every suck it draws from her, she receives the reward for keeping a soul alive.'"

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Muḥammad also stated that if a woman dies in childbirth, she is counted as a martyr; the reward for martyrdom is Paradise.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: A Muslim woman may not move in a mosque and is relieved from duty of performing salat while she is menstruating or during postpartum period, because bodily fluids are considered ritually impure in Islam. Some Muslim scholars suggest that the woman should stay in her house, or near her house, during this state. Some Islamic jurists claim that this is an incorrect interpretation of sharia, and suggest the Islamic intent was about hygiene, not about religious ritual cleanliness.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Some scholars say that it is not permitted for menstruating women to read the Quran. Others say it is possible, in some circumstances.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Menstruating women are allowed to attend the `Eid prayer without participating in the prayer but just to witness it.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟


Women in Islam

Context: Additionally, some analysts have contended that the US$3.5 billion investment in the car-sharing app Uber by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund – together with other projected economic gains – was instrumental in the reversal of the ban on women driving.

Question: ما هي حقوق المرأة في الاسلام ؟