Vitamin D

Context: ADHD - A meta-analysis of observational studies showed that children with ADHD have lower vitamin D levels, and that there was a small association between low vitamin D levels at the time of birth and later development of ADHD. Several small randomized controlled trials of vitamin D supplementation indicated improved ADHD symptoms such as impulsivity and hyperactivity.

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Vitamin D

Context: Depression – Clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation for depressive symptoms have generally been of low quality and show no overall effect, although subgroup analysis showed supplementation for participants with clinically significant depressive symptoms or depressive disorder had a moderate effect.

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Vitamin D

Context: Cognition and dementia – A systematic review of clinical studies found an association between low vitamin D levels with cognitive impairment and a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. However, lower vitamin D concentrations are also associated with poor nutrition and spending less time outdoors. Therefore, alternative explanations for the increase in cognitive impairment exist and hence a direct causal relationship between vitamin D levels and cognition could not be established.

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Vitamin D

Context: Schizophrenia - Trials have demonstrated lower vitamin D levels are highly prevalent in patients with schizophrenia, particularly those with acute episodes.

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Vitamin D

Context: Weight loss – Though hypothesized that vitamin D supplementation may be an effective treatment for obesity apart from calorie restriction, one systematic review found no association of supplementation with body weight or fat mass. A 2016 meta-analysis found that circulating vitamin D status was improved by weight loss, indicating that fat mass may be inversely associated with blood levels of vitamin D.

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Vitamin D

Context: Governmental regulatory agencies stipulate for the food and dietary supplement industries certain health claims as allowable as statements on packaging.

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Vitamin D

Context: Various institutions have proposed different recommendations for the amount of daily intake of vitamin D. These vary according to precise definition, age, pregnancy or lactation, and the extent assumptions are made regarding skin synthesis of vitamin D.

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Vitamin D

Context: Health Canada published recommended dietary allowances (RDA) and tolerable upper intake levels for vitamin D in 2012 based on the Institute of Medicine report.

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Vitamin D

Context: Australia and New Zealand published nutrient reference values including guidelines for dietary vitamin D intake in 2005. About a third of Australians have vitamin D deficiency.

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Vitamin D

Context: The EFSA reviewed safe levels of intake in 2012, setting the tolerable upper limit for adults at 100μg/day (4000IU), a similar conclusion as the IOM.

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Vitamin D

Context: The Swedish National Food Agency recommends a daily intake of 10μg (400IU) of vitamin D3 for children and adults up to 75 years, and 20μg (800IU) for adults 75 and older.

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Vitamin D

Context: Non-government organisations in Europe have made their own recommendations. The German Society for Nutrition recommends 20μg. The European Menopause and Andropause Society recommends postmenopausal women consume 15μg (600IU) until age 70, and 20μg (800IU) from age 71. This dose should be increased to 100μg (4,000IU) in some patients with very low vitamin D status or in case of co-morbid conditions.

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Vitamin D

Context: Although vitamin D is present naturally in only a few foods, it is commonly added as a fortification in manufactured foods. In some countries, staple foods are artificially fortified with vitamin D.

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Vitamin D

Context: In general, vitamin D3 is found in animal source foods, particularly fish, meat, offal, egg and dairy.

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Vitamin D

Context: Vitamin D2 is found in fungi and is produced by ultraviolet irradiation of ergosterol. The vitamin D2 content in mushrooms and "Cladina arbuscula", a lichen, increases with exposure to ultraviolet light, and is stimulated by industrial ultraviolet lamps for fortification. The United States Department of Agriculture reports D2 and D3 content combined in one value.

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Vitamin D

Context: Manufactured foods fortified with vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, meal replacement energy bars, soy protein-based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, infant formulas, many breakfast cereals, and milk.

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Vitamin D

Context: While some studies have found that vitamin D3 raises 25(OH)D blood levels faster and remains active in the body longer, others contend that vitamin D2 sources are equally bioavailable and effective as D3 for raising and sustaining 25(OH)D.

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Vitamin D

Context: Vitamin D content in typical foods is reduced variably by cooking. Boiled, fried and baked foods retained 6989% of original vitamin D.

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Vitamin D

Context: Recommendations on recommended 25(OH)D serum levels vary across authorities, and vary based on factors like age. US labs generally report 25(OH)D levels in ng/mL. Other countries often use nmol/L. Oneng/mL is approximately equal to 2.5nmol/L.

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Vitamin D

Context: A 2012 meta-analysis showed that the risk of cardiovascular diseases increases when blood levels of vitamin D are lowest in a range of 8 to 24ng/mL (20 to 60nmol/L), although results among the studies analyzed were inconsistent.

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Vitamin D

Context: Idiopathic infantile hypercalcemia is caused by a mutation of the CYP24A1 gene, leading to a reduction in the degradation of vitamin D. Infants who have such a mutation have an increased sensitivity to vitamin D and in case of additional intake a risk of hypercalcaemia. The disorder can continue into adulthood.

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Vitamin D

Context: A review published in 2015 noted that adverse effects have been reported only at 25(OH)D serum concentrations above 200nmol/L.

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Vitamin D

Context: Published cases of toxicity involving hypercalcemia in which the vitamin D dose and the 25-hydroxy-vitamin D levels are known all involve an intake of ≥40,000IU (1,000μg) per day.

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Vitamin D

Context: Calcitriol itself is auto-regulated in a negative feedback cycle, and is also affected by parathyroid hormone, fibroblast growth factor 23, cytokines, calcium, and phosphate.

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Vitamin D

Context: Vitamin D overdose causes hypercalcemia, which is a strong indication of vitamin D toxicity – this can be noted with an increase in urination and thirst. If hypercalcemia is not treated, it results in excess deposits of calcium in soft tissues and organs such as the kidneys, liver, and heart, resulting in pain and organ damage.

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Vitamin D

Context: Vitamin D toxicity is treated by discontinuing vitamin D supplementation and restricting calcium intake. Kidney damage may be irreversible. Exposure to sunlight for extended periods of time does not normally cause vitamin D toxicity. The concentrations of vitamin D precursors produced in the skin reach an equilibrium, and any further vitamin D produced is degraded.

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Vitamin D

Context: Synthesis of vitamin D in nature is dependent on the presence of UV radiation and subsequent activation in the liver and in the kidneys. Many animals synthesize vitamin D3 from 7-dehydrocholesterol, and many fungi synthesize vitamin D2 from ergosterol.

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Vitamin D

Context: The conversion from ergosterol to vitamin D2 follows a similar procedure, forming previtaminD2 by photolysis, which isomerizes to vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol). The transformation of previtaminD2 to vitamin D2 in methanol has a rate comparable to that of previtaminD3. The process is faster in white button mushrooms.

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Vitamin D

Context: Adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs (for those with the least melanin), averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week, or approximately 25% of the time for minimal sunburn. The darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin-D overdose is impossible from UV exposure: the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.

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Vitamin D

Context: The skin consists of two primary layers: the inner layer called the dermis, and the outer, thinner epidermis. Vitamin D is produced in the keratinocytes of two innermost strata of the epidermis, the stratum basale and stratum spinosum, which also are able to produce calcitriol and express the VDR.

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Vitamin D

Context: Land vertebrates required another source of vitamin D other than plants for their calcified skeletons. They had to either ingest it or be exposed to sunlight to photosynthesize it in their skin. Land vertebrates have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 350million years.

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Vitamin D

Context: Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is produced industrially by exposing 7-dehydrocholesterol to UVB and UVC light, followed by purification. The 7-dehydrocholesterol is a natural substance in fish organs, especially the liver, or in wool grease (lanolin) from sheep. Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) is produced in a similar way using ergosterol from yeast or mushrooms as a starting material.

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Vitamin D

Context: Vitamin D is carried via the blood to the liver, where it is converted into the prohormone calcifediol. Circulating calcifediol may then be converted into calcitriol the biologically active form of vitamin D in the kidneys.

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Vitamin D

Context: Whether synthesized in the skin or ingested, vitamin D is hydroxylated in the liver at position 25 (upper right of the molecule) to form 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol or 25(OH)D). This reaction is catalyzed by the microsomal enzyme vitamin D 25-hydroxylase, the product of the "CYP2R1" human gene, and expressed by hepatocytes. Once made, the product is released into the plasma, where it is bound to an α-globulin carrier protein named the vitamin D-binding protein.

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Vitamin D

Context: Calcifediol is transported to the proximal tubules of the kidneys, where it is hydroxylated at the 1-α position (lower right of the molecule) to form calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, 1,25(OH)2D). The conversion of calcifediol to calcitriol is catalyzed by the enzyme 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase, which is the product of the "CYP27B1" human gene. The activity of CYP27B1 is increased by parathyroid hormone, and also by low calcium or phosphate.

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Vitamin D

Context: Following the final converting step in the kidney, calcitriol is released into the circulation. By binding to vitamin D-binding protein, calcitriol is transported throughout the body, including to the intestine, kidneys, and bones. Calcitriol is the most potent natural ligand of the vitamin D receptor, which mediates most of the physiological actions of vitamin D.

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Vitamin D

Context: In addition to the kidneys, calcitriol is also synthesized by certain other cells, including monocyte-macrophages in the immune system. When synthesized by monocyte-macrophages, calcitriol acts locally as a cytokine, modulating body defenses against microbial invaders by stimulating the innate immune system.

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Vitamin D

Context: The activity of calcifediol and calcitriol can be reduced by hydroxylation at position 24 by vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase, forming secalciferol and calcitetrol, respectively.

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Vitamin D

Context: VitaminD2 (ergocalciferol) and vitaminD3 (cholecalciferol) share a similar mechanism of action as outlined above. Metabolites produced by vitamin D2 are named with an "er-" or "ergo-" prefix to differentiate them from the D3-based counterparts (sometimes with a "chole-" prefix).

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Vitamin D

Context: Calcitriol enters the target cell and binds to the vitamin D receptor in the cytoplasm. This activated receptor enters the nucleus and binds to vitamin D response elements (VDRE) which are specific DNA sequences on genes. Transcription of these genes is stimulated and produces greater levels of the proteins which mediate the effects of vitamin D.

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Vitamin D

Context: Some reactions of the cell to calcitriol appear to be too fast for the classical VDRE transcription pathway, leading to the discovery of various "non-genomic" actions of vitamin D. The membrane-bound PDIA3 likely serves as an alternate receptor in this pathway. The classical VDR may still play a role.

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Vitamin D

Context: There is conflicting evidence about the benefits of interventions with vitamin D, one view purporting an intake of 4,000–12,000IU/day from sun exposure with concomitant serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels of 40 to 80ng/mL, while another view is that serum concentrations above 50ng/mL are not plausible.

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President of Greece

Context: According to Article 32 the Greek Constitution, the president is elected for a five-year term by the Hellenic Parliament in a special session at least a month before the incumbent's term expires. Voting takes place in two phases, each maximally of three ballots, separated by no more than five days.

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President of Greece

Context: The first and second ballots require a supermajority of 200 out of the 300-person body, dropping to 180 on the third. The fourth ballot requires a simple majority of 151 votes. The fifth and last ballot is then contested between the two candidates with the most votes and decided by a relative majority.

Question: من هو رئيس اليونان ؟


President of Greece

Context: Before taking office, the president must recite an oath in front of the Parliament according to the Article 33, paragraph 2 of the Greek Constitution:

Question: من هو رئيس اليونان ؟


President of Greece

Context: The official residence of the president of Greece is the Presidential Mansion, formerly the New Royal Palace, in central Athens.

Question: من هو رئيس اليونان ؟


President of Greece

Context: The current Third Hellenic Republic () was established in 1974 during the period of "metapolitefsi", after the end of the Greek junta which had controlled Greece since the coup d'état of 21 April 1967.

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President of Greece

Context: After the fall of the junta and the return to civilian rule under Konstantinos Karamanlis in August 1974, the legal and constitutional acts of the military regime were deemed invalid, and a new referendum was held on 8 December 1974, which confirmed the abolition of the monarchy. In the interim, Gizikis, remained in office as President. After the plebiscite, he was succeeded by the first elected president, Michail Stasinopoulos.

Question: من هو رئيس اليونان ؟


President of Greece

Context: A new constitution, promulgated on 11 June 1975, declared Greece a "presidential parliamentary democracy" (or "republic" – the Greek δημοκρατία can be translated both ways). This constitution, revised in 1985, 2001, 2008 and 2019, is still in force today.

Question: من هو رئيس اليونان ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The word "Ottoman" is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name "ʿUthmān" (). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as (), literally "The Supreme Ottoman State", or alternatively (). In Modern Turkish, it is known as ("The Ottoman Empire") or ("The Ottoman State").

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Ottoman Empire

Context: In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. At present, most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. It also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Iran, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt by defeating and annexing the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: Under Ivan IV (1533–1584), the Tsardom of Russia expanded into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, commanded by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Ottoman Empire continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids, and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: In Ottoman North Africa, Spain conquered Oran from the Ottoman Empire (1732). The bey received an Ottoman army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture Oran; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers. In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Ottoman Empire.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: Selim III (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to modernise the army, but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the Janissary corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary revolted. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man of Europe". Three suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia – moved towards "de jure" independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

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Ottoman Empire

Context: In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example in 1860–1861 only 0.2 percent of the total budget was invested in education.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: In 1897 the population was 19 million, of whom 14 million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20 million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The Sharifian Army led by Hussein and the Hashemites, with military backing from the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the Hejaz and Transjordan. The rebellion eventually took Damascus and set up a short-lived monarchy led by Faisal, a son of Hussein.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Following the Sykes–Picot Agreement, the Middle East was later partitioned by the British and French into mandate territories. There was no unified Arab state, much to the anger of Arab nationalists.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Defeated on every front, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Constantinople was occupied by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also took control of the area around Smyrna (now İzmir).

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The partition of the Ottoman Empire was finalized under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the Conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. The status of Anatolia was problematic given the occupied forces.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: There arose a nationalist opposition in the Turkish national movement. It won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The Republic of Turkey was established in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of Ankara. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to Sufism and followed Sufi orders, and believed Sufism is the correct way to reach God. Because the matters of jurisprudence and shariah were state matters, the state-sponsored Sufi religious dominance came into play. Non-Sufi Muslims and Arabs were neglected and not given any position in the Hejaz.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized "Tughra" spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839. These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims. Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The Eyalet (also "Pashalik" or "Beylerbeylik") was the territory of office of a Beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided in Sanjaks.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The Vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" () in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms. Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, liva/sanjak, kaza and village council, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the nahiye.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5. For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century. An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire. For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and Syria and five times the population density of Arabia.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century. Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Sunni Islam was the prevailing "Dīn" (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire, while the official "Madh'hab" (school of Islamic jurisprudence) was "Hanafi." From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the caliph, or politco-religious leader, of the Muslim world.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of religious pluralism, as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the "ayan" or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The economic system made little progress. Printing was forbidden until the 18th century, for fear of defiling the secret documents of Islam. The millets, however, were allowed their own presses, using Greek, Hebrew, Armenian and other languages that greatly facilitated nationalism. The religious prohibition on charging interest foreclosed most of the entrepreneurial skills among Muslims, although it did flourish among the Jews and Christians.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Plague remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: In the Ottoman Empire, each millet established a schooling system serving its members. Education, therefore, was largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students and vice versa. Most institutions that did serve all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both Turkish folk literature and in Divan poetry.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: The traditional shadow play called Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture. It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine ("def"). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: In 1660 the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major medical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world. Though his work was largely based on Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's "Al-Tasrif", Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time. Since, the Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as forceps, catheters, scalpels and lancets as well as pincers.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: In the early 19th century, Egypt under Muhammad Ali began using steam engines for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as ironworks, textile manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills moving towards steam power. Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Ottoman Empire

Context: In the 19th century, Ishak Efendi is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works.

Question: كم عاماً إستمرالإحتلال العثماني في شمال أفريقيا ؟


Community economic development

Context: Community economic development (CED) is a field of study that actively elicits community involvement when working with government, and private sectors to build strong communities, industries, and markets. It includes collaborative and participatory involvement of community dwellers in every area of development that affects their standard of living.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Community economic development is an alternative to conventional economic development. Its central tenet is that: “... problems facing communities—unemployment, poverty, job loss, environmental degradation and loss of community control—need to be addressed in a holistic and participatory way.”

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Economic development has existed even at a basic level since the earliest recorded communities. However, in the US and several other countries, the concept of Community economic development emerged "in response to tenacious poverty and the need for affordable housing, good jobs, affordable health care and quality of life matters needed for human existence."

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: In Nigeria CED is approached with a central focus on sustainability referred to as Sustainable Community Development. This concept combines economic, social and environmental practices and policies that promote sustainability for future generations. Much of this began in the 1980s, 2 decades after gaining independence, when the World Bank declared Nigeria eligible to receive funds from the International Development Association (IDA).

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: In Asia for the last 60 years the Asian Foundation has supported Asian initiatives to foster inclusive economic growth and broaden economic opportunities. The Foundation designs and implements economic programs in three core areas business environments for private sector growth, Entrepreneurship Development and Regional Economic Cooperation.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Economic development is not just limited to developing countries. Canada's provincial governments have been encouraging and funding municipal economic development efforts for decades.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Looking at CED from an economic viewpoint, the initial purpose of such an approach is the creation of local jobs and the stimulation of business activity. Integrally linked to these purposes are strategies to increase access to capital, stimulate asset building, improve the general business climate, and link citywide economic development efforts to specific community development efforts.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Improving the general business climate is also integral to community economic development. Strategies to do so would include improving the infrastructure and physical appearance of commercial areas, the quality of quantity of residential housing, and the transportation systems in a neighborhood. While these may not directly effect economic activities, they serve to strengthen the economic well being of an area because it encourages businesses to locate there.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Countries across the globe participate in reinvestment and development through a bank such as the Community Reinvestment Act, World Bank and the IDA amongst many others. Another commonality for nations international is need to incorporate sustainability and the natural environment into the growth of societies.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Several Communities across the United States have successfully crafted policy to create groups and corporations to assist in multiple facets of the communities economy and welfare. The following organizations are examples of Community Economic Development Initiatives.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: In Brazil, the Banco Palmas has established Community Economic Development initiatives through the use and development of a community currency. The community has prospered and has been widely adopted so that by 2011 there were 43 community banks within the country using the Banco Palmas model. The Brazilian government has since encouraged the movement and in 2015 there were more than 100 initiatives in various parts of the country.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Because projects brought to CRA bank departments are often from areas of lower economic standing and/or unproven consumer markets, they are a larger risk to lenders. This heavier risk brings more stringent underwriting guidelines, in addition to often rigid government requirements. Many financial institutions state that these rules are cumbersome and difficult to comply with.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: There are several CED corporations and nonprofits that employ Community Economic Development Officers to implement development plans.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Community economic development

Context: Most employers require a bachelor's degree in Economics or Community Development as a minimum. For better opportunities, pursuing a Master of Public Planning, Urban Planning, Economic Development, or Community Economic Development is recommended. The annual median salary for a Community Economic Development Officer in the United States is $64,028.

Question: كيف يمكن خلق إقتصاد محلي قوي ؟


Battle of Lake Trasimene

Context: After the end of the First Punic War in 241 BC, in 219 BC Hannibal, ruler of the Carthaginian territories in south-east Iberia, besieged, captured and sacked the Roman-protected Iberian town of Saguntum. Early in 218 BC Rome issued a declaration of war and Hannibal left Iberia, crossed the Alps, and arrived in Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) later that year. The Romans rushed reinforcements north from Sicily but were defeated at the Battle of the Trebia.

Question: متى وقعت معركة بحيرة تراسمانيا؟


Battle of Lake Trasimene

Context: News of the defeat caused a panic in Rome and led to the election of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as dictator, but, impatient with his "Fabian strategy" of avoiding pitched conflict and relying instead on guerrilla tactics, the next year the Romans elected Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro as consuls. These more aggressive commanders engaged Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, a third disaster for Rome that was followed by thirteen more years of war.

Question: متى وقعت معركة بحيرة تراسمانيا؟


Battle of Lake Trasimene

Context: At Lake Trasimene the Romans fielded four legionstwo Roman and two made up of alliesfor a total of approximately 25,000 men.

Question: متى وقعت معركة بحيرة تراسمانيا؟


Battle of Lake Trasimene

Context: The ancient sources are unclear as to the fate of the approximately 25,000 Romans known to have been engaged. According to the contemporary annalist and senator Fabius Pictor 15,000 were killed and 10,000 scattered. Polybius has 15,000 killed and most of the rest captured. Polybius reports losses of 1,500 killed for the Carthaginians, most of them Gauls; while Livy gives 2,500 killed and "many" who died of their wounds.

Question: متى وقعت معركة بحيرة تراسمانيا؟


Battle of Lake Trasimene

Context: In 204 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio, the son of the Scipio who had been wounded at Ticinus, invaded the Carthaginian homeland and defeated the Carthaginians in two major battles and won the allegiance of the Numidian kingdoms of North Africa. Hannibal and the remnants of his army were recalled from Italy to confront him. They met at the Battle of Zama in October 202BC and Hannibal was decisively defeated. As a consequence Carthage agreed a peace treaty which stripped it of most of its territory and power.

Question: متى وقعت معركة بحيرة تراسمانيا؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: while other estimates indicate a number between 12 and 15 million African slaves prior to the 20th century.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Islam encouraged the manumission of Muslim slaves as a way of expiating sins. Many early converts to Islam, such as Bilal, were former slaves. In theory, slavery in Islamic law does not have a racial or color basis, although this has not always been the case in practice. In 1990 the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam declared that "no one has the right to enslave" another human being. Many slaves were imported from outside the Muslim world.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Two classes of slave existed: a purchased slave, and a slave born in the master's home. Over the latter, the master had complete rights of ownership, though these slaves were unlikely to be sold or disposed of by the master. Female slaves were at times forced into prostitution for the benefit of their masters, in accordance with Near Eastern customs.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: W. Montgomery Watt points out that Muhammad's expansion of Pax Islamica to the Arabian peninsula reduced warfare and raiding, and therefore cut off the basis for enslaving freemen. According to Patrick Manning, Islamic legislations against abuse of slaves limited the extent of enslavement in the Arabian peninsula and, to a lesser degree, for the area of the entire Umayyad Caliphate, where slavery had existed since the most ancient times.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: According to Bernard Lewis, the growth of internal slave populations through natural increase was insufficient to maintain slave numbers through to modern times, which contrasts markedly with rapidly rising slave populations in the New World. He writes that

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Bernard Lewis writes: "In one of the sad paradoxes of human history, it was the humanitarian reforms brought by Islam that resulted in a vast development of the slave trade inside, and still more outside, the Islamic empire." He notes that the Islamic injunctions against the enslavement of Muslims led to the massive importation of slaves from the outside. According to Patrick Manning, Islam by recognizing and codifying slavery seems to have done more to protect and expand slavery than the reverse.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails. One supply of slaves was the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia which often exported Nilotic slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered or reconquered Muslim provinces. Native Muslim Ethiopian sultanates exported slaves as well, such as the sometimes independent sultanate of Adal.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: For a long time, until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Between 1530 and 1780 there were almost certainly 1 million and quite possibly as many as 1.25 million white, European Christians enslaved by the Muslims of the Barbary Coast of North Africa.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: While slaves were employed for manual labour during the Arab slave trade, although most agricultural labor in the medieval Islamic world consisted of paid labour. Exceptions include the plantation economy of southern Iraq (which led to the Zanj Revolt), in 9th-century Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), and in 11th-century Bahrain (during the Karmatian state).

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Outside of explicit sexual slavery, most female slaves had domestic occupations. Often, this also included sexual relations with their masters - a lawful motive for their purchase and the most common one.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Military service was also a common role for slaves. Barbarians from the "martial races" beyond the frontiers were widely recruited into the imperial armies. These recruits often advanced in the imperial and eventually metropolitan forces, sometimes obtaining high ranks.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In 2010, at the Second Afro-Arab summit Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the African slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way. I regret and I am ashamed when we remember these practices. I apologize for this."

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In Classical Arabic terminology, female slaves were generally called "jawāri" (, s. "jāriya" ). Slave-girls specifically might be called "imā’" (, s. "ama" ), while female slaves who had been trained as entertainers or courtesans were usually called "qiyān" (, IPA /qi'jaːn/; singular "qayna", , IPA /'qaina/). They included sometimes highly trained entertainers known as "qiyan who" enjoyed special privileges and status.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In some cases, slaves would join domestic rebellions or even rise up against governors. The most renowned of these rebellions was the Zanj Rebellion.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Mamluks were slave-soldiers who were converted to Islam, and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military caste, often defeating the Crusaders and, on more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the Mamluk Sultanate from 1250 to 1517.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: The first Bahmani sultan, Alauddin Bahman Shah is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern Carnatic chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: During the rule of Shah Jahan, many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: After the Seljuks conquered parts of Asia Minor, they brought to the devastated lands Greek, Armenian and Syrian farmers after enslaving entire Byzantine and Armenian villages and towns.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In the East Indies, slavery was common until the end of the 19th century. The slave trade was centered on the Muslim Sultanates in the Sulu Sea: the Sultanate of Sulu, the Sultanate of Maguindanao, and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern Moro people). Also the Aceh Sultanate on Sumatra took part in the slave trade. The economies of these sultanates relied heavily on the slave trade.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: The economy of the Sulu sultanates was largely based on slaves and the slave trade. Slaves were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While personal slaves were rarely sold, slave traders trafficked extensively in slaves purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui slave markets. By the 1850s, slaves constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In Singapore as late as 1891, there was a regular trade in Chinese slaves by Muslim slaveowners, with girls and women sold for concubinage. However, the buying of Chinese girls in Singapore was forbidden for Muslims by a Batavia (Jakarta) based Arab Muslim Mufti, Usman bin Yahya in a fatwa because he ruled that in Islam it was illegal to buy free non-Muslims or marry non-Muslim slave girls during peace time from slave dealers and non-Muslims could only be enslaved and purchased during holy war (jihad).

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: A Chinese non-Muslim man had a female concubine who was of Muslim Arab Hadhrami Sayyid origin in Solo, the Dutch East Indies, in 1913 which was scandalous in the eyes of Ahmad Surkati and his Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In Jeddah, Kingdom of Hejaz on the Arabian peninsula, the Arab king Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz had in his palace 20 young pretty Javanese girls from Java (modern day Indonesia).

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: According to Brockopp, in the 19th century, "Some authorities made blanket pronouncements against slavery, arguing that it violated the Qurʾānic ideals of equality and freedom. The great slave markets of Cairo were closed down at the end of the nineteenth century and even conservative Qurʾān interpreters continue to regard slavery as opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality."

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Slavery in the forms of carpet weavers, sugarcane cutters, camel jockeys, sex slaves, and even chattel exists even today in some Muslim countries (though some have questioned the use of the term slavery as an accurate description).

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Murray Gordon said that, unlike Western societies which developed anti-slavery movements, no such organizations developed in Muslim societies. In Muslim politics, the state interpreted Islamic law. This then extended legitimacy to the traffic in slaves.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Writing about the Arabia he visited in 1862, the English traveler W. G. Palgrave met large numbers of slaves. The effects of slave concubinage were apparent in the number of persons of mixed race and in the emancipation of slaves he found to be common. Charles Doughty, writing about 25 years later, made similar reports.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly when the European slave trade dropped around the 1850s only to be ended with European colonisation of Africa around 1900.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity."

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Richard Francis Burton wrote about the Medina slaves, during his 1853 Haj, "a little black boy, perfect in all his points, and tolerably intelligent, costs about a thousand piastres; girls are dearer, and eunuchs fetch double that sum." In Zanzibar, Burton found slaves owning slaves.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade in the African Great Lakes region, which he visited in the mid-nineteenth century:

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: At Istanbul, the sale of black and Circassian women was conducted openly, even well past the granting of the Constitution in 1908.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, slavery gradually became outlawed and suppressed in Muslim lands, due to a combination of pressures exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France, internal pressure from Islamic abolitionist movements, and economic pressures.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: By the Treaty of Jeddah, May 1927 (art.7), concluded between the British Government and Ibn Sa'ud (King of Nejd and the Hijaz) it was agreed to suppress the slave trade in Saudi Arabia. Then by a decree issued in 1936, the importation of slaves into Saudi Arabia was prohibited unless it could be proved that they were slaves at the treaty date.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In 1953, sheikhs from Qatar attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom included slaves in their retinues, and they did so again on another visit five years later.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: By 1969, it could be observed that most Muslim states had abolished slavery, although it existed in the deserts of Iraq bordering Arabia and it still flourished in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. Slavery was not formally abolished in Yemen and Oman until the following year. The last nation to formally enact the abolition of slavery practice and slave trafficking was the Islamic Republic of Mauritania in 1981.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Slavery in Mauritania was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and 1981. It was finally criminalized in August 2007. It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of Mauritania's population, are currently in conditions which some consider to be "slavery", namely, many of them used as bonded labour due to poverty.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: The issue of slavery in the Islamic world in modern times is controversial. Critics argue there is hard evidence of its existence and destructive effects. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, slavery in central Islamic lands has been "virtually extinct" since the mid-20th century, though there are reports indicating that it is still practiced in some areas of Sudan and Somalia as a result of warfare.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Earlier in the 20th century, prior to the "reopening" of slavery by Salafi scholars like Shaykh al-Fawzan, Islamist authors declared slavery outdated without actually clearly supporting its abolition. This has caused at least one scholar, William Clarence-Smith, to bemoan the "dogged refusal of Mawlana Mawdudi to give up on slavery" and the notable "evasions and silences of Muhammad Qutb".

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In recent years, according to some scholars, there has been a "reopening" of the issue of slavery by some conservative Salafi Islamic scholars after its "closing" earlier in the 20th century when Muslim countries banned slavery.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In 2003, Shaykh Saleh Al-Fawzan, a member of Saudi Arabia's highest religious body, the Senior Council of Clerics, issued a fatwa claiming "Slavery is a part of Islam. Slavery is part of jihad, and jihad will remain as long there is Islam."

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Muslim scholars who said otherwise were "infidels". In 2016, Shaykh al-Fawzan responded to a question about taking Yazidi women as sex slaves by reiterating that "Enslaving women in war is not prohibited in Islam", he added that those who forbid enslavement are either "ignorant or infidel".

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: The Government of Saudi Arabia does not comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Militants insurgencies have raged in recent times in the Muslim world in places like the Palestinian territories, Syria, Chechnya, Yemen, Kashmir and Somalia, and many of them have taken prisoners of war. Despite Taliban fighting in Afghanistan for decades, they have never sought to enslave their war captives (as of 2019). The Palestinian group Hamas has held Israeli prisoners (such as Gilad Shalit). Yet Hamas, which claims to uphold Islamic law, has also never sought to enslave its prisoners.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: However, other jihadist groups have enslaved their captives, claiming sanction from Islam. In 2014, Islamic terrorist groups in the Middle East (ISIS also known as Islamic State) and Northern Nigeria (Boko Haram) have not only justified the taking of slaves in war but actually enslaved women and girls.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: There is historical evidence of North African Muslim slave raids all along the Mediterranean coasts across Christian Europe. The majority of slaves traded across the Mediterranean region were predominantly of European origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Slaves were also brought into the Arab world via Central Asia, mainly of Turkic or Tartar origin. Many of these slaves later went on to serve in the armies forming an elite rank.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Enslaved Africans were sold in the towns of the Arab World. In 1416, al-Maqrizi told how pilgrims coming from Takrur (near the Senegal River) brought 1,700 slaves with them to Mecca. In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli and Cairo. Sales were held in public places or in souks.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Potential buyers made a careful examination of the "merchandise": they checked the state of health of a person who was often standing naked with wrists bound together. In Cairo, transactions involving eunuchs and concubines happened in private houses. Prices varied according to the slave's quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of the British research ship "Ternate", visited such a market in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description:

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau has put forward a figure of 17 million African people enslaved (in the same period and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austen's work. Ronald Segal estimates between 11.5 and 14 million were enslaved by the Arab slave trade. Other estimates place it around 11.2 million.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: There has also been a considerable genetic impact on Arabs throughout the Arab world from pre-modern African and European slaves.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


History of slavery in the Muslim world

Context: These are given in chronological order. Scholars and geographers from the Arab world had been travelling to Africa since the time of Muhammad in the 7th century.

Question: كم عام امتدت فترة العبيد في جنوب العراق؟


Fossil

Context: A fossil (from Classical Latin: , literally 'obtained by digging') is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in amber, hair, petrified wood, oil, coal, and DNA remnants. The totality of fossils is known as the "fossil record".

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: There are many processes that lead to fossilization, including permineralization, casts and molds, authigenic mineralization, replacement and recrystallization, adpression, carbonization, and bioimmuration.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: This is a special form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around it. If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Replacement occurs when the shell, bone, or other tissue is replaced with another mineral. In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material. A shell is said to be "recrystallized" when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as from aragonite to calcite.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Fossils that are carbonized or coalified consist of the organic remains which have been reduced primarily to the chemical element carbon. Carbonized fossils consist of a thin film which forms a silhouette of the original organism, and the original organic remains were typically soft tissues. Coalified fossils consist primarily of coal, and the original organic remains were typically woody in composition.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animal's behaviour (in this case, diet) rather than morphology. They were first described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this they were known as "fossil fir cones" and "bezoar stones." They serve a valuable purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation and diet of extinct organisms. Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: A "derived", "reworked" or is a fossil found in rock that accumulated significantly later than when the fossilized animal or plant died. Reworked fossils are created by erosion exhuming (freeing) fossils from the rock formation in which they were originally deposited and their redeposition in a younger sedimentary deposit.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Subfossils are often found in depositionary environments, such as lake sediments, oceanic sediments, and soils. Once deposited, physical and chemical weathering can alter the state of preservation.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Chemical fossils, or chemofossils, are chemicals found in rocks and fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, and natural gas) that provide an organic signature for ancient life. Molecular fossils and isotope ratios represent two types of chemical fossils. The oldest traces of life on Earth are fossils of this type, including carbon isotope anomalies found in zircons that imply the existence of life as early as 4.1 billion years ago.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: The fossil record is strongly biased toward organisms with hard-parts, leaving most groups of soft-bodied organisms with little to no role. It is replete with the mollusks, the vertebrates, the echinoderms, the brachiopods and some groups of arthropods.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Stromatolites are layered accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria. Stromatolites provide some of the most ancient fossil records of life on Earth, dating back more than 3.5 billion years ago.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Stromatolites were much more abundant in Precambrian times. While older, Archean fossil remains are presumed to be colonies of cyanobacteria, younger (that is, Proterozoic) fossils may be primordial forms of the eukaryote chlorophytes (that is, green algae). One genus of stromatolite very common in the geologic record is "Collenia". The earliest stromatolite of confirmed microbial origin dates to 2.724 billion years ago.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: A 2009 discovery provides strong evidence of microbial stromatolites extending as far back as 3.45 billion years ago.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Stromatolites are a major constituent of the fossil record for life's first 3.5 billion years, peaking about 1.25 billion years ago. They subsequently declined in abundance and diversity, which by the start of the Cambrian had fallen to 20% of their peak. The most widely supported explanation is that stromatolite builders fell victims to grazing creatures (the Cambrian substrate revolution), implying that sufficiently complex organisms were common over 1 billion years ago.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: The Zebra River Canyon area of the Kubis platform in the deeply dissected Zaris Mountains of southwestern Namibia provides an extremely well exposed example of the thrombolite-stromatolite-metazoan reefs that developed during the Proterozoic period, the stromatolites here being better developed in updip locations under conditions of higher current velocities and greater sediment influx.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet Mars. Furthermore, organic components (biosignatures) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Gathering fossils dates at least to the beginning of recorded history. The fossils themselves are referred to as the fossil record. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data underlying the study of evolution and continues to be relevant to the history of life on Earth. Paleontologists examine the fossil record to understand the process of evolution and the way particular species have evolved.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Fossils have been visible and common throughout most of natural history, and so documented human interaction with them goes back as far as recorded history, or earlier.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: There are many examples of paleolithic stone knives in Europe, with fossil echinoderms set precisely at the hand grip, going all the way back to "Homo heidelbergensis" and Neanderthals. These ancient peoples also drilled holes through the center of those round fossil shells, apparently using them as beads for necklaces.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: The ancient Egyptians gathered fossils of species that resembled the bones of modern species they worshipped. The god Set was associated with the hippopotamus, therefore fossilized bones of hippo-like species were kept in that deity's temples. Five-rayed fossil sea urchin shells were associated with the deity Sopdu, the Morning Star, equivalent of Venus in Roman mythology.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Fossils appear to have directly contributed to the mythology of many civilizations, including the ancient Greeks. Classical Greek historian Herodotos wrote of an area near Hyperborea where gryphons protected golden treasure. There was indeed gold mining in that approximate region, where beaked "Protoceratops" skulls were common as fossils.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: A later Greek scholar, Aristotle, eventually realized that fossil seashells from rocks were similar to those found on the beach, indicating the fossils were once living animals. He had previously explained them in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Persian polymath Avicenna modified into the theory of petrifying fluids (). Recognition of fossil seashells as originating in the sea was built upon in the 14th century by Albert of Saxony, and accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: The Plains tribes of North America are thought to have similarly associated fossils, such as the many intact pterosaur fossils naturally exposed in the region, with their own mythology of the thunderbird.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: There is no such direct mythological connection known from prehistoric Africa, but there is considerable evidence of tribes there excavating and moving fossils to ceremonial sites, apparently treating them with some reverence.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: In Japan, fossil shark teeth were associated with the mythical tengu, thought to be the razor-sharp claws of the creature, documented some time after the 8th century AD.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: In medieval Christendom, fossilized sea creatures on mountainsides were seen as proof of the biblical deluge of Noah's Ark. After observing the existence of seashells in mountains, the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes (c. 570 – 478 BC) speculated that the world was once inundated in a great flood that buried living creatures in drying mud.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: From the 13th century to the present day, scholars pointed out that the fossil skulls of Deinotherium giganteum, found in Crete and Greece, might have been interpreted as being the skulls of the Cyclopes of Greek mythology, and are possibly the origin of that Greek myth. Their skulls appear to have a single eye-hole in the front, just like their modern elephant cousins, though in fact it's actually the opening for their trunk.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: In Norse mythology, echinoderm shells (the round five-part button left over from a sea urchin) were associated with the god Thor, not only being incorporated in thunderstones, representations of Thor's hammer and subsequent hammer-shaped crosses as Christianity was adopted, but also kept in houses to garner Thor's protection.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: These grew into the shepherd's crowns of English folklore, used for decoration and as good luck charms, placed by the doorway of homes and churches. In Suffolk, a different species was used as a good-luck charm by bakers, who referred to them as fairy loaves, associating them with the similarly shaped loaves of bread they baked.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: More scientific views of fossils emerged during the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci concurred with Aristotle's view that fossils were the remains of ancient life. For example, da Vinci noticed discrepancies with the biblical flood narrative as an explanation for fossil origins:

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: In 1666, Nicholas Steno examined a shark, and made the association of its teeth with the "tongue stones" of ancient Greco-Roman mythology, concluding that those were not in fact the tongues of venomous snakes, but the teeth of some long-extinct species of shark.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Robert Hooke (1635-1703) included micrographs of fossils in his "Micrographia" and was among the first to observe fossil forams. His observations on fossils, which he stated to be the petrified remains of creatures some of which no longer existed, were published posthumously in 1705.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Georges Cuvier came to believe that most if not all the animal fossils he examined were remains of extinct species. This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of thought called catastrophism. Near the end of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants he said:

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Interest in fossils, and geology more generally, expanded during the early nineteenth century. In Britain, Mary Anning's discoveries of fossils, including the first complete ichthyosaur and a complete plesiosaurus skeleton, sparked both public and scholarly interest.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Early naturalists well understood the similarities and differences of living species leading Linnaeus to develop a hierarchical classification system still in use today. Darwin and his contemporaries first linked the hierarchical structure of the tree of life with the then very sparse fossil record. Darwin eloquently described a process of descent with modification, or evolution, whereby organisms either adapt to natural and changing environmental pressures, or they perish.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Since Darwin's time, the fossil record has been extended to between 2.3 and 3.5 billion years. Most of these Precambrian fossils are microscopic bacteria or microfossils. However, macroscopic fossils are now known from the late Proterozoic. The Ediacara biota (also called Vendian biota) dating from 575 million years ago collectively constitutes a richly diverse assembly of early multicellular eukaryotes.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of biostratigraphy or determining the age of rocks based on embedded fossils. For the first 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks. The geologic time scale was developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by the early paleontologists and stratigraphers.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Since the early years of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such as radiometric dating (including potassium/argon, argon/argon, uranium series, and, for very recent fossils, radiocarbon dating) have been used to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils. Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites are over 3.4 billion years old.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Despite significant advances in uncovering and identifying paleontological specimens, it is generally accepted that the fossil record is vastly incomplete. Approaches for measuring the completeness of the fossil record have been developed for numerous subsets of species, including those grouped taxonomically, temporally, environmentally/geographically, or in sum. This encompasses the subfield of taphonomy and the study of biases in the paleontological record.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Fossil trading is the practice of buying and selling fossils. This is many times done illegally with artifacts stolen from research sites, costing many important scientific specimens each year. The problem is quite pronounced in China, where many specimens have been stolen.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Fossil

Context: Fossil collecting (sometimes, in a non-scientific sense, fossil hunting) is the collection of fossils for scientific study, hobby, or profit. Fossil collecting, as practiced by amateurs, is the predecessor of modern paleontology and many still collect fossils and study fossils as amateurs. Professionals and amateurs alike collect fossils for their scientific value.

Question: كيف يمكن تحديد أعمار المستحاثات القديمة ؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Android has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011 and on tablets since 2013. , it has over three billion monthly active users, the largest installed base of any operating system, and , the Google Play Store features over 3 million apps. Android 12, released on October 4, 2021, is the latest version.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Rubin had difficulty attracting investors early on, and Android was facing eviction from its office space. Steve Perlman, a close friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope, and shortly thereafter wired an undisclosed amount as seed funding. Perlman refused a stake in the company, and has stated "I did it because I believed in the thing, and I wanted to help Andy."

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Android (operating system)

Context: On Android 4.4 "Kit Kat", shared writing access to MicroSD memory cards has been locked for user-installed applications, to which only the dedicated directories with respective package names, located inside codice_1, remained writeable. Writing access has been reinstated with Android 5 "Lollipop" through the backwards-incompatible "Google Storage Access Framework" interface.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the device and its connectivity. This status bar can be pulled (swiped) down from to reveal a notification screen where apps display important information or updates, as well as quick access to system controls and toggles such as display brightness, connectivity settings (WiFi, Bluetooth, cellular data), audio mode, and flashlight. Vendors may implement extended settings such as the ability to adjust the flashlight brightness.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Notifications are "short, timely, and relevant information about your app when it's not in use", and when tapped, users are directed to a screen inside the app relating to the notification. Beginning with Android 4.1 "Jelly Bean", "expandable notifications" allow the user to tap an icon on the notification in order for it to expand and display more information and possible app actions right from the notification.

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Android (operating system)

Context: An "All Apps" screen lists all installed applications, with the ability for users to drag an app from the list onto the home screen. The app list may be accessed using a gesture or a button, depending on the Android version. A "Recents" screen, also known as "Overview", lets users switch between recently used apps.

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Android (operating system)

Context: The recent list may appear side-by-side or overlapping, depending on the Android version and manufacturer.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Many early Android OS smartphones were equipped with a dedicated search button for quick access to a web search engine and individual apps' internal search feature. More recent devices typically allow the former through a long press or swipe away from the home button.

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Android (operating system)

Context: The earliest vendor-customized Android-based smartphones known to have featured a split-screen view mode are the 2012 Samsung Galaxy S3 and Note 2, the former of which received this feature with the "premium suite" upgrade delivered in TouchWiz with Android 4.1 Jelly Bean.

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Android (operating system)

Context: When connecting or disconnecting charging power and when shortly actuating the power button or home button, all while the device is powered off, a visual battery meter whose appearance varies among vendors appears on the screen, allowing the user to quickly assess the charge status of a powered-off without having to boot it up first. Some display the battery percentage.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Since stock Android version 12, released early 2021, synchronous vibration can be set to complement audio. Such feature initially existed under the name "Auto Haptic" on the Android-based 2012 Samsung Galaxy S III, released with a vendor-modified (TouchWiz) installation of Android 4.1 Jelly Bean.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Many, to almost all, Android devices come with preinstalled Google apps including Gmail, Google Maps, Google Chrome, YouTube, Google Play Music, Google Play Movies & TV, and many more.

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Android (operating system)

Context: In October 2020, Google removed several Android applications from Play Store, as they were identified breaching its data collection rules. The firm was informed by International Digital Accountability Council (IDAC) that apps for children like "Number Coloring", "Princess Salon" and "Cats & Cosplay", with collective downloads of 20 million, were violating Google's policies.

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Android (operating system)

Context: At the Windows 11 announcement event in June 2021, Microsoft showcased the new Windows Subsystem for Android (WSA) that will enable support for the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and will allow users to run Android apps on their Windows desktop.

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Android (operating system)

Context: Android 4.4 introduced the Storage Access Framework (SAF), a set of APIs for accessing files on the device's filesystem. As of Android 11, Android has required apps to conform to a data privacy policy known as "scoped storage", under which apps may only automatically have access to certain directories (such as those for pictures, music, and video), and app-specific directories they have created themselves. Apps are required to use the SAF to access any other part of the filesystem.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Developer options are initially hidden since Android 4.2 "Jelly Bean", but can be enabled by actuating the operating system's build number in the device information seven times. Hiding developers options again requires deleting user data for the "Settings" app, possibly resetting some other preferences.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7.1 range from in practice 2 GB for best hardware, down to 1 GB for the most common screen. Android supports all versions of OpenGL ES and Vulkan (and version 1.1 available for some devices).

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Android is developed by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at which point the source code is made available to the Android Open Source Project (AOSP), an open source initiative led by Google. The AOSP code can be found with minimal modifications on select devices, mainly the former Nexus and current Android One series of devices.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: The source code is, in turn, customized by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to run on their hardware. Android's source code does not contain the device drivers, often proprietary, that are needed for certain hardware components. As a result, most Android devices, including Google's own, ship with a combination of free and open source and proprietary software, with the software required for accessing Google services falling into the latter category.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Google provides annual Android releases, both for factory installation in new devices, and for over-the-air updates to existing devices. The latest major release is Android 12.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: In September 2017, Google's Project Treble team revealed that, as part of their efforts to improve the security lifecycle of Android devices, Google had managed to get the Linux Foundation to agree to extend the support lifecycle of the Linux Long-Term Support (LTS) kernel branch from the 2 years that it has historically lasted to 6 years for future versions of the LTS kernel, starting with Linux kernel 4.4.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: In May 2019, with the announcement of Android 10, Google introduced Project Mainline to simplify and expedite delivery of updates to the Android ecosystem. Project Mainline enables updates to core OS components through the Google Play Store. As a result, important security and performance improvements that previously needed to be part of full OS updates can be downloaded and installed as easily as an app update.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Google reported rolling out new amendments in Android 12 aimed at making the use of third-party application stores easier. This announcement rectified the concerns reported regarding the development of Android apps, including a fight over an alternative in-app payment system and difficulties faced by businesses moving online because of COVID-19.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Android's kernel is based on the Linux kernel's long-term support (LTS) branches. , Android uses versions 4.14, 4.19 or 5.4 of the Linux kernel. The actual kernel depends on the individual device.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Android is a Linux distribution according to the Linux Foundation, Google's open-source chief Chris DiBona, and several journalists. Others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, say that Android is not Linux in the traditional Unix-like Linux distribution sense; Android does not include the GNU C Library (it uses Bionic as an alternative C library) and some other components typically found in Linux distributions.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: With the release of Android Oreo in 2017, Google began to require that devices shipped with new SoCs had Linux kernel version 4.4 or newer, for security reasons. Existing devices upgraded to Oreo, and new products launched with older SoCs, were exempt from this rule.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: The flash storage on Android devices is split into several partitions, such as codice_2 for the operating system itself, and codice_3 for user data and application installations.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: On top of the Linux kernel, there are the middleware, libraries and APIs written in C, and application software running on an application framework which includes Java-compatible libraries. Development of the Linux kernel continues independently of Android's other source code projects.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: For its Java library, the Android platform uses a subset of the now discontinued Apache Harmony project. In December 2015, Google announced that the next version of Android would switch to a Java implementation based on the OpenJDK project.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Aiming for a different licensing model, toward the end of 2012, Google switched the Bluetooth stack in Android from the GPL-licensed BlueZ to the Apache-licensed BlueDroid. A new Bluetooth stack, called Gabeldorsche, was developed to try to fix the bugs in the BlueDroid implementation.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Android does not have a native X Window System by default, nor does it support the full set of standard GNU libraries. This made it difficult to port existing Linux applications or libraries to Android, until version r5 of the Android Native Development Kit brought support for applications written completely in C or C++. Libraries written in C may also be used in applications by injection of a small shim and usage of the JNI.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: In current versions of Android, "Toybox", a collection of command-line utilities (mostly for use by apps, as Android does not provide a command-line interface by default), is used (since the release of Marshmallow) replacing a similar "Toolbox" collection found in previous Android versions.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: There are, as of August 2019, a handful of notable custom Android distributions (ROMs) of the latest Android version 9.0 Pie, which was released publicly in August 2018. See "List of custom Android distributions".

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Internally, Android identifies each supported device by its device codename, a short string, which may or may not be similar to the model name used in marketing the device. For example, the device codename of the Pixel smartphone is "sailfish".

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: The device codename is usually not visible to the end user, but is important for determining compatibility with modified Android versions. It is sometimes also mentioned in articles discussing a device, because it allows to distinguish different hardware variants of a device, even if the manufacturer offers them under the same name. The device codename is available to running applications under codice_6.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: In 2020, Google launched the Android Partner Vulnerability Initiative to improve the security of Android. They also formed an Android security team.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Leaked documents published by WikiLeaks, codenamed Vault 7 and dated from 2013 to 2016, detail the capabilities of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare, including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including Android).

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-priced devices. However, the open-source nature of Android allows security contractors to take existing devices and adapt them for highly secure uses. For example, Samsung has worked with General Dynamics through their Open Kernel Labs acquisition to rebuild "Jelly Bean" on top of their hardened microvisor for the "Knox" project.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: In 2020, the Which? watchdog reported that more than a billion Android devices released in 2012 or earlier, which was 40% of Android devices worldwide, were at risk of being hacked. This conclusion stemmed from the fact that no security updates were issued for the Android versions below 7.0 in 2019. Which? collaborated with the AV Comparatives anti-virus lab to infect five phone models with malware, and it succeeded in each case. Google refused to comment on the watchdog's speculations.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: On August 5, 2020, Twitter published a blog urging its users to update their applications to the latest version with regards to a security concern that allowed others to access direct messages. A hacker could easily use the "Android system permissions" to fetch the account credentials in order to do so. The security issue is only with Android 8 (Android Oreo) and Android 9 (Android Pie). Twitter confirmed that updating the app will restrict such practices.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟


Android (operating system)

Context: Android applications run in a sandbox, an isolated area of the system that does not have access to the rest of the system's resources, unless access permissions are explicitly granted by the user when the application is installed, however this may not be possible for pre-installed apps. It is not possible, for example, to turn off the microphone access of the pre-installed camera app without disabling the camera completely. This is valid also in Android versions 7 and 8.

Question: متى صدر اول هاتف بنظام جوجل اندرويد؟