Vichy France

Context: In late April 1945 , secretary of the general government headed by Yves Chataigneau, took advantage of his absence to exile anti-imperialist leader Messali Hadj and arrest the leaders of his Algerian People's Party (PPA). On the day of the Liberation of France, the GPRF would harshly repress a rebellion in Algeria during the Sétif massacre of 8 May 1945, which has been characterized by some historians as the "real beginning of the Algerian War".

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: In July 1940, Vichy set up a special commission charged with reviewing naturalisations granted since the 1927 reform of the nationality law. Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalised. This bureaucratic decision was instrumental in their subsequent internment in the green ticket roundup.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Vichy also enacted racial laws in its territories in North Africa. "The history of the Holocaust in France's three North African colonies (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia) is intrinsically tied to France's fate during this period."

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: With regard to economic contribution to the German economy, it is estimated that France provided 42% of the total foreign aid.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Alexis Carrel had also taken an active part to a symposium in Pontigny organised by Jean Coutrot, the "". Scholars such as Lucien Bonnafé, Patrick Tort, and Max Lafont have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The police oversaw the confiscation of telephones and radios from Jewish homes and enforced a curfew on Jews starting in February 1942. They also enforced requirements that Jews not appear in public places and ride only on the last car of the Parisian metro.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Along with many French police officials, André Tulard was present on the day of the inauguration of Drancy internment camp in 1941, which was used largely by French police as the central transit camp for detainees captured in France. All Jews and others "undesirables" passed through Drancy before heading to Auschwitz and other camps.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's remark when he added, "I say it again here. It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death."

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The Vichy French Navy was under the command of Admiral François Darlan, with a naval garrison in Toulon.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The Vichy French Air Force was led by General Jean Romatet, with involvement in actions in North Africa.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Stanley Hoffmann in 1974 and then other historians such as Robert Paxton and Jean-Pierre Azéma have used the term "collaborationnistes" to refer to fascists and Nazi sympathisers who, for ideological reasons, wished a reinforced collaboration with Hitler's Germany. Examples are the Parti Populaire Français (PPF) leader Jacques Doriot, the writer Robert Brasillach or Marcel Déat. A principal motivation and ideological foundation among "collaborationnistes" was anticommunism.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: "Collaborationnisme" () should be distinguished from collaboration. "Collaborationism" refers to those, primarily from the fascist right, who embraced the goal of a German victory as their own, whereas "collaboration" refers to those of the French who for whatever reason collaborated with the Germans. Organizations such as "La Cagoule" opposed the Third Republic, particularly while the left-wing Popular Front was in power.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Collaborationists may have influenced the Vichy government's policies, but ultra-collaborationists never comprised the majority of the government before 1944.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Vichy rhetoric exalted the skilled labourer and small businessman. In practice, the needs of artisans for raw materials were neglected in favour of big businesses. The General Committee for the Organization of Commerce (CGOC) was a national program to modernise and professionalise small business.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Some people, including German soldiers, benefited from the black market, where food was sold without tickets at very high prices. Farmers especially diverted meat to the black market and so there was much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation. Direct buying from farmers in the countryside and barter against cigarettes became common although those activities were strictly forbidden and thus carried the risk of confiscation and fines.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Food shortages were most acute in the large cities. In the more remote country villages, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival. The official ration provided starvation level diets of 1013 or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and especially black market purchases.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The two million French soldiers held as prisoners-of-war and forced labourers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat, but the anxieties of separation for their 800,000 wives were high. The government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: On the other side, women of the Resistance, many of whom were associated with combat groups linked to the French Communist Party, broke the gender barrier by fighting side by side with men. After the war, their services were ignored, but France did give women the vote in 1944.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The Commission lasted for seven months, surviving Allied bombing runs, poor nutrition and housing, and a bitterly cold winter where temperatures plunged to , while residents nervously watched the advancing Allied troops drawing closer and discussed rumors.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: On 21 April 1945 General de Lattre ordered his forces to take Sigmaringen. The end came within days. By the 26th, Pétain was in the hands of French authorities in Switzerland, and Laval had fled to Spain. Brinon, Luchaire, and Darnand were captured, tried, and executed by 1947. Other members escaped to Italy or Spain.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The Free French, concerned that the Allies might decide to put France under administration of the Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories, strove to establish the Provisional Government of the French Republic quickly. The first action of the Provisional Government was to reestablish republican legality throughout Metropolitan France.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Collaborationist paramilitary and political organisations, such as the Milice and the "Service d'ordre légionnaire", were also dissolved.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The Provisional Government also took steps to replace local governments, including governments that had been suppressed by the Vichy regime through new elections or by extending the terms of those who had been elected not later than 1939.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Other historians have distinguished the purges against intellectuals (Brasillach, Céline, etc.), industrialists, fighters (LVF etc.) and civil servants (Papon etc.).

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The French members of the Waffen-SS "Charlemagne" Division who survived the war were regarded as traitors. Some of the more prominent officers were executed, while the rank-and-file were given prison terms. Some of them were given the option of doing time in Indochina (1946–54) with the Foreign Legion instead of prison.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Among artists, singer Tino Rossi was detained in Fresnes Prison; according to the newspaper "Combat", prison guards asked him for autographs. Pierre Benoit and Arletty were also detained.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: In 1993, former Vichy official René Bousquet was assassinated while he awaited prosecution in Paris following a 1991 inculpation for crimes against humanity. He had been prosecuted but partially acquitted and immediately amnestied in 1949. In 1994, former Vichy official Paul Touvier (1915–1996) was convicted of crimes against humanity. Maurice Papon was likewise convicted in 1998 but was released three years later due to ill health and died in 2007.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: As the historian Henry Rousso has put it in "The Vichy Syndrome" (1987), Vichy and the state collaboration of France remains a "past that doesn't pass away".

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The regional newspaper "Nice Matin" revealed on 28 February 2007 that in more than 1,000 condominium properties on the Côte d'Azur, rules dating to Vichy were still "in force" or at least existed on paper. One of the rules, for example, stated:

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The contractors shall make the following statements: they are of French nationality, are not Jewish, nor married to Jewish in the sense of the laws and ordinances in force [under Vichy, "ed. note"]

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: There was an illusory belief from the end of the war and through the 1960s that almost everybody was in the Resistance, or at least supported it, and collaborators were a minority. Two additional popular beliefs went along with this, that of the "sword and shield", as well as the idea that to whatever extent there were harsh measures implemented by Vichy, it was because it was under the boot of the Germans and not by choice.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: A lot of French people believed at the time of the occupation that this tacit agreement existed, according to Aron. Resistance member Gilbert Renault, alias Colonel Rémy, who founded the first resistance network in occupied France had great respect for Pétain, and felt that France could fight on two fronts, either with Pétain internally, or with from abroad, and he was not alone among resistance members who supported and sincerely admired Pétain.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Today, the few remaining Vichy supporters continue to maintain the official argument advanced by Pétain and Laval: state collaboration was supposed to protect the French civilian population from the Occupation's hardships. At his trial, Pétain proclaimed that Charles had represented the "sword" of France, and Pétain had been the "shield" protecting France.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Munholland reports a widespread consensus among historians regarding the authoritarian character of the Vichy regime and its

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Although that claim is rejected by the rest of the French population and by the state itself, another myth remains more widespread, the alleged "protection" by Vichy of French Jews by "accepting" to collaborate in the deportation and ultimately in the extermination of foreign Jews.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: That argument has been rejected by several historians who specialised in the subject, such as the widely recognised American historian Robert Paxton and the historian of the French police Maurice Rajsfus. Both were called on as experts during the Papon trial in the 1990s.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Internationally, France "believed the war to be finished". Thus, by July 1940, Vichy eagerly negotiated with the German authorities in an attempt to gain a place for France in the Third Reich's "New Order", but "Hitler never forgot the 1918 defeat. He always said no." Vichy's ambition was doomed from the start.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: "Antisemitism was a constant theme", recalled Paxton. At first, it even opposed German plans. "At this time the Nazis had not yet decided to exterminate the Jews, but to expel them. Their idea was not to make of France an antisemitic country. On the contrary, they wanted to send there the Jews that they expelled" from the Reich.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Paxton recalled "The Nazis needed the French administration... They always complained about the lack of staff", something which Maurice Rajsfus has also underlined. Although the Paxton recognised during the trial that the "civil behavior of certain individuals" had permitted many Jews to escape deportation, he stated:

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: The French state, itself, participated in the policy of extermination of the Jews... How can one claim the reverse when such technical and administrative resources were made available to them?

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Pointing to the French police's registering of Jews and to Laval's decision, which had been taken completely autonomously in August 1942, to deport children along with their parents, Paxton added:

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Contrary to preconceived ideas, Vichy did not sacrifice foreign Jews in the hope of protecting French Jews. At the hierarchy summit, it knew, from the start, that the deportation of French Jews was unavoidable.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Paxton then referred to the case of Italy, where deportation of Jewish people had started only after the German occupation. Italy surrendered to the Allies in mid-1943 but then was invaded by Germany. Fighting continued there until 1944. In particular, in Nice, "Italians had protected the Jews. And the French authorities complained about it to the Germans".

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: More recent work by the historian Susan Zuccotti finds that in general, the Vichy government facilitated the deportation of foreign Jews, rather than French Jews, until at least 1943:

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Deportations from France did not start until summer 1942, several months after mass deportation from other countries had started.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


Vichy France

Context: Whatever the Vichy government's initial or subsequent intent, the death rate was 15% for French Jews, slightly over half of that of non-citizen Jews residing in France. More Jews lived in France at the end of the Vichy regime than approximately ten years earlier.

Question: كيف تأسست الدولة الفرنسية؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The University of California, Davis (UC Davis, UCD, or Davis) is a public land-grant research university near Davis, California. Named a Public Ivy, it is the northernmost of the ten campuses of the University of California system. The institution was first founded as an agricultural branch of the system in 1905 and became the seventh campus of the University of California in 1959.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The UC Davis Aggies athletic teams compete in NCAA Division I, primarily as members of the Big West Conference with additional sports in the Big Sky Conference (football only) and the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: On March 18, 1905, the University Farm Bill was enacted, which called for the establishment of a farm for the University of California. A committee appointed by the Board of Regents took a year to select a site for the University Farm, a 779-acre farm near a tiny Yolo County town then known as Davisville. The Regents officially took control of the property in September 1906 and constructed four buildings in 1907.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Short courses were first offered in October and November 1908, and then the University Farm officially opened in 1909 as the University Farm School, offering a three-year non-degree vocational program. The vocational program was shortened from three to two years in 1923.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Renamed in 1922 as the Northern Branch of the College of Agriculture, and, in 1938, as the College of Agriculture at Davis, the institution continued growing at a breakneck pace: in 1916 the Farm's 314 students occupied the original campus. By 1951 it had expanded to a size of . In 1958, the vocational program was discontinued.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In 1959, the campus was designated by the Regents of the University of California as the seventh general campus in the University of California system.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Davis's Graduate Division was established in 1961, followed by the creation of the College of Engineering in 1962. The law school opened for classes in fall 1966, and the School of Medicine began instruction in fall 1968. In a period of increasing activism, a Native American studies program was started in 1969, one of the first at a major university; it was later developed into a full department within the university.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: During a protest against tuition hikes on November 18, 2011, a campus police officer, Lieutenant John Pike, used pepper spray on a group of seated demonstrators when they refused to disperse, and another officer also pepper sprayed demonstrators at Pike's direction. The incident drew international attention and led to further demonstrations, a formal investigation, and Pike's departure in July 2012.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In February 2017, Gary S. May, Ph.D., was named the seventh chancellor of UCD after a nationwide search. He officially began in the role on August 1. May, the former dean of the College of Engineering at Georgia Tech, is the second African American to be named chancellor at any of the UC campuses (after former UC Irvine chancellor, Ohio State president and current UC system president Michael Drake) and one of only three currently serving African American chancellors/presidents of an AAU institution.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Although named after the City of Davis, the campus is technically located adjacent to the City of Davis in an unincorporated part of Yolo and Solano counties. The main campus is located west of Sacramento in the Sacramento Valley, part of California's Central Valley, and is adjacent to Interstate 80.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The northeast side of campus holds more of the core buildings that were built earlier in UC Davis's history, such as Wellman Hall, Shields Library, Mrak Hall, and Hutchison Hall. Also notable in this northeastern corner is the labyrinthine Social Sciences and Humanities building designed by Antoine Predock, known to students as the "Death Star" for its angular, metallic design.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The majority of Equestrian Center, and Animal Sciences buildings are located near the Arboretum Waterway, away from the core campus; the West Entry Parking Complex, the Silo Union, and the newly constructed Science Lecture Hall and the Science Laboratory Building are located nearer to the Tercero residence halls and the core of campus. The Mondavi Center, home of the University Symphony Orchestra and other cultural events, is also located near the Tercero complex.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: To the south side of the campus core is the 100-acre UC Davis Arboretum, which includes 3.5 miles of paved paths, 4,000 tree specimens, Putah Creek and Lake Spafford. On March 10, 2017, a multi-year waterway enhancement project began.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: There are seven public art statues found around campus, collectively called "The Egghead Series," sculpted by the late Robert Arneson, who also taught at Davis from 1962 to 1991.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Museums on campus include the C.N. Gorman Museum, specializing in indigenous and Native American art; and the Manetti Shrem Museum of Art, with a focus on local artists from the Bay Area Figurative Movement, Pop art and Funk art movements.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The entire University of California system is governed by the regents, a 26-member board, as established under Article IX, Section 9 of the California Constitution. The board appoints the university's principal officers including the system-wide president and UC Davis Chancellor.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The UC Davis Chancellor has overall responsibility for the leadership, management, and administration of the campus and reports to the President of the University of California system, a position currently held by the former president of Ohio State University (and chancellor of UC Irvine), Michael Drake, whose predecessor was former Secretary of Homeland Security and Arizona Governor Janet Napolitano.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The Offices of the Chancellor and Provost is headed by the executive vice-chancellor and provost (EVCP). In their capacity as executive vice-chancellor, the EVCP shares with the chancellor in the overall leadership and management of campus administration and operations, whereas as provost, the EVCP is UC Davis' chief academic officer.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The senior staff provides executive support to the Offices of the Chancellor and Provost. The Council of Deans and Vice-Chancellor consists of the heads of the university's major academic and administrative units.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Students are most likely to interact with or be directly affected by the Office of Student Affairs, which is run by the vice chancellor of student affairs, currently Fred Wood, and by a variety of associate and assistant vice-chancellors. This office oversees many campus units including: Admissions, Athletics, Campus Recreation, Campus Unions, Counseling and Psychological Services, Financial Aid, Student Housing and others.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In 2010, the United States Census Bureau made UC Davis its own separate census-designated place for statistical purposes. The campus location is out of the bounds of the Davis city limit.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In 2014, Chancellor Katehi stated that UC Davis aims to become a Hispanic-Serving Institution by the 2018–2019 school year, with at least 25% of the undergraduate student body consisting of Latinos.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The "Academic Ranking of World Universities" placed UC Davis 40th nationally and 90th globally for 2019. In its 2019 rankings, "Times Higher Education World University Rankings" ranked it tied for 59th in the world. The "QS World University Rankings" ranked it tied for 104th globally for its 2020 ratings, with Veterinary Science ranked 2nd in the world.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In 2016, "Sierra Magazine" ranked UC Davis 8th in its "Greenest Schools" in America list for campus sustainability and climate change efforts.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: For Fall 2019, UC Davis received 78,093 freshmen applications; 30,358 were admitted (39.1%) and 5,957 enrolled. The average high school grade point average (GPA) of the enrolled freshmen was 4.13; the average SAT scores were between 610 and 710 for reading and 630–790 for math, and 28–34 for the ACT Composite score.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The university is host to an Army Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program, the Forged Gold Battalion, with more than 50 cadets. With more than 60 years in existence, it currently commissions roughly 10 graduating seniors as second lieutenants every year.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The University of California Davis Graduate Programs of Study consist of over 90 post-graduate programs, offering masters and doctoral degrees and post-doctoral courses. The programs educate over 4,000 students from around the world.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In 1961, autonomous Graduate Divisions and Graduate Councils were established on all University of California campuses to provide focused oversight of their graduate programs.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: A key feature of graduate education at UC Davis is the graduate group. The core elements of a graduate group include an emphasis on "shared research interests among faculty and students; flexibility to grow and quickly change to reflect emerging areas of interdisciplinary knowledge and technology; and an acceptance that many research questions transcend traditional academic departmental boundaries." UC Davis offers more graduate groups than any other campus in the UC system.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In 2016, "U.S. News & World Report" named UC Davis School of Medicine as the 6th most competitive medical school in the United States with an acceptance rate of 2.8%.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis is one of 62 members in the Association of American Universities, an organization of leading research universities devoted to maintaining a strong system of academic research and education. It consists of sixty universities in the United States (both public and private) and two universities in Canada.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis spent $788.8 million on research and development in fiscal year 2018, ranking it 30th in the nation.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Its faculty includes 23 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 14 members of the National Academy of Engineering, 30 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 17 members of the American Law Institute, 5 members of the Royal Society, 3 Pulitzer Prize winners, 1 Guggenheim Fellow, and 3 MacArthur Fellows.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The Crocker Nuclear Laboratory on campus has had a nuclear accelerator since 1966. The laboratory is used by scientists and engineers from private industry, universities and government to research topics including nuclear physics, applied solid state physics, radiation effects, air quality, planetary geology and cosmogenics. UC Davis is the only UC campus, besides Berkeley, that has a nuclear laboratory.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Agilent Technologies will also work with the university in establishing a Davis Millimeter Wave Research Center to conduct research into millimeter wave and THz systems.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Picnic Day, UC Davis's annual Open House, is the largest student-run event in the United States. It attracts thousands of visitors each year with its many attractions. These include a parade, a magic show performed by the chemistry department, the Doxie Derby (dachshund races), film screenings, and a Battle of the Bands between the UC Davis Marching Band and other college bands including the Cal Band, the Stanford Band, and the Humboldt State University Marching Lumberjacks.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Another highlight of UC Davis is its student-run freeform radio station, KDVS. The station began operations on February 1, 1964, from the laundry room of the all-male dormitory Beckett Hall. The station soon gained a reputation by airing interviews with Angela Davis and a live call-in show with then California Governor Ronald Reagan in 1969. The station can now be heard on 90.3 FM and online at its website.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis has over 500 registered student organizations, ranging from political clubs to professional societies to language clubs.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The academic Graduate Students and management students are represented by the Graduate Student Association (GSA). The Law Students are represented by Law Students Association.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Students are also encouraged to wear Aggie Blue on game days to show their Aggie Pride. If spotted wearing Aggie Blue by the Aggie Pack, students may have UC Davis paraphernalia thrown at them as a reward.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Students also participate in intramural sports such as basketball, ultimate frisbee, soccer and many more. The ARC contains a basketball gym, work out room, ping pong tables, squash courts, rock climbing wall, and other studio rooms for group exercise.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis publishes a weekly student newspaper, "The California Aggie". The "Aggie" was first published in 1915 as the "Weekly Agricola" after its approval by the Associated Student Executive Committee. At this point, UC Davis was considered the University Farm, an extension of UC Berkeley.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Initially, the "Weekly Agricola" was focused on both student news and farming-related topics. Novelist Jack London was one of the first readers of the "Weekly Agricola". In 1922, it was renamed to match the school's athletic name. Between March 2014 and October 2016, the Aggie not in print but was still accessible online. The Aggie is in print and available on campus again .

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Social fraternities and sororities have been a part of the University of California at Davis since 1913. Approximately 8% of the university's undergraduate students are involved in the school's fraternities and sororities. One sorority, Sigma Alpha Epsilon Pi, was featured during the first season of the MTV reality show "Sorority Life".

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The UC Davis Men's Crew Club is one of the successful clubs both on campus and in the West. In 2008 the JV boat won first in nationals at the ACRA Championships in Tennessee and in 2009 the Varsity boat got second place in nationals at the ACRA Championships. They consistently compete against teams such as Stanford, the University of Washington and UC Berkeley.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The highlight of UC Davis's 4-year transition to Division I occurred on September 17, 2005, when the Aggies defeated the heavily favored Stanford Cardinal at Stanford Stadium by a score of 20–17 on a touchdown pass with 8 seconds left in the game. The Aggies also pulled off an upset against Stanford in basketball just months later, beating the Cardinal 64–58 with a late rally at home on December 4, 2005.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: Because of budget pressure, wrestling was cut from the athletic department in April 2010. Other cuts included men's swimming, men's indoor track, and women's rowing. The athletics department had to cut $1.79 million out of the budget. 14 women's teams and 9 men's teams were funded for the 2010–2011 school year.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The official school colors are blue and gold. The blue is due to the UC's early connection to Yale and as a result is often referred to as "Yale Blue" (e.g., see). and UCD's official blue, usually called "Aggie Blue", is Pantone 295, which is distinct from Yale Blue (approximately Pantone 289).

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: The university received two Best Practice Awards at the 2009 annual Sustainability Conference, held by the University of California, California State University and the California Community Colleges, for the campus's lighting retrofit project and sustainable design in new construction.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis harvests olives from the old trees on campus to produce olive oil and table olives for use in campus dining rooms. It has designed landscaping with drought-tolerant trees and other plants. The campus operates its own landfill, where it converts landfill (methane) gas to energy. For its efforts in campus sustainability, UC Davis earned an A− on the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card, one of 27 universities to achieve this, the highest grade awarded.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: In February 2014, UC Davis and Diamond Developers formed a joint venture to create a sustainable city in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The draft design for the sustainable city in Dubai called for an “eco-village” on 120 acres with enough housing for 1,200 people. The plan called for K-12 education, apartments, single family homes, and retail shops. In May 2015, UC Davis and Diamond expanded the joint venture to include sustainability professional training program.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis became the first university to implement requiring payment of a fee for all single-use bags distributed on campus; it is working to become the first university campus to ban plastic bags entirely.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis is also home to the Agricultural Sustainability Institute (ASI), which is part of the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (CAES). ASI provides leadership for research, teaching, outreach, and extension efforts in agricultural and food systems sustainability at the Davis campus and throughout the UC system.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis hosted the Governors' Global Climate Summit 3 (GGCS3), an international climate forum for the top leaders of local, regional, national and international entities, as well as those from academia, business and nonprofits. The summit worked to broaden national partnerships in continuing to grow a clean, green economy. The summit included more than 1,500 attendees from more than 80 countries.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


University of California, Davis

Context: UC Davis currently has over 260,000 living alumni. Notable alumni of UC Davis include two astronauts; scientist Charles Moen Rice, 2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate and Katherine Jungjohann; US Treasurer Anna Escobedo Cabral; Chevron CEO John S. Watson; entrepreneur Jason Lucash; and actor Matthew Moy. Notable faculty include two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning historian Alan Taylor and painter Wayne Thiebaud.

Question: هل تدرس جامعة كاليفورنيا شهادة الاجازة البيطرية ؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: From that day onwards, every Eid al-Adha once a year Muslims around the world slaughter an animal to commemorate Abraham's sacrifice and to remind themselves of self-abnegation in the way of God, and they would share the meat among friends, family, the poor and the needy. This is called Qurbani ("sacrifice").

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: The second strand, provided by Tabari, states that Abraham was about to sacrifice his son Ishmael, and Iblis appeared in form of a man to prevent the sacrifice.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: Abraham encountered several miracles of God during his lifetime. The Quran records a few main miracles, although different interpretations have been attributed to the passages. Some of the miracles recorded in the Quran are:

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: This particular title of Abraham is so famous in Muslim culture and tradition that, in the areas in and around Mecca, Abraham is often referred to solely as "The Friend". This title of "Friend of God" is not exclusive to Islamic theology. Although the other religious traditions do not stress upon it, Abraham is called a "Friend of God" in the second Book of Chronicles and the Book of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) as well as in the New Testament.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: The Quran refers to certain Scrolls of Abraham. All Muslim scholars have generally agreed that no scrolls of Abraham survive, and therefore this is a reference to a lost body of scripture. The Scrolls of Abraham are understood by Muslims to refer to certain revelations Abraham received, which he would have then transmitted to writing. The exact contents of the revelation are not described in the Qur'an.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: The 87th chapter of the Quran, Surat al-Ala, concludes by saying the subject matter of the sura has been in the earlier scriptures of Abraham and Moses. It is slightly indicative of what were in the previous scriptures, according to Islam:

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: "Surat an-Najm" mentions some more subject matters of the earlier scriptures of Abraham and Musa (Moses):

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: Yet some scholars suggested it to be a reference to the "Sefer Yetzirah", as Jewish tradition generally ascribed its authorship to Abraham. Other scholars, however, wrote of a certain "Testament of Abraham", which they explained was available at the time of Muhammad.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: The Quran contains numerous references to Abraham, his life, prayers, and traditions and has a dedicated chapter named Ibrahim. On a relevant note, sura al-Kahf was revealed as an answer from God to the Jews who inquired of Muhammad about past events. Here God directly instructed Muhammad in sura Al-Kahf, not to consult the Jews for verifying the three stories about which they inquired.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: The reason being God declaring He Himself is relating what needs to be verified in another verse of al-Kahf:

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: Therefore, relating to any ascription of the Scrolls of Abraham by the people of the book is not required.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: Abraham is also extremely important as a leader of Islam and as a patriarch of the Islamic faith. Muslims recognize Abraham as the ancestor through whom many other prophets and saints ("Wali") came, including Moses, Jesus (Isa) and Muhammad. The Quran lists, in the sixth chapter, some of the greatest figures to have through Abraham's progeny:

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Abraham in Islam

Context: Muslims believe that Abraham was buried, along with his wife Sarah, at the Cave of the Patriarchs in the Old City of Hebron, the West Bank. Known to Muslims as the "Sanctuary of Abraham" it is also thought to be the burial site of his son Isaac, his wife Rebecca, their son Jacob, and his wife Leah.

Question: كم عدد اولاد النبي ابراهيم؟


Sumio Iijima

Context: Born in Saitama Prefecture in 1939, Iijima graduated with a Bachelor of Engineering degree in 1963 from the University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo. He received a Master's degree in 1965 and completed his Ph.D. in solid-state physics in 1968, both at Tohoku University in Sendai.

Question: متي تم إختراع الأنابيب النانوية الكربونية ؟


Sumio Iijima

Context: Between 1970 and 1982 he performed research with crystalline materials and high-resolution electron microscopy at Arizona State University. He visited the University of Cambridge during 1979 to perform studies on carbon materials.

Question: متي تم إختراع الأنابيب النانوية الكربونية ؟


Sumio Iijima

Context: He was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics in 2002, "for the discovery and elucidation of the atomic structure and helical character of multi-wall and single-wall carbon nanotubes, which have had an enormous impact on the rapidly growing condensed matter and materials science field of nanoscale science and electronics."

Question: متي تم إختراع الأنابيب النانوية الكربونية ؟


Sumio Iijima

Context: He is a foreign associate of National Academy of Sciences, foreign member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

Question: متي تم إختراع الأنابيب النانوية الكربونية ؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: A chronology of Jesus aims to establish a timeline for the events of the life of Jesus. Scholars have correlated Jewish and Greco-Roman documents and astronomical calendars with the New Testament accounts to estimate dates for the major events in Jesus's life.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Two main approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus: one based on the accounts in the Gospels of his birth with reference to King Herod's reign, and the other by subtracting his stated age of "about 30 years" when he began preaching. Most scholars, on this basis, assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Using these methods, most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC, and that Jesus' preaching began around AD 27–29 and lasted one to three years. They calculate the death of Jesus as having taken place between AD 30 and 36.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: The two nativity accounts of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Luke differ substantially from each other, and are considered to have been written independently. However, some consistent elements are evidently derived from a common early tradition:

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Thus both Luke and Matthew independently associate Jesus' birth with the reign of Herod the Great. Matthew furthermore implies that Jesus was up to two years old when Herod reportedly ordered the Massacre of the Innocents, that is, the murder of all boys in Bethlehem up to the age of two ().

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Most scholarship concerning the date of Herod's death follows Emil Schürer's calculations published in 1896, which revised a traditional death date of 1 BC to 4 BC. Two of Herod's sons, Archelaus and Philip the Tetrarch, dated their rule from 4 BC, though Archelaus apparently held royal authority during Herod's lifetime. Philip's reign would last for 37 years, until his death in the traditionally accepted 20th year of Tiberius (AD 34), which implies his accession as 4 BC.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: In Josephus' account, Herod's death was preceded by a lunar eclipse and followed by Passover. An eclipse took place in 4 BC on 13 March, about 29 days before Passover, and this eclipse has been suggested as the one referred to by Josephus. There were, however, other eclipses during this period, and there are proponents of 5 BC and the two eclipses of 1 BC occurring 10 January and 29 December. Nevertheless, most scholars favour a birth year for Jesus between 6 and 4 BC.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: The benchmark date of AD 28–29 is independently confirmed by John's statement () that the Temple reportedly was in its 46th year of construction during Passover when Jesus began his ministry, which likewise corresponds to 28–29 AD according to scholarly estimates.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: The Gospel of mentions in passing an upper limit of 50 for Jesus' age when preaching: "The Jews therefore said unto him, Thou art not yet fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham?" Fifty years is a round number which emphasises the discrepancy to Jesus's claim he had existed before Abraham, that is, for more than a thousand years.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: One method for the estimation of the date of the beginning of the ministry of Jesus is based on the Gospel of Luke's specific statement in about the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of Jesus:

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene, in the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: The New Testament presents John the Baptist as the precursor to Jesus and the Baptism of Jesus as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry. In his sermon in , delivered in the house of Cornelius the centurion, Apostle Peter refers to what had happened "throughout all Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the baptism which John preached" and that Jesus had then gone about "doing good". Jesus' baptism account is followed directly by his 40 day fast and ordeal.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Another method for estimating the start of the ministry of Jesus without reliance on the Synoptic gospels is to relate the account in the Gospel of John about the visit of Jesus to Herod's Temple in Jerusalem with historical data about the construction of the Temple.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: says that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the start of his ministry and in Jesus is told: "This temple has been under construction for forty-six years, and will you raise it up in three days?".

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive and long term construction on the Temple Mount, which was never fully completed even by the time it was destroyed by the Romans in AD 70. Having built entire cities such as Caesarea Maritima, Herod saw the construction of the Temple as a key, colossal monument. The dedication of the initial temple (sometimes called the inner Temple) followed a 17 or 18 month construction period, just after the visit of Augustus to Syria.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Both the gospels and first-century historian Flavius Josephus, in his work "Antiquities of the Jews", refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, and to the marriage of Herod and Herodias, establishing two key connections between Josephus and the biblical episodes. Josephus refers to the imprisonment and execution of John the Baptist by Herod Antipas and that Herodias left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in defiance of Jewish law.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Josephus and the gospels differ, however, on the details and motives, e.g. whether the execution was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias (as indicated in , ), or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage to quell a possible uprising based on the remarks of John, as Josephus suggests in .

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: All four canonical gospels state that Jesus was crucified during the prefecture of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Roman Judaea.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: In the "Antiquities of the Jews" (written about AD 93), Josephus states () that Jesus was crucified on the orders of Pilate. Most scholars agree that while this reference includes some later Christian interpolations, it originally included a reference to the execution of Jesus under Pilate.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: In the second century the Roman historian Tacitus in "The Annals" ("c." AD 116), described the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated () that Jesus had been executed on the orders of Pilate during the reign of Tiberius (Emperor from 18 September AD 14–16 March AD 37).

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: According to Flavius Josephus, Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from AD 26 until he was replaced by Marcellus, either in AD 36 or AD 37, establishing the date of the death of Jesus between AD 26 and AD 37.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: In the Gospel of Luke, while Jesus is in Pilate's court, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean and thus is under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas. Given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decided to send Jesus to Herod to be tried.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: This episode is described only in the Gospel of Luke (). While some scholars have questioned the authenticity of this episode, given that it is unique to the Gospel of Luke, the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits well with the theme of the gospel.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great, was born before 20 BC and was exiled to Gaul in the summer of AD 39 following a lengthy intrigue involving Caligula and Agrippa I, the grandson of his father. This episode indicates that Jesus' death took place before AD 39.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Another approach to estimating an upper bound for the year of death of Jesus is the estimation of the date of conversion of Paul the Apostle which the New Testament accounts place some time after the death of Jesus. Paul's conversion is discussed in both the Letters of Paul and in the Acts of the Apostles.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: In the First Epistle to the Corinthians (), Paul refers to his conversion. The Acts of the Apostles includes three separate references to his conversion experience, in , and .

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Estimating the year of Paul's conversion relies on working backwards from his trial before Junius Gallio in Achaea, Greece () around AD 51–52, a date derived from the discovery and publication, in 1905, of four stone fragments as part of the Delphi Inscriptions, at Delphi across the Gulf from Corinth. The inscription preserves a letter from Claudius concerning Gallio dated during the 26th acclamation of Claudius, sometime between January 51 and August 52.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: On this basis, most historians estimate that Gallio (brother of Seneca the Younger) became proconsul between the spring of AD 51 and the summer of AD 52, and that his position ended no later than AD 53. The trial of Paul is generally assumed to be in the earlier part of Gallio's tenure, based on the reference () to his meeting in Corinth with Priscilla and Aquila, who had been recently expelled from Rome based on Emperor Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome, which is dated to AD 49–50.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Eusebius, in his work "Historia Ecclesiae" first published in AD 313, placed the birth of Jesus in "the forty-second year of Augustus' reign, and the twenty-eighth after the subjugation of Egypt and the deaths of Antony & Cleopatra", i.e. in 3 BC. The 3rd/4th century Roman historian Lactantius states that Jesus was crucified on 23 March AD 29. Maximus the Confessor and Cassiodorus asserted that the death of Jesus occurred in AD 31.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: In AD 525 Dionysius Exiguus devised an Easter table to calculate the dates of Easter at a time when Julian calendar years were still being identified by naming the consuls who held office that year — Dionysius himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ". Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


Chronology of Jesus

Context: It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table.

Question: كم سنة ميلادية عاش السيد المسيح؟


History of South Africa

Context: The San and Khoikhoi are essentially distinguished only by their respective occupations. Whereas the San were hunter-gatherers, the Khoikhoi were pastoral herders. The initial origin of the Khoikhoi remains uncertain.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Archaeological discoveries of livestock bones on the Cape Peninsula indicate that the Khoikhoi began to settle there by about 2000 years ago.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Portuguese mariners, who were the first Europeans at the Cape, encountered pastoral Khoikhoi with livestock.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Later, English and Dutch seafarers in the late 16th and 17th centuries exchanged metals for cattle and sheep with the Khoikhoi.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The conventional view is that availability of livestock was one reason why, in the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a staging post where the port city of Cape Town is today situated.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Bantu expansion was one of the major demographic movements in human prehistory, sweeping much of the African continent during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Bantu-speaking communities reached southern Africa from the Congo basin as early as the 4th century BC. The advancing Bantu encroached on the Khoikhoi territory, forcing the original inhabitants of the region to move to more arid areas.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Some groups, ancestral to today's Nguni peoples (the Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele), preferred to live near the eastern coast of what is present-day South Africa. Others, now known as the Sotho–Tswana peoples (Tswana, Pedi, and Sotho), settled in the interior on the plateau known as the Highveld, while today's Venda, Lemba, and Tsonga peoples made their homes in the north-eastern areas of present-day South Africa.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Specifics of the contact between Bantu-speakers and the indigenous Khoisan ethnic group remain largely unresearched, although linguistic proof of assimilation exists, as several southern Bantu languages (notably Xhosa and Zulu) are theorised in that they incorporate many click consonants from the Khoisan languages, as possibilities of such developing independently are valid as well.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The majority of burghers had Dutch ancestry and belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, but there were also some Germans, who often happened to be Lutherans. In 1688, the Dutch and the Germans were joined by French Huguenots, Calvinist Protestants fleeing religious persecution in France under its Catholic ruler, King Louis XIV.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: British policy with regard to South Africa would vacillate with successive governments, but the overarching imperative throughout the 19th century was to protect the strategic trade route to India while incurring as little expense as possible within the colony. This aim was complicated by border conflicts with the Boers, who soon developed a distaste for British authority.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Colonel Robert Jacob Gordon of the Dutch East India Company was the first European to explore parts of the interior while commanding the Dutch garrison at the renamed Cape of Good Hope, from 1780 to 1795. The four expeditions Gordon undertook between 1777 and 1786 are recorded in a series of several hundred drawings known collectively as the Gordon Atlas, as well as in his journals, which were only discovered in 1964.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Early relations between the European settlers and the Xhosa, the first Bantu peoples they met when they ventured inward, were peaceful. However, there was competition for land, and this tension led to skirmishes in the form of cattle raids from 1779.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The British explorers David Livingstone and William Oswell, setting out from a mission station in the northern Cape Colony, are believed to have been the first white men to cross the Kalahari desert in 1849. The Royal Geographical Society later awarded Livingstone a gold medal for his discovery of Lake Ngami in the desert.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Zulu people are part of the Nguni tribe and were originally a minor clan in what is today northern KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca. 1709 by Zulu kaNtombela.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The 1820s saw a time of immense upheaval relating to the military expansion of the Zulu Kingdom, which replaced the original African clan system with kingdoms. Sotho-speakers know this period as the "difaqane" ("forced migration"); Zulu-speakers call it the "mfecane" ("crushing").

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Various theories have been advanced for the causes of the "difaqane", ranging from ecological factors to competition in the ivory trade. Another theory attributes the epicentre of Zulu violence to the slave trade out of Delgoa Bay in Mozambique situated to the north of Zululand. Most historians recognise that the Mfecane wasn't just a series of events caused by the founding of the Zulu kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after Shaka Zulu came into power.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Zulu resulted in the mass movement of many tribes who in turn tried to dominate those in new territories, leading to widespread warfare and waves of displacement spread throughout southern Africa and beyond. It accelerated the formation of several new nation-states, notably those of the Sotho (present-day Lesotho) and the Swazi (now Eswatini (formerly Swaziland)). It caused the consolidation of groups such as the Matebele, the Mfengu and the Makololo.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In 1828 Shaka was killed by his half-brothers Dingaan and Umhlangana. The weaker and less-skilled Dingaan became king, relaxing military discipline while continuing the despotism. Dingaan also attempted to establish relations with the British traders on the Natal coast, but events had started to unfold that would see the demise of Zulu independence. Estimates for the death toll resulting from the Mfecane range from 1 million to 2 million.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Between 1847 and 1854, Harry Smith, governor and high commissioner of the Cape Colony, annexed territories far to the north of original British and Dutch settlement.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Smith's expansion of the Cape Colony resulted in conflict with disaffected Boers in the Orange River Sovereignty who in 1848 mounted an abortive rebellion at Boomplaats, where the Boers were defeated by a detachment of the Cape Mounted Rifles. Annexation also precipitated a war between British colonial forces and the indigenous Xhosa nation in 1850, in the eastern coastal region.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Starting from the mid-1800s, the Cape of Good Hope, which was then the largest state in southern Africa, began moving towards greater independence from Britain.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In 1872, after a long political struggle, it attained responsible government with a locally accountable executive and Prime Minister. The Cape nonetheless remained nominally part of the British Empire, even though it was self-governing in practice.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Cape Colony was unusual in southern Africa in that its laws prohibited any discrimination on the basis of race and, unlike the Boer republics, elections were held according to the non-racial Cape Qualified Franchise system, whereby suffrage qualifications applied universally, regardless of race.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Indian slaves from the Dutch colonies in India had been introduced into the Cape area of South Africa by the Dutch settlers in 1654.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: By the end of 1847, following annexation by Britain of the former Boer republic of Natalia, nearly all the Boers had left their former republic, which the British renamed Natal. The role of the Boer settlers was replaced by subsidised British immigrants of whom 5,000 arrived between 1849 and 1851.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: By 1860, with slavery having been abolished in 1834, and after the annexation of Natal as a British colony in 1843, the British colonists in Natal (now kwaZulu-Natal) turned to India to resolve a labour shortage, as men of the local Zulu warrior nation were refusing to work on the plantations and farms established by the colonists. In that year, the SS "Truro" arrived in Durban harbour with over 300 Indians on board.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Over the next 50 years, 150,000 more indentured Indian servants and labourers arrived, as well as numerous free "passenger Indians," building the base for what would become the largest Indian diasporic community outside India.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: By 1893, when the lawyer and social activist Mahatma Gandhi arrived in Durban, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal. The civil rights struggle of Gandhi's Natal Indian Congress failed; until the 1994 advent of democracy, Indians in South Africa were subject to most of the discriminatory laws that applied to all non-white inhabitants of the country.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: By the late 1700s, the Cape Colony population had grown to include a large number of mixed-race so-called "coloureds" who were the offspring of extensive interracial relations between male Dutch settlers, Khoikhoi females, and female slaves imported from Dutch colonies in the East. Members of this mixed-race community formed the core of what was to become the Griqua people.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The original Griqualand, north of the Orange River, was annexed by Britain's Cape Colony and renamed Griqualand West after the discovery in 1871 of the world's richest deposit of diamonds at Kimberley, so named after the British Colonial Secretary, Earl Kimberley.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Although no formally surveyed boundaries existed, Griqua leader Nicolaas Waterboer claimed the diamond fields were situated on land belonging to the Griquas. The Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State also vied for ownership of the land, but Britain, being the preeminent force in the region, won control over the disputed territory. In 1878, Waterboer led an unsuccessful rebellion against the colonial authorities, for which he was arrested and briefly exiled.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In early South Africa, European notions of national boundaries and land ownership had no counterparts in African political culture. To Moshoeshoe the BaSotho chieftain from Lesotho, it was customary tribute in the form of horses and cattle represented acceptance of land use under his authority. To European settlers in Southern Africa, the same form of tribute was believed to constitute purchase and permanent ownership of the land under independent authority.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The increasing economic involvement of the British in southern Africa from the 1820s, and especially following the discovery of first diamonds at Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal, resulted in pressure for land and African labour, and led to increasingly tense relations with Southern African states.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In 1818 differences between two Xhosa leaders, Ndlambe and Ngqika, ended in Ngqika's defeat, but the British continued to recognise Ngqika as the paramount chief. He appealed to the British for help against Ndlambe, who retaliated in 1819 during the Fifth Frontier War by attacking the British colonial town of Grahamstown.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In the eastern part of what is today South Africa, in the region named Natalia by the Boer trekkers, the latter negotiated an agreement with Zulu King Dingane kaSenzangakhona allowing the Boers to settle in part of the then Zulu kingdom. Cattle rustling ensued and a party of Boers under the leadership of Piet Retief were killed.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Subsequent to the killing of the Retief party, the Boers defended themselves against a Zulu attack, at the Ncome River on 16 December 1838. An estimated five thousand Zulu warriors were involved. The Boers took a defensive position with the high banks of the Ncome River forming a natural barrier to their rear with their ox waggons as barricades between themselves and the attacking Zulu army. About three thousand Zulu warriors died in the clash known historically as the Battle of Blood River.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In the later annexation of the Zulu kingdom by imperial Britain, an Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879. Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Britain's eventual defeat of the Zulus, marking the end of the Zulu nation's independence, was accomplished with the assistance of Zulu collaborators who harboured cultural and political resentments against centralised Zulu authority. The British then set about establishing large sugar plantations in the area today named KwaZulu-Natal Province.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The British, who at that time controlled the area between the Orange and Vaal Rivers called the Orange River Sovereignty, decided a discernible boundary was necessary and proclaimed a line named the Warden Line, dividing the area between British and Basotho territories. This led to conflict between the Basotho and the British, who were defeated by Moshoeshoe's warriors at the battle of Viervoet in 1851.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: As punishment to the Basotho, the governor and commander-in-chief of the Cape Colony, George Cathcart, deployed troops to the Mohokare River; Moshoeshoe was ordered to pay a fine. When he did not pay the fine in full, a battle broke out on the Berea Plateau in 1852, where the British suffered heavy losses. In 1854, the British handed over the territory to the Boers through the signing of the Sand River Convention. This territory and others in the region then became the Republic of the Orange Free State.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In 1836, when Boer V"oortrekkers" (pioneers) arrived in the northwestern part of present-day South Africa, they came into conflict with a Ndebele sub-group that the settlers named "Matabele", under chief Mzilikazi. A series of battles ensued, in which Mzilikazi was eventually defeated. He withdrew from the area and led his people northwards to what would later become the Matabele region of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: During the final campaign, Sekukuni (also spelled Sekhukhune) and members of his entourage took refuge in a mountain cave where he was cut off from food and water. He eventually surrendered to a combined deputation of Boer and British forces on 2 December 1879. Sekhukhune, members of his family and some Bapedi generals were subsequently imprisoned in Pretoria for two years, with Sekhukhuneland becoming part of the Transvaal Republic. No gold was ever discovered in the annexed territory.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Crown Colony of Griqualand West was annexed into the Cape Colony in 1877, enacted into law in 1880. No material benefits accrued to the Griquas as a result of either colonisation or annexation; they did not receive any share of the diamond wealth generated at Kimberley. The Griqua community became subsequently dissimulated.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Transvaal Boer republic was forcefully annexed by Britain in 1877, during Britain's attempt to consolidate the states of southern Africa under British rule. Long-standing Boer resentment turned into full-blown rebellion in the Transvaal and the first Anglo–Boer War, also known as the Boer Insurrection, broke out in 1880. The conflict ended almost as soon as it began with a decisive Boer victory at Battle of Majuba Hill (27 February 1881).

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: By June 1900, Pretoria, the last of the major Boer towns, had surrendered. Yet resistance by Boer "bittereinders" (meaning those who would fight to the bitter end) continued for two more years with guerrilla warfare, which the British met in turn with scorched earth tactics. The Boers kept on fighting.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The British suffragette Emily Hobhouse visited British concentration camps in South Africa and produced a report condemning the appalling conditions there. By 1902, 26,000 Boer women and children had died of disease and neglect in the camps.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: From the outset of hostilities in October 1899 to the signing of peace on 31 May 1902 the war claimed the lives of 22,000 imperial soldiers and 7,000 republican fighters. In terms of the peace agreement known as the Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Among other harsh segregationist laws, including denial of voting rights to black people, the Union parliament enacted the 1913 Natives' Land Act, which earmarked only eight percent of South Africa's available land for black occupancy. White people, who constituted 20 percent of the population, held 90 percent of the land. The Land Act would form a cornerstone of legalised racial discrimination for the next nine decades.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: General Louis Botha headed the first government of the new Union, with General Jan Smuts as his deputy. Their "South African National Party", later known as the South African Party or SAP, followed a generally pro-British, white-unity line. The more radical Boers split away under the leadership of General Barry Hertzog, forming the National Party (NP) in 1914. The National Party championed Afrikaner interests, advocating separate development for the two white groups, and independence from Britain.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Dissatisfaction with British influence in the Union's affairs reached a climax in September 1914, when impoverished Boers, anti-British Boers and "bitter-enders" launched a rebellion. The rebellion was suppressed, and at least one officer was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In 1924 the Afrikaner-dominated National Party came to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party. Afrikaans, previously regarded as a low-level Dutch patois, replaced Dutch as an official language of the Union. English and Dutch became the two official languages in 1925.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Union of South Africa came to an end after a referendum on 5 October 1960, in which a majority of white South Africans voted in favour of unilateral withdrawal from the British Commonwealth and the establishment of a Republic of South Africa.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Black and mixed-race South Africans who had supported the war were embittered when post-war South Africa saw no easing of white domination and racial segregation.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Economically, South Africa supplied two-thirds of gold production in the British Empire, with most of the remainder coming from Australia. At the start of the war, Bank of England officials in London worked with South Africa to block gold shipments to Germany, and force mine owners to sell only to the British Treasury, at prices set by the Treasury. This facilitated purchases of munitions and food in the United States and neutral countries.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: After the suppression of the abortive, pro-German Maritz Rebellion during the South African World War I campaign against German South West Africa in 1914, the South African rebel General Manie Maritz escaped to Spain. He returned in 1923, and continued working in the Union of South Africa as a German Spy for the Third Reich.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The early-1940s saw the pro-Nazi "Ossewa Brandwag" (OB) movement become half-a-million strong, including future prime minister John Vorster and Hendrik van den Bergh, the future head of police intelligence. The anti-semitic "Boerenasie" (Boer Nation) and other similar groups soon joined them. When the war ended, the OB was one of the anti-parliamentary groups absorbed into the National Party.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: A majority of politically moderate Afrikaners were pragmatic and did not support the AWB's extremism.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The segregationist policies of apartheid stemmed from colonial legislation introduced during the period of Dutch rule in the 17th century, which was continued and expanded upon during the British colonial era, and reached its apogee during the Boer-dominated Union of South Africa.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Although many important events occurred during this period, apartheid remained the central pivot around which most of the historical issues of this period revolved, including violent conflict and the militarisation of South African society. By 1987, total military expenditure amounted to about 28% of the national budget.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In the aftermath of the 1976 Soweto uprising and the security clampdown that accompanied it, Joint Management Centres (JMCs) operating in at least 34 State-designated "high-risk" areas became the key element in a National Security Management System. The police and military who controlled the JMCs by the mid-1980s were endowed with influence in decision-making at every level, from the Cabinet down to local government.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: On 16 December 1966, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2202 A (XXI) identified apartheid as a "crime against humanity".

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Apartheid Convention, as it came to be known, was adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1973 with 91 member states voting in favour, four against (Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States) and 26 abstentions. The convention came into force on 18 July 1976. On 23 October 1984 the UN Security Council endorsed this formal determination. The convention declared that apartheid was both unlawful and criminal because it violated the Charter of the United Nations.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) would later establish that a covert, informal network of former or still serving army and police operatives, frequently acting in conjunction with extreme right-wing elements, was involved in actions that could be construed as fomenting violence and which resulted in gross human rights violations, including random and targeted killings.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Between 1960–1994, according to statistics from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the Inkatha Freedom Party was responsible for 4,500 deaths, South African Police 2,700, and the ANC about 1,300.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: In early 2002, a planned military coup by a white supremacist movement known as the "Boeremag" (Boer Force) was foiled by the South African police. Two dozen conspirators including senior South African Army officers were arrested on charges of treason and murder, after a bomb explosion in Soweto. The effectiveness of the police in foiling the planned coup strengthened public perceptions that the post-1994 democratic order was irreversible.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The TRC, at the conclusion of its mandate in 2004, handed over a list of 300 names of alleged perpetrators to the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) for investigation and prosecution by the NPA's Priority Crimes Litigation Unit. Less than a handful of prosecutions were ever pursued.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: South African security forces during the latter part of the apartheid era had a policy of destabilising neighbouring states, supporting opposition movements, conducting sabotage operations and attacking ANC bases and places of refuge for exiles in those states. These states, forming a regional alliance of southern African states, were named collectively as the Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and, from 1980, Zimbabwe.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: South Africa in the 1980s also provided logistical and other covert support to "Resistência Nacional Moçambicana" (RENAMO) rebels, in neighbouring Mozambique fighting the FRELIMO-run government during the Mozambique Civil War, and it launched cross-border raids into Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana, killing or capturing a number of South African exiles.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: A total of 130 political prisoners were hanged on the gallows of Pretoria Central Prison between 1960 and 1990. The prisoners were mainly members of the Pan Africanist Congress and United Democratic Front.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: After lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), a draft constitution was published on 26 July 1993, containing concessions towards all sides: a federal system of regional legislatures, equal voting-rights regardless of race, and a bicameral legislature.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Civil unrest occurred in South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng provinces in July 2021, sparked by the imprisonment of former President Jacob Zuma for contempt of court, after he declined to testify at the Zondo Commission, an inquiry into allegations of corruption during his term as president from 2009 to 2018. Protests against the incarceration triggered wider rioting and looting, further exacerbated by job layoffs and economic woes worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The Economist called it the worst violence that South Africa had experienced since the end of Apartheid.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Police and military authorities were mobilised to quell the unrest. By mid-July, the South African National Defense Forces had deployed approximately 25,000 military personnel. As of 18 July, over 3,400 people had been arrested, while as of 22 July, 337 people had died in connection with the unrest.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: The July 2021 unrest coincided with the Cape Town taxi conflict and Transnet ransomware attack leading to unproven speculation that they might have been connected.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


History of South Africa

Context: Under the post-apartheid Constitution the president is head of both state and government. The president is elected by the National Assembly and serves a term that expires at the next general election. A president may serve a maximum of two terms. In the event of a vacancy the Deputy President serves as Acting President.

Question: في أي عام تأسست جمهورية جنوب أفريقيا؟


Gemstone

Context: Apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms. A gem expert is a gemologist, a gem maker is called a lapidarist or gemcutter; a diamond cutter is called a diamantaire.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Gemstones are classified into different "groups", "species", and "varieties". For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), red beryl (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink), which are all varieties of the mineral species beryl.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction. They may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Gemstones may also be classified in terms of their "water". This is a recognized grading of the gem's luster, transparency, or "brilliance". Very transparent gems are considered "first water", while "second" or "third water" gems are those of a lesser transparency.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning (the uneven distribution of coloring within a gem) and asteria (star effects). Ancient Greeks, for example, greatly valued asteria gemstones, which they regarded as powerful love charms, and Helen of Troy was supposed to have worn star-corundum.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Aside from the diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald, the pearl (not, strictly speaking, a gemstone) and opal have also been considered to be precious. Up to the discoveries of bulk amethyst in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a "precious stone" as well, going back to ancient Greece. Even in the last century certain stones such as aquamarine, peridot and cat's eye (cymophane) have been popular and hence been regarded as precious.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Today the gemstone trade no longer makes such a distinction. Many gemstones are used in even the most expensive jewelry, depending on the brand-name of the designer, fashion trends, market supply, treatments, etc. Nevertheless, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds still have a reputation that exceeds those of other gemstones.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Rare or unusual gemstones, generally understood to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include andalusite, axinite, cassiterite, clinohumite and red beryl.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Gem dealers are aware of the differences between gem laboratories and will make use of the discrepancies to obtain the best possible certificate.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other forms in which they are found. Most, however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome-shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Stones which are opaque or semi-opaque such as opal, turquoise, variscite, etc. are commonly cut as cabochons. These gems are designed to show the stone's color or surface properties as in opal and star sapphires. Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is all of the colors of the spectrum combined. When light strikes a material, most of the light is absorbed while a smaller amount of a particular frequency or wavelength is reflected. The part that is reflected reaches the eye as the perceived color. A ruby appears red because it absorbs all the other colors of white light while reflecting the red.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: A material which is mostly the same can exhibit different colors. For example, ruby and sapphire have the same primary chemical composition (both are corundum) but exhibit different colors because of impurities. Even the same named gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and "fancy sapphires" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called "padparadscha sapphire".

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone. Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition and structure, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom, sometimes as few as one in a million atoms. These so-called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: For example, beryl, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities. If manganese is added instead of chromium, beryl becomes pink morganite. With iron, it becomes aquamarine.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Some gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be "manipulated", thus changing the color of the gem.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Gemstones are often treated to enhance the color or clarity of the stone. Depending on the type and extent of treatment, they can affect the value of the stone. Some treatments are used widely because the resulting gem is stable, while others are not accepted most commonly because the gem color is unstable and may revert to the original tone.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Heat can either improve or spoil gemstone color or clarity. The heating process has been well known to gem miners and cutters for centuries, and in many stone types heating is a common practice. Most citrine is made by heating amethyst, and partial heating with a strong gradient results in "ametrine" – a stone partly amethyst and partly citrine. Aquamarine is often heated to remove yellow tones, or to change green colors into the more desirable blue, or enhance its existing blue color to a deeper blue.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Nearly all tanzanite is heated at low temperatures to remove brown undertones and give a more desirable blue / purple color. A considerable portion of all sapphire and ruby is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Virtually all blue topaz, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as "London" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue. Most greened quartz (Oro Verde) is also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color. Diamonds are irradiated to produce fancy-color diamonds (which can occur naturally, though rarely in gem quality).

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with wax or oil to disguise them. This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity. Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Fracture filling has been in use with different gemstones such as diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires. In 2006 "glass-filled rubies" received publicity. Rubies over 10 carats (2 g) with large fractures were filled with lead glass, thus dramatically improving the appearance (of larger rubies in particular). Such treatments are fairly easy to detect.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


Gemstone

Context: Synthetic gems are physically, optically, and chemically identical to the natural stone, but are created in a laboratory. Imitation or simulated stones are chemically different from the natural stone, but may appear quite similar to it; they can be more easily manufactured synthetic gemstones of a different mineral (spinel), glass, plastic, resins, or other compounds.

Question: كيف يتم قياس قوة الاحجار الكريمة؟


DNA profiling

Context: Discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys in 1984, DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects' profiles to DNA evidence so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime. It is also used in paternity testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical research. DNA profiling has also been used in the study of animal and plant populations in the fields of zoology, botany, and agriculture.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: The process of DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys while working in the Department of Genetics at the University of Leicester.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: The system of DNA profiling used today is based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and uses simple sequences.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: From country to country, different STR-based DNA-profiling systems are in use. In North America, systems that amplify the CODIS 20 core loci are almost universal, whereas in the United Kingdom the DNA-17 loci system (which is compatible with The National DNA Database) is in use, and Australia uses 18 core markers.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: Due to the paternal inheritance, Y-haplotypes provide information about the genetic ancestry of the male population. To investigate this population history, and to provide estimates for haplotype frequencies in criminal casework, the "Y haplotype reference database (YHRD)" has been created in 2000 as an online resource. It currently comprises more than 300,000 minimal (8 locus) haplotypes from world-wide populations.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: mtDNA can be obtained from such material as hair shafts and old bones/teeth. Control mechanism based on interaction point with data. This can be determined by tooled placement in sample.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: In normal STR testing the primers will bind to longer sequences that contain the STR region within the segment. MiniSTR analysis however will just target the STR location, and this results in a DNA product that is much smaller.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟


DNA profiling

Context: By placing the primers closer to the actual STR regions, there is a higher chance that successful amplification of this region will occur. Successful amplification of these STR regions can now occur and more complete DNA profiles can be obtained. The success that smaller PCR products produce a higher success rate with highly degraded samples was first reported in 1995, when miniSTR technology was used to identify victims of the Waco fire.

Question: ما هو تحليل الحمض النووي؟