Stock market

Context: , there are 60 stock exchanges in the world. Of these, there are 16 exchanges with a market capitalization of $1 trillion or more, and they account for 87% of global market capitalization. Apart from the Australian Securities Exchange, these 16 exchanges are all in North America, Europe, or Asia.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: By country, the largest stock markets as of January 2021 are in the United States of America (about 55.9%), followed by Japan (about 7.4%) and China (about 5.4%).

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Stock exchanges may also cover other types of securities, such as fixed-interest securities (bonds) or (less frequently) derivatives, which are more likely to be traded OTC.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Trade in stock markets means the transfer (in exchange for money) of a stock or security from a seller to a buyer. This requires these two parties to agree on a price. Equities (stocks or shares) confer an ownership interest in a particular company.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Participants in the stock market range from small individual stock investors to larger investors, who can be based anywhere in the world, and may include banks, insurance companies, pension funds and hedge funds. Their buy or sell orders may be executed on their behalf by a stock exchange trader.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Some exchanges are physical locations where transactions are carried out on a trading floor, by a method known as open outcry. This method is used in some stock exchanges and commodities exchanges, and involves traders shouting bid and offer prices. The other type of stock exchange has a network of computers where trades are made electronically. An example of such an exchange is the NASDAQ.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: A potential buyer "bids" a specific price for a stock, and a potential seller "asks" a specific price for the same stock. Buying or selling "at the Market" means you will accept "any" ask price or bid price for the stock. When the bid and ask prices match, a sale takes place, on a first-come, first-served basis if there are multiple bidders at a given price.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The purpose of a stock exchange is to facilitate the exchange of securities between buyers and sellers, thus providing a marketplace. The exchanges provide real-time trading information on the listed securities, facilitating price discovery.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The NASDAQ is an electronic exchange, where all of the trading is done over a computer network. The process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. One or more NASDAQ market makers will always provide a bid and ask the price at which they will always purchase or sell 'their' stock.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The Paris Bourse, now part of Euronext, is an order-driven, electronic stock exchange. It was automated in the late 1980s. Prior to the 1980s, it consisted of an open outcry exchange. Stockbrokers met on the trading floor of the Palais Brongniart. In 1986, the CATS trading system was introduced, and the order matching system was fully automated.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Market participants include individual retail investors, institutional investors (e.g., pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, index funds, exchange-traded funds, hedge funds, investor groups, banks and various other financial institutions), and also publicly traded corporations trading in their own shares. Robo-advisors, which automate investment for individuals are also major participants.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Indirect investment involves owning shares indirectly, such as via a mutual fund or an exchange traded fund. Direct investment involves direct ownership of shares.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) was the first joint-stock company to get a fixed capital stock and as a result, continuous trade in company stock occurred on the Amsterdam Exchange. Soon thereafter, a lively trade in various derivatives, among which options and repos, emerged on the Amsterdam market. Dutch traders also pioneered short selling – a practice which was banned by the Dutch authorities as early as 1610.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: There are now stock markets in virtually every developed and most developing economies, with the world's largest markets being in the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, India, China, Canada, Germany (Frankfurt Stock Exchange), France, South Korea and the Netherlands.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: History has shown that the price of stocks and other assets is an important part of the dynamics of economic activity, and can influence or be an indicator of social mood. An economy where the stock market is on the rise is considered to be an up-and-coming economy. The stock market is often considered the primary indicator of a country's economic strength and development.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Rising share prices, for instance, tend to be associated with increased business investment and vice versa. Share prices also affect the wealth of households and their consumption. Therefore, central banks tend to keep an eye on the control and behavior of the stock market and, in general, on the smooth operation of financial system functions. Financial stability is the raison d'être of central banks.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Exchanges also act as the clearinghouse for each transaction, meaning that they collect and deliver the shares, and guarantee payment to the seller of a security. This eliminates the risk to an individual buyer or seller that the counterparty could default on the transaction.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The smooth functioning of all these activities facilitates economic growth in that lower costs and enterprise risks promote the production of goods and services as well as possibly employment. In this way the financial system is assumed to contribute to increased prosperity, although some controversy exists as to whether the optimal financial system is bank-based or market-based.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Recent events such as the Global Financial Crisis have prompted a heightened degree of scrutiny of the impact of the structure of stock markets (called market microstructure), in particular to the stability of the financial system and the transmission of systemic risk.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Changes in stock prices are mostly caused by external factors such as socioeconomic conditions, inflation, exchange rates. Intellectual capital does not affect a company stock's current earnings. Intellectual capital contributes to a stock's return growth.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) is a hypothesis in financial economics that states that asset prices reflect all available information at the current time.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The 'hard' efficient-market hypothesis does not explain the cause of events such as the crash in 1987, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average plummeted 22.6 percent—the largest-ever one-day fall in the United States.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Another phenomenon—also from psychology—that works against an objective assessment is "group thinking". As social animals, it is not easy to stick to an opinion that differs markedly from that of a majority of the group. An example with which one may be familiar is the reluctance to enter a restaurant that is empty; people generally prefer to have their opinion validated by those of others in the group.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: In one paper the authors draw an analogy with gambling. In normal times the market behaves like a game of roulette; the probabilities are known and largely independent of the investment decisions of the different players. In times of market stress, however, the game becomes more like poker (herding behavior takes over). The players now must give heavy weight to the psychology of other investors and how they are likely to react psychologically.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Stock markets play an essential role in growing industries that ultimately affect the economy through transferring available funds from units that have excess funds (savings) to those who are suffering from funds deficit (borrowings) (Padhi and Naik, 2012). In other words, capital markets facilitate funds movement between the above-mentioned units. This process leads to the enhancement of available financial resources which in turn affects the economic growth positively.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Many different academic researchers have stated that companies with low P/E ratios and smaller-sized companies have a tendency to outperform the market. Research has shown that mid-sized companies outperform large cap companies, and smaller companies have higher returns historically.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Sometimes, the market seems to react irrationally to economic or financial news, even if that news is likely to have no real effect on the fundamental value of securities itself. However, this market behaviour may be more apparent than real, since often such news was anticipated, and a counter reaction may occur if the news is better (or worse) than expected. Therefore, the stock market may be swayed in either direction by press releases, rumors, euphoria and mass panic.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Over the short-term, stocks and other securities can be battered or buoyed by any number of fast market-changing events, making the stock market behavior difficult to predict. Emotions can drive prices up and down, people are generally not as rational as they think, and the reasons for buying and selling are generally accepted.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Behaviorists argue that investors often behave "irrationally" when making investment decisions thereby incorrectly pricing securities, which causes market inefficiencies, which, in turn, are opportunities to make money. However, the whole notion of EMH is that these non-rational reactions to information cancel out, leaving the prices of stocks rationally determined.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: A stock market crash is often defined as a sharp dip in share prices of stocks listed on the stock exchanges. In parallel with various economic factors, a reason for stock market crashes is also due to panic and investing public's loss of confidence. Often, stock market crashes end speculative economic bubbles.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: One of the most famous stock market crashes started October 24, 1929, on Black Thursday. The Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 50% during this stock market crash. It was the beginning of the Great Depression.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Another famous crash took place on October 19, 1987 – Black Monday. The crash began in Hong Kong and quickly spread around the world.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: By the end of October, stock markets in Hong Kong had fallen 45.5%, Australia 41.8%, Spain 31%, the United Kingdom 26.4%, the United States 22.68%, and Canada 22.5%. Black Monday itself was the largest one-day percentage decline in stock market history – the Dow Jones fell by 22.6% in a day. The names "Black Monday" and "Black Tuesday" are also used for October 28–29, 1929, which followed Terrible Thursday—the starting day of the stock market crash in 1929.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The 2020 stock market crash was a major and sudden global stock market crash that began on 20 February 2020 and ended on 7 April. This market crash was due to the sudden outbreak of the global pandemic - COVID-19, which ended with a new deal that had a positive impact on the market.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: The movements of the prices in global, regional or local markets are captured in price indices called stock market indices, of which there are many, e.g. the S&P, the FTSE ,the Euronext indices and the NIFTY & SENSEX of India. Such indices are usually market capitalization weighted, with the weights reflecting the contribution of the stock to the index. The constituents of the index are reviewed frequently to include/exclude stocks in order to reflect the changing business environment.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Stock that a trader does not actually own may be traded using short selling; margin buying may be used to purchase stock with borrowed funds; or, "derivatives" may be used to control large blocks of stocks for a much smaller amount of money than would be required by outright purchase or sales.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: A margin call is made if the total value of the investor's account cannot support the loss of the trade. (Upon a decline in the value of the margined securities additional funds may be required to maintain the account's equity, and with or without notice the margined security or any others within the account may be sold by the brokerage to protect its loan position. The investor is responsible for any shortfall following such forced sales.)

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Additionally, many choose to invest via passive index funds. In this method, one holds a portfolio of the entire stock market or some segment of the stock market (such as the S&P 500 Index or Wilshire 5000). The principal aim of this strategy is to maximize diversification, minimize taxes from realizing gains, and ride the general trend of the stock market to rise.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Responsible investment emphasizes and requires a long-term horizon on the basis of fundamental analysis only, avoiding hazards in the expected return of the investment. Socially responsible investing is another investment preference.

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Stock market

Context: Taxation is a consideration of all investment strategies; profit from owning stocks, including dividends received, is subject to different tax rates depending on the type of security and the holding period. Most profit from stock investing is taxed via a capital gains tax. In many countries, the corporations pay taxes to the government and the shareholders once again pay taxes when they profit from owning the stock, known as "double taxation".

Question: 株式の起源はいつ


Rhine

Context: It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe (after the Danube), at about , with an average discharge of about .

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: The various castles and defenses built along it attest to its prominence as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: The modern German diphthong ' (also used in Romansh) ' is a Central German development of the early modern period, with the Alemannic name ' keeping the older vocalism. In Alemannic, the deletion of the ending "-n" in pausa is a recent development; the form ' is largely preserved in Lucernese dialects. ' in Ripuarian is diphthongized, as is ' in Palatine. While Spanish has adopted the Germanic vocalism ', Italian, Occitan, and Portuguese have retained the Latin '.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: The Gaulish name "Rēnos" (Proto-Celtic or pre-Celtic "*Reinos") belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root "" "to move, flow, run", also found in other names such as the Reno in Italy.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: The grammatical gender of the Celtic name (as well as of its Greek and Latin adaptation) is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch, French, Spanish and Italian.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine; and its Old Icelandic adoption was inflected as feminine.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the "Rein da Medel", the "Rein da Maighels", and the "Rein da Curnera". The Cadlimo Valley in the canton of Ticino is drained by the "Reno di Medel", which crosses the geomorphologic Alpine main ridge from the south. All streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: As an effect of human work, it empties into Lake Constance on Austrian territory and not on the border that follows its old natural river bed.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: Three countries border the Obersee, namely Switzerland in the south, Austria in the southeast and the German states of Bavaria in the northeast and Baden-Württemberg in the north and northwest.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: For most of its length, the Seerhein forms the border between Germany and Switzerland. The exception is the old city centre of Constance, on the Swiss side of the river.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: The Seerhein emerged in the last thousands of years, when erosion caused the lake level to be lowered by about 10 metres. Previously, the two lakes formed a single lake, as the name still suggests.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: Reichenau Island was formed at the same time as the Seerhein, when the water level was lowered to its current level.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: In northern Europe, the North Sea Basin had formed during the Triassic and Jurassic periods and continued to be a sediment receiving basin since. In between the zone of Alpine orogeny and North Sea Basin subsidence, highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny (Variscan) remained, such as the Ardennes, Eifel and Vosges.

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: For the army of Germania Superior: one legion, "II Augusta", at Argentoratum (Strasbourg); and one, "XIII Gemina", at Vindonissa (Windisch). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta, before he became emperor. In addition, were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum (Mainz).

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Rhine

Context: After this number was placed into the authoritative Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, it became generally accepted and found its way into numerous textbooks and official publications. The error was discovered in 2010, and the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat confirms the length at .

Question: ドイツで一番長い川は何？


Acupuncture

Context: The global acupuncture market was worth US$24.55 billion in 2017. The market was led by Europe with a 32.7% share, followed by Asia-Pacific with a 29.4% share and the Americas with a 25.3% share. It is estimated that the industry will reach a market size of $55bn by 2023.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine. It is used most commonly for pain relief, though it is also used to treat a wide range of conditions. Acupuncture is generally only used in combination with other forms of treatment. For example, the American Society of Anesthesiologists states it may be considered in the treatment for nonspecific, noninflammatory low back pain only in conjunction with conventional therapy.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: "De-qi" (; "arrival of qi") refers to a claimed sensation of numbness, distension, or electrical tingling at the needling site. If these sensations are not observed then inaccurate location of the acupoint, improper depth of needle insertion, inadequate manual manipulation, are blamed. If "de-qi" is not immediately observed upon needle insertion, various manual manipulation techniques are often applied to promote it (such as "plucking", "shaking" or "trembling").

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Acupuncture has been researched extensively; as of 2013, there were almost 1,500 randomized controlled trials on PubMed with "acupuncture" in the title. The results of reviews of acupuncture's efficacy, however, have been inconclusive.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In January 2020, David Gorski analyzed a 2020 review of systematic reviews ("Acupuncture for the Relief of Chronic Pain: A Synthesis of Systematic Reviews") concerning the use of acupuncture to treat chronic pain. Writing in "Science-Based Medicine," Gorski said that its findings highlight the conclusion that acupuncture is "a theatrical placebo whose real history has been retconned beyond recognition." He also said this review "reveals the many weaknesses in the design of acupuncture clinical trials".

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: The use of acupuncture has been criticized owing to there being little scientific evidence for explicit effects, or the mechanisms for its supposed effectiveness, for any condition that is discernible from placebo. Acupuncture has been called 'theatrical placebo', and David Gorski argues that when acupuncture proponents advocate 'harnessing of placebo effects' or work on developing 'meaningful placebos', they essentially concede it is little more than that.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Scientist and journalist Steven Salzberg identifies acupuncture and Chinese medicine generally as a focus for "fake medical journals" such as the "Journal of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies" and "Acupuncture in Medicine".

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: A 2013 Cochrane review found low to moderate evidence that acupuncture improves pain and stiffness in treating people with fibromyalgia compared with no treatment and standard care. A 2012 review found "there is insufficient evidence to recommend acupuncture for the treatment of fibromyalgia." A 2010 systematic review found a small pain relief effect that was not apparently discernible from bias; acupuncture is not a recommendable treatment for the management of fibromyalgia on the basis of this review.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: A 2014 systematic review found that although manual acupuncture was effective at relieving short-term pain when used to treat tennis elbow, its long-term effect in relieving pain was "unremarkable". A 2007 review found that acupuncture was significantly better than sham acupuncture at treating chronic knee pain; the evidence was not conclusive due to the lack of large, high-quality trials.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Several meta-analytic and systematic reviews suggest that acupuncture alleviates sleep disturbance, particularly insomnia. However, reviewers caution that this evidence should be considered preliminary due to publication bias, problems with research methodology, small sample sizes, and heterogeneity.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: For the following conditions, the Cochrane Collaboration or other reviews have concluded there is no strong evidence of benefit:

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: A 2010 overview of systematic reviews found that moxibustion was effective for several conditions but the primary studies were of poor quality, so there persists ample uncertainty, which limits the conclusiveness of their findings.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Acupuncture seems to be safe in people getting anticoagulants, assuming needles are used at the correct location and depth. Studies are required to verify these findings. The evidence suggests that acupuncture might be a safe option for people with allergic rhinitis.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Although acupuncture has been practiced for thousands of years in China, its use in pediatrics in the United States did not become common until the early 2000s. In 2007, the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) conducted by the National Center For Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that approximately 150,000 children had received acupuncture treatment for a variety of conditions.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In 2008 a study determined that the use of acupuncture-needle treatment on children was "questionable" due to the possibility of adverse side-effects and the pain manifestation differences in children versus adults. The study also includes warnings against practicing acupuncture on infants, as well as on children who are over-fatigued, very weak, or have over-eaten.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Although acupuncture is not contraindicated in pregnant women, some specific acupuncture points are particularly sensitive to needle insertion; these spots, as well as the abdominal region, should be avoided during pregnancy.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Four adverse events associated with moxibustion were bruising, burns and cellulitis, spinal epidural abscess, and large superficial basal cell carcinoma. Ten adverse events were associated with cupping. The minor ones were keloid scarring, burns, and bullae; the serious ones were acquired hemophilia A, stroke following cupping on the back and neck, factitious panniculitis, reversible cardiac hypertrophy, and iron deficiency anemia.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Acupuncture, along with moxibustion, is one of the oldest practices of traditional Chinese medicine. Most historians believe the practice began in China, though there are some conflicting narratives on when it originated. Academics David Ramey and Paul Buell said the exact date acupuncture was founded depends on the extent to which dating of ancient texts can be trusted and the interpretation of what constitutes acupuncture.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Acupressure therapy was prevalent in India. Once Buddhism spread to China, the acupressure therapy was also integrated into common medical practice in China and it came to be known as acupuncture. The major points of Indian acupressure and Chinese acupuncture are similar to each other.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: It is not certain when specific acupuncture points were introduced, but the autobiography of Bian Que from around 400–500 BC references inserting needles at designated areas. Bian Que believed there was a single acupuncture point at the top of one's skull that he called the point "of the hundred meetings." Texts dated to be from 156–186 BC document early beliefs in channels of life force energy called meridians that would later be an element in early acupuncture beliefs.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Other belief systems were based on the idea that the human body operated on a rhythm and acupuncture had to be applied at the right point in the rhythm to be effective. In some cases a lack of balance between Yin and Yang were believed to be the cause of disease.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In 1822, the Chinese Emperor signed a decree excluding the practice of acupuncture from the Imperial Medical Institute. He said it was unfit for practice by gentlemen-scholars. In China acupuncture was increasingly associated with lower-class, illiterate practitioners. It was restored for a time, but banned again in 1929 in favor of science-based Western medicine. Although acupuncture declined in China during this time period, it was also growing in popularity in other countries.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: The West eventually created a belief system based on Travell trigger points that were believed to inhibit pain. They were in the same locations as China's spiritually identified acupuncture points, but under a different nomenclature. The first elaborate Western treatise on acupuncture was published in 1683 by Willem ten Rhijne.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In China, the popularity of acupuncture rebounded in 1949 when Mao Zedong took power and sought to unite China behind traditional cultural values. It was also during this time that many Eastern medical practices were consolidated under the name traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: Politicians from the Chinese Communist Party said acupuncture was superstitious and conflicted with the party's commitment to science. Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong later reversed this position, arguing that the practice was based on scientific principles.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In 2006, a BBC documentary "Alternative Medicine" filmed a patient undergoing open heart surgery allegedly under acupuncture-induced anesthesia. It was later revealed that the patient had been given a cocktail of anesthetics.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In 2010, UNESCO inscribed "acupuncture and moxibustion of traditional Chinese medicine" on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List following China's nomination.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: In the US, acupuncture is increasingly () used at academic medical centers, and is usually offered through CAM centers or anesthesia and pain management services. Examples include those at Harvard University, Stanford University, Johns Hopkins University, and UCLA.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Acupuncture

Context: There are various government and trade association regulatory bodies for acupuncture in the United Kingdom, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, and in European countries and elsewhere. The World Health Organization recommends that before being licensed or certified, an acupuncturist receive 200 hours of specialized training if they are a physician and 2,500 hours for non-physicians; many governments have adopted similar standards.

Question: 針治療はどこで発祥した？


Keio University

Context: It is the oldest institute of western higher education in Japan. Its founder, Fukuzawa Yukichi, originally established it as a school for Western studies in 1858 in Edo.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: The university has eleven campuses in Tokyo and Kanagawa. It has ten undergraduate faculties: Letters, Economics, Law, Business and Commerce, Medicine, Science and Technology, Policy Management, Environment and Information Studies, Nursing and Medical Care, and Pharmacy. There are fourteen graduate schools (listed below) and both on- and off-campus research institutes and facilities.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: There are 1,908 international students in May 1, 2021, with 874 undergraduate students (3.1% of total undergraduate students (=28,667) ), 861 graduate students (18.0% of total graduate students (=4,802) ) and 173 other students. China is the country which provides the most international students with 1,016, followed by South Korea (436), France (66), Taiwan (51), the United States (36), Indonesia (34), and Germany (29).

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: The Kei-So baseball rivalry, which dates back more than a century, is especially famous because of its importance in Japanese baseball history. The most famous Kei-So baseball game, which was played on October 16, 1943, was made into a movie titled "" in 2008.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: In June 2017, the school's election committee unconventionally selected "Haseyama Akira", a legal history professor who only won second place at the general election amongst teachers and staffs, to be the school's new president, breaking a 50-year convention.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: In late 2019, both the American football team and the cheerleading club suspended club activities for "inappropriate behaviours".

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: In January 2020, it was reported that a former member of the school president's secretarial staff had installed camera in a female toilet stall on Mita campus, filming over a thousand videos over 3 months.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: On the other hand, the top 3 largest expenses in 2010 were "Compensation and benefits", "Education & Research" and "Investment", with 65 billion yen, 52 billion yen and 33 billion yen respectively. The total asset value in 2010 was about 364 billion yen with increase of 5 billion yen. In addition, the total amount of assets under management was approximately 109 billion yen in 2010, composed by mainly cash, deposit with banks and marketable securities.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: The university tuition fee system in Japan is different from other countries and very complicated. In most Japanese universities, there are more payment requirements in the first year such as "entrance fees", and less in the rest of the years. There are several types of fees (some require to pay only once and some require to pay once or twice every year) and so-called "course fee" is officially only one of those fees.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Keio University

Context: Although it is acceptable to pay twice with half in spring and half in autumn, the "entrance fee" is necessary to be paid before enrollment. The entrance fee for undergraduate study is 200,000 yen and the one for graduate study is 310,000 yen.

Question: 日本で最古のロースクールは何？


Headphones

Context: French engineer Ernest Mercadier patented a set of in-ear headphones in 1891, Mercadier was awarded U.S. Patent No. 454,138 for “improvements in telephone-receivers…which shall be light enough to be carried while in use on the head of the operator.”

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Nathaniel Baldwin of Utah in 1910 invented a prototype telephone headset due to his inability to hear sermons during Sunday service. He offered it for testing to the US Navy, which promptly ordered 100 from Baldwin. Wireless Specialty Apparatus Co., in partnership with Baldwin Radio Company, set up a manufacturing facility in Utah to fulfill orders. His innovations were the basis of “sound-powered” telephones or phones that required no electricity, which were used during World War II.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Headphones originated from the telephone receiver earpiece, and were the only way to listen to electrical audio signals before amplifiers were developed.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: In early powered radios, the headphone was part of the vacuum tube's plate circuit and carried dangerous voltages. It was normally connected directly to the positive high voltage battery terminal, and the other battery terminal was securely grounded. The use of bare electrical connections meant that users could be shocked if they touched the bare headphone connections while adjusting an uncomfortable headset.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: In 1958, John C. Koss, an audiophile and jazz musician from Milwaukee, produced the first stereo headphones.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Wired headphones are attached to an audio source by a cable. The most common connectors are 6.35 mm (¼″) and 3.5 mm phone connectors. The larger 6.35 mm connector is more common on fixed location home or professional equipment. The 3.5 mm connector remains the most widely used connector for portable application today. Adapters are available for converting between 6.35 mm and 3.5 mm devices.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: As active component, wireless headphones tend to be costlier due to the necessity for internal hardware such as a battery, a charging controller, a speaker driver, and a wireless transceiver, whereas wired headphones are a passive component, outsourcing speaker driving to the audio source.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Wired headphones may be equipped with a non-detachable cable or a detachable auxiliary male-to-male plug, as well as some with two ports to allow connecting another wired headphone in a parallel circuit, which splits the audio signal to share with another participant, but can also be used to hear audio from two inputs simultaneously. An external audio splitter can retrofit this ability.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Various types of specially designed headphones or earphones are also used to evaluate the status of the auditory system in the field of audiology for establishing hearing thresholds, medically diagnosing hearing loss, identifying other hearing related disease, and monitoring hearing status in occupational hearing conservation programs. Specific models of headphones have been adopted as the standard due to the ease of calibration and ability to compare results between testing facilities.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers may be readily applied to headphones, because most headphones are small dynamic loudspeakers.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Historically, many headphones had relatively high impedance, often over 500 ohms so they could operate well with high-impedance tube amplifiers. In contrast, modern transistor amplifiers can have very low output impedance, enabling lower-impedance headphones. Unfortunately, this means that older audio amplifiers or stereos often produce poor-quality output on some modern, low-impedance headphones. In this case, an external headphone amplifier may be beneficial.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Alternatively, online calculators can be used. Once the sensitivity per volt is known, the maximum volume for a pair of headphones can be easily calculated from the maximum amplifier output voltage. For example, for a headphone with a sensitivity of 100 dB (SPL)/V, an amplifier with an output of 1 root mean square (RMS) voltage produces a maximum volume of 100 dB.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: The sensitivity of headphones is usually between about 80 and 125 dB/mW and usually measured at 1 kHz.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Headphone size can affect the balance between fidelity and portability. Generally, headphone form factors can be divided into four separate categories: "circumaural (over-ear)", "supra-aural (on-ear)", "earbud" and "in-ear".

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: True wireless earbuds have no cord to keep each bud connected to each other. They rely on wireless technology such as Bluetooth to transmit audio from a hardware device.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Supra-aural headphones or on-ear headphones have pads that press against the ears, rather than around them. They were commonly bundled with personal stereos during the 1980s. This type of headphone generally tends to be smaller and lighter than circumaural headphones, resulting in less attenuation of outside noise. Supra-aural headphones can also lead to discomfort due to the pressure on the ear as compared to circumaural headphones that sit around the ear. Comfort may vary due to the earcup material.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: In-ear headphones, also known as in-ear monitors (IEMs) or canalphones, are small headphones with similar portability to earbuds that are inserted in the ear canal itself. IEMs are higher-quality in-ear headphones and are used by audio engineers and musicians as well as audiophiles.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Generic or custom-fitting ear canal plugs are made from silicone rubber, elastomer, or foam. Such plugs in lower-end devices may be interchangeable, which increases the risk of them falling off and getting lodged in the ear canal. Custom in-ear headphones use castings of the ear canal to create custom-molded plugs that provide added comfort and noise isolation.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Open-back headphones have the back of the earcups open. This leaks more sound out of the headphone and also lets more ambient sounds into the headphone, but gives a more natural or speaker-like sound, due to including sounds from the environment.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Closed-back (or sealed) styles have the back of the earcups closed. They usually block some of the ambient noise. Closed-back headphones usually can produce stronger low frequencies than open-back headphones.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Communication headsets are used for two-way communication and typically consist of a headphone and attached microphone. Such headsets are used in a variety of professions as aviation, military, sports, music, and many service-oriented sectors. They come in all shapes and sizes, depending on use, required noise attenuation, and fidelity of communication needed.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Unwanted sound from the environment can be reduced by excluding sound from the ear by passive noise isolation, or, often in conjunction with isolation, by active noise cancellation.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Electrostatic headphones require a voltage source generating 100 V to over 1 kV, and are on the user's head. Since the invention of insulators, there is no actual danger. They do not need to deliver significant electric current, which further limits the electrical hazard to the wearer in case of fault.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Planar magnetic (also known as orthodynamic) headphones use similar technology to electrostatic headphones, with some fundamental differences. They operate similarly to planar magnetic loudspeakers.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: A planar magnetic driver consists of a relatively large membrane that contains an embedded wire pattern. This membrane is suspended between two sets of permanent, oppositely aligned, magnets. A current passed through the wires embedded in the membrane produces a magnetic field that reacts with the field of the permanent magnets to induce movement in the membrane, which produces sound.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: The thermoacoustic effect generates sound from the audio frequency Joule heating of the conductor, an effect that is not magnetic and does not vibrate the speaker.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: In 2013 a carbon nanotube thin-yarn earphone based on the thermoacoustic mechanism was demonstrated by a research group in Tsinghua University. The as-produced CNT thin yarn earphone has a working element called CNT thin yarn thermoacoustic chip. Such a chip is composed of a layer of CNT thin yarn array supported by the silicon wafer, and periodic grooves with certain depth are made on the wafer by micro-fabrication methods to suppress the heat leakage from the CNT yarn to the substrate.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Marketed claims such as 'frequency response 4 Hz to 20 kHz' are usually overstatements; the product's response at frequencies lower than 20 Hz is typically very small.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Headphones are also useful for video games that use 3D positional audio processing algorithms, as they allow players to better judge the position of an off-screen sound source (such as the footsteps of an opponent or their gunfire).

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Binaural recordings use a different microphone technique to encode direction directly as phase, with very little amplitude difference below 2 kHz, often using a dummy head. They can produce a surprisingly lifelike spatial impression through headphones. Commercial recordings almost always use stereo recording, rather than binaural, because loudspeaker listening is more common than headphone listening.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: It is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones, to better approximate the presentation of speaker reproduction, by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the channels.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Headsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow call center agents to maintain better posture without needing to hand-hold a handset or tilt their head sideways to cradle it.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: The usual way of limiting sound volume on devices driving headphones is by limiting output power. This has the additional undesirable effect of being dependent of the efficiency of the headphones; a device producing the maximum allowed power may not produce adequate volume when paired with low-efficiency, high-impedance equipment, while the same amount of power can reach dangerous levels with very efficient earphones.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Some studies have found that people are more likely to raise volumes to unsafe levels while performing strenuous exercise. A Finnish study recommended that exercisers should set their headphone volumes to half of their normal loudness and only use them for half an hour.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: Other than hearing risk, there is a general danger that listening to loud music in headphones can distract the listener and lead to injury and accidents. Noise-cancelling headphones add extra risk. Several countries and states have made it illegal to wear headphones while driving or cycling.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Headphones

Context: There have also been numerous reports of contact dermatitis due to exposure to in-ear headphones such as Apple AirPods. The contact dermatitis would be caused by in-ear headphones that contain gold, rubber, dyes, acrylates, or methacrylates. However, there have been no studies done to prove that exposure to in-ear headphones will cause contact dermatitis, rather that there is a correlation between in-ear headphone use and contact dermatitis cases.

Question: イヤホンが初めて販売されたのはいつ


Sultan of Johor

Context: Though Johor has been ruled over by at least 20 sultans, Sultan Abu Bakar who reigned from 1862 to 1895, was the first sultan of the current ruling family, the House of Temenggong. His father, Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim, managed to consolidate enough power to marginalize Sultan Ali who died in 1877.

Question: ジョホール王国の初代王は誰？


Cloven hoof

Context: A cloven hoof, cleft hoof, divided hoof or split hoof is a hoof split into two toes. This is found on members of the mammalian order Artiodactyla. Examples of mammals that possess this type of hoof are cattle, deer, pigs, antelopes, gazelles, goats and sheep. In folklore and popular culture, a cloven hoof has long been associated with the Devil.

Question: 馬の足の指は何本ある？


Cloven hoof

Context: The two digits of cloven-hooved animals are homologous to the third and fourth fingers of the hand. They are called claws and are named for their relative location on the foot: the outer, or lateral, claw and the inner, or medial claw. The space between the two claws is called the interdigital cleft; the area of skin is called the interdigital skin. The hard outer covering of the hoof is called the hoof wall or horn. It is a hard surface, similar to the human fingernail.

Question: 馬の足の指は何本ある？


Cloven hoof

Context: The almost finger-like dexterity available to cloven-hooved mammals such as mountain goats and wild sheep combined with a hard outer shell and soft and flexible inner pads provides excellent traction in their precarious habitats.

Question: 馬の足の指は何本ある？


Cloven hoof

Context: It is speculated by paleontologists that during the Eocene period hooved marsh dwellers carried their body weight mainly on two of the middle toes, which grew to equal size, becoming the Artiodactyla or even-toed hooved animals. Before the end of the Eocene period the side toes of some had dwindled and practically disappeared (mainly in the form of a dewclaw) while the basal pieces or metapodium of the pair of supporting toes became fused together, thus producing the appearance of a cloven hoof.

Question: 馬の足の指は何本ある？


Cloven hoof

Context: This rule thus excludes the camel from the list of kosher animals because although the camel does ruminate it does not possess true "hooves" – it walks on soft toes which have little more than a nail merely giving an appearance of a "hoof". Similarly the pig, although it has cloven true hooves, does not ruminate. Other animals such as dogs and cats exhibit neither characteristic and are thus also forbidden for Jewish consumption.

Question: 馬の足の指は何本ある？


Cello

Context: The cello ( ; plural "celli" or "cellos") or violoncello ( ; ) is a bowed (sometimes plucked and occasionally hit) string instrument of the violin family. Its four strings are usually tuned in perfect fifths: from low to high, C2, G2, D3 and A3. The viola's four strings are each an octave higher. Music for the cello is generally written in the bass clef, with tenor clef, or alto clef, and treble clef used for higher-range passages.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Well-known works of the Romantic era include the Robert Schumann Concerto, the Antonín Dvořák Concerto, the first Camille Saint-Saëns Concerto, as well as the two sonatas and the Double Concerto by Johannes Brahms. A review of compositions for cello in the Romantic era must include the German composer Fanny Mendelssohn (1805–1847) who wrote Fantasia in G Minor for cello and piano and a Capriccio in A-flat for cello.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: The cello's versatility made it popular with many composers in this era, such as Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Benjamin Britten, György Ligeti, Witold Lutoslawski and Henri Dutilleux. Polish composer Grażyna Bacewicz (1909–1969) was writing for cello in the mid 20th century with Concerto No. 1 for Cello and Orchestra (1951), Concerto No. 2 for Cello and Orchestra (1963) and in 1964 composed her Quartet for four cellos.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: In the 2010s, the instrument is found in popular music, but was more commonly used in 1970s pop and disco music. Today it is sometimes featured in pop and rock recordings, examples of which are noted later in this article. The cello has also appeared in major hip-hop and R & B performances, such as singers Rihanna and Ne-Yo's 2007 performance at the American Music Awards. The instrument has also been modified for Indian classical music by Nancy Lesh and Saskia Rao-de Haas.[5]

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Despite similarities to the viola da gamba, the cello is actually part of the viola da braccio family, meaning "viol of the arm", which includes, among others, the violin and viola. Though paintings like Bruegel's "The Rustic Wedding", and Jambe de Fer in his "Epitome Musical" suggest that the bass violin had alternate playing positions, these were short-lived and the more practical and ergonomic "a gamba" position eventually replaced them entirely.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Few educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed before the 18th century and those that do exist contain little value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental technique. One of the earliest cello manuals is Michel Corrette's "Méthode, thèorique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa perfection" (Paris, 1741).

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: The cellos are a critical part of orchestral music; all symphonic works involve the cello section, and many pieces require cello soli or solos. Much of the time, cellos provide part of the low-register harmony for the orchestra. Often, the cello section plays the melody for a brief period, before returning to the harmony role. There are also cello concertos, which are orchestral pieces that feature a solo cellist accompanied by an entire orchestra.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: There are also many sonatas for cello and piano. Those written by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Brahms, Grieg, Rachmaninoff, Debussy, Fauré, Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Poulenc, Carter, and Britten are particularly well known.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: There are pieces for cello solo, Johann Sebastian Bach's six Suites for Cello (which are among the best-known solo cello pieces), Kodály's Sonata for Solo Cello and Britten's three Cello Suites. Other notable examples include Hindemith's and Ysaÿe's Sonatas for Solo Cello, Dutilleux's "Trois Strophes sur le Nom de Sacher", Berio's "Les Mots Sont Allés", Cassadó's Suite for Solo Cello, Ligeti's Solo Sonata, Carter's two "Figment"s and Xenakis' "Nomos Alpha" and "Kottos".

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: The cello is a member of the traditional string quartet as well as string quintets, sextet or trios and other mixed ensembles.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: In Indian Classical music Saskia Rao-de Haas is a well-established soloist as well as playing duets with her sitarist husband Pt. Shubhendra Rao. Other cellists performing Indian classical music are Nancy Lesh (Dhrupad) and Anup Biswas. Both Rao and Lesh play the cello sitting cross-legged on the floor.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: The fingerboard and pegs on a cello are generally made from ebony, as it is strong and does not wear out easily.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Bows are also made from other materials, such as carbon fibre—stronger than wood—and fiberglass (often used to make inexpensive, lower-quality student bows). An average cello bow is long (shorter than a violin or viola bow) high (from the frog to the stick) and wide. The frog of a cello bow typically has a rounded corner like that of a viola bow, but is wider. A cello bow is roughly heavier than a viola bow, which in turn is roughly heavier than a violin bow.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: The cello bow has also been used to play electric guitars. Jimmy Page pioneered its application on tracks such as "Dazed and Confused". The post-rock Icelandic band Sigur Rós's lead singer often plays guitar using a cello bow.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: When a string is bowed or plucked to produce a note, the fundamental note is accompanied by higher frequency overtones. Each sound has a particular recipe of frequencies that combine to make the total sound.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Glissando (Italian for "sliding") is an effect achieved by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard without releasing the string. This causes the pitch to rise and fall smoothly, without separate, discernible steps.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: A player using the col legno technique strikes or rubs the strings with the wood of the bow rather than the hair. In spiccato playing, the bow still moves in a horizontal motion on the string but is allowed to bounce, generating a lighter, somewhat more percussive sound. In staccato, the player moves the bow a small distance and stops it on the string, making a short sound, the rest of the written duration being taken up by silence.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Legato is a technique in which notes are smoothly connected without breaks. It is indicated by a slur (curved line) above or below – depending on their position on the staff – the notes of the passage that is to be played legato.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Standard-sized cellos are referred to as "full-size" or "" but are also made in smaller (fractional) sizes, including , , , , , , and . The fractions refer to volume rather than length, so a 1/2 size cello is much longer than half the length of a full size. The smaller cellos are identical to standard cellos in construction, range, and usage, but are simply scaled-down for the benefit of children and shorter adults.

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: Cellos are made by luthiers, specialists in building and repairing stringed instruments, ranging from guitars to violins. The following luthiers are notable for the cellos they have produced:

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Cello

Context: A person who plays the cello is called a "cellist". For a list of notable cellists, see the list of cellists and .

Question: チェロの起源はいつ


Yokohama Dreamland

Context: Yokohama Dreamland was an amusement park that operated in Totsuka, Yokohama, Japan from 1964 to 2002. The management company, , was acquired by the supermarket chain Daiei in 1993, and the amusement park closed permanently on February 17, 2002, due to financial issues. At the time of its closing, the amusement park was downsized to . It was the sister park to Nara Dreamland, which itself closed permanently in 2006.

Question: 横浜ドリームランドの跡地は何に使われた？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Rail transport in Japan is a major means of passenger transport, especially for mass and high-speed travel between major cities and for commuter transport in urban areas. It is used relatively little for freight transport, accounting for just 0.84% of goods movement. The privatised network is highly efficient, requiring few subsidies and running with extreme punctuality.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Fukuoka, Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, Sapporo, Sendai, Tokyo and Yokohama have subway systems. However, unlike Europe, the vast majority of passenger traffic is on suburban commuter trains that criss-cross metropolitan areas. In addition, many cities have streetcar and monorail networks.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Japan pioneered the high-speed shinkansen or "bullet train", which now links Japan's largest cities at speeds of up to 320 km/h (200 mph). However, other trains running on the conventional line or "zairaisen" remain relatively slow, operating at fastest 160 km/h and mostly under 130 km/h, most likely due to the wide usage of Narrow-gauge tracks they operate on.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Japan's railways carried 31 million tons (21 billion tonne-kilometres) of goods in 2013–14. The share of railways in the national logistics is as small as 6.2% (2010), by far the lowest in the G8.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Railways are the most important means of passenger transportation in Japan, maintaining this status since the late nineteenth century. Government policy promoted railways as an efficient transportation system for a country that lacks fossil fuels and is nearly completely dependent on imports.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Rural land near large cities was acquired cheaply by private railway companies from the late nineteenth century, which then built lines that became the backbone of urban transport between the suburbs and cities formed around the railway lines radiating out from metropolitan areas, similar to suburban growth around railways in other nations.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Despite this efficiency, growing affluence and associated car ownership led to road transportation usage increasing to the detriment of rail from the 1960s. The relative share of railways in total passenger kilometers fell from 66.7 percent in 1965 to 42 percent in 1978, and 29.8 percent in 1990, although this still accounted for the largest percentage of the OECD member countries.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: The figure is 43.5% (as of 2001) in the largest metropolitan areas in Japan: Tokyo (including Chiba, Saitama, Tokyo, and Kanagawa Prefectures), Osaka (including Kyoto, Osaka, and Hyōgo Prefectures), and Nagoya. Private automobiles in Greater Tokyo account for less than 20% of daily trips as car ownership is restricted to those with a dedicated parking space.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: The six passenger operating companies of the JR Group are separated by region, but many operate long-distance train services beyond their regional boundaries. The six companies are: Hokkaido Railway Company, East Japan Railway Company, Central Japan Railway Company, West Japan Railway Company, Shikoku Railway Company, and Kyushu Railway Company.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Freight service belongs to Japan Freight Railway Company or JR Freight which operates all freight network previously owned by JNR.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Japan also features multiple competing private railway systems. In post-war Japan, the Japanese government encouraged private corporations to develop their own mass transit systems in order to quickly rebuild the country's urban transport networks.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Private rail lines were encouraged to compete with each other as well as the national rail lines with the government's role limited to regulation of fares. In exchange for developing rail lines, private corporations were given business opportunities to diversify their operations and develop the real estate surrounding their railway networks.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: By allowing private corporations to control transit oriented developments as well as railway lines, planned communities were facilitated allowing private railway operators to establish a vertically integrated business of developing residential, business, industrial and retail land and the commuting methods used by the populace to travel between such areas.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: As such, through diversification of their business, the majority of the private railways in Japan are financially independent and their railway operations are usually profitable, in sharp contrast to most transit networks in other countries.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: The classifies the following 16 companies as the major private railways and are operating 2,870.1 kilometers of railways. In a one-year period from April 2009, a total of 9.46 billion passengers (118 billion passenger kilometers) traveled on these major railways.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: In the legal sense, there are two types (with several subcategories) of rail transportation systems in Japan: and . Every public rail transportation system under government regulation in Japan is classified either as railway or tramway. In principle, tramways can have sections shared with road traffic while railways cannot, but the choice may seem rather arbitrary in certain cases. For example, Osaka Metro is a tram system while subways in other cities are railways.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Under the Railway Business Act, operations of "railways" (in the legal meaning) are divided into three categories: Category 1, Category 2 and Category 3.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Most railway operations in Japan are Category 1. Examples of Category 2 railway businesses include most operations of the Japan Freight Railway Company (JR Freight) and the JR Tōzai Line operation of the West Japan Railway Company (JR West). Examples of Category 3 railway businesses include the Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway company and the government of Aomori Prefecture with regards to the Aoimori Railway.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: The national railway network was started and has been expanded with the narrow gauge. Railways with broader gauge are limited to those built not intending to provide through freight and passenger transport with the existing national network. The Shinkansen network uses standard gauge. Recently, the standard gauge freight railway network (partially electrified with 25 kV AC) is proposed for Hokkaido, Honshu and the northernmost Kyushu (Kanmon strait - Hakata).

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Electrification systems used by the JR Group are 1,500 V DC and 20 kV AC for conventional lines, and 25 kV AC for Shinkansen. Electrification with 600 V DC and 750 V DC are also seen in private lines. Frequency of AC power supply is 50 Hz in eastern Japan and 60 Hz in western Japan.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: There are many private railway companies in Japan and the loading gauge is different for each company.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Rail transport in Japan is usually for a fee. In principle a fare is pre-charged and a ticket is issued in exchange for a payment of fare. A ticket is inspected at a staffed or automated gate in the station where a travel starts and is collected at the station where the travel ends.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: A ticket required for a travel by railway is called a , the price of which is . The fare ticket is valid regardless of number of transfers. Long-distance travellers (usually longer than 101 km) are allowed unlimited number of along the route subject to the duration of the validity of the fare ticket. In addition, a ride on a specific train and/or coach may require a .

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Train operators usually name long-distance trains (Kintetsu is a rare exception of this practice). The process of ticket reservation utilizes the train names instead of the train numbers. Train numbers are almost exclusively for professional use.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: All the railway and tram lines in Japan are named by the operators. In principle (with some exceptions), a section of railway has only one name. Line names are shown on a ticket to indicate the route of the ticket. Passengers refer the railway by the name of line (e.g. "Tōyoko Line") or the name of operator (e.g. "Hanshin").

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: The line names may come from a name of destination or a city along the line (e.g. the "Takasaki Line" goes to Takasaki, Gunma); a name of region (e.g. the "Tōhoku Main Line" goes through the Tōhoku region); an abbreviation of provinces or cities (e.g. the "Gonō Line" connects Goshogawara and Noshiro); or a course of the line (e.g. the "Tōzai Line" means the East-West Line).

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Line names were used as a basis for the restructuring of JNR in the 1980s. The railway business was evaluated line-by-line in order to identify significantly unprofitable lines for closure. This left some unnamed branch lines, which would have been closed if they had line names, unaffected by the restructure.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: In some cases the current route of a railway has changed but the historic line name has not reflected the change, in which case the operational name will be different from the original line name. Examples include the Keihin-Tōhoku Line and the Shōnan-Shinjuku Line.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: There are a number of other metro systems in other Japanese cities, including the Fukuoka City Subway, Kobe Municipal Subway, Kyoto Municipal Subway, Osaka Metro, Nagoya Subway, Sapporo Subway, Sendai Subway and Yokohama Subway.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: While metro systems in Japanese cities are usually operated by the city government and therefore tend to limit their networks within the city border, there are many cases of through services using subway trains on suburban railway lines and vice versa. One of the reasons for this situation was the sharp increase of ridership on the railways in the rapid growth of the postwar economy that could not be handled by small original railway terminals in the city center.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Automated guideway transit (rubber-tired motor cars running on concrete guideways) has also developed in Japan. Cities with such intermediate capacity transit systems include Hiroshima, Kobe, Osaka, Saitama and Tokyo.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Some cities operate streetcar systems, including Hiroshima, Matsuyama, Nagasaki, Tokyo (one line only) and Toyohashi. All of these cities are also well served by public and private railroads; also, there are private tramways not included above.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: One of the most widely publicized crimes committed on trains is "chikan" or groping, taking advantage of overcrowded cars and a reluctance for people to ask for help, or to jump to the aid of another. A recent trend for railway companies to promote their lines is to service female-only cars on some trains (typically during morning rush-hours and late night trains, and often the front or back car) and is quickly becoming a standard practice, especially among Tokyo's busy commuter lines.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: The Japanese language has a number of expressions for unlawfully riding trains without paying the correct fare. One is "Satsuma-no-kami." It is a reference to Taira Satsuma-no-kami Tadanori, a member of the Taira clan who is mentioned in the Tale of the Heike. His name, Tadanori, is pronounced the same as words meaning "riding for free".

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Other notable crimes staged in railway facilities in Japan include the assassination of the Prime Minister Hara Takashi in Tokyo Station in 1921, the deliberate train wreck at Mitaka Station in 1949 and the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: Japanese books and television feature rail transport in various contexts. Examples include travelogues visiting rustic routes or unusual trains, such as the popular Sci-Fi franchise "Galaxy Express 999" or murder mysteries on sleeper trains.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Rail transport in Japan

Context: A major television series based on rail transport, Ressha Sentai ToQger, was broadcast on TV Asahi from 2014 to 2015.

Question: 日本最大の鉄道会社は何？


Murong Ping

Context: Murong Ping was one of the youngest, if not the youngest, sons of the Jin vassal, the Xianbei chief Murong Hui (), the father of Former Yan's founder Murong Huang. Although historical records do not give his age, it was probably close in range to Murong Jun, Murong Huang's heir apparent. (This is corroborated in that his grandnephew Murong Wei, at one point, referred to him as an uncle rather than a granduncle, perhaps out of confusion in his young age.) It is not known who his mother was.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: The first reference to him in history was in 339, when he was mentioned as one of Murong Huang's generals (along with another brother, Murong Jun (, note different tone and character than his nephew who would later inherit the throne), Muyu Gen, and Muyu Ni (慕輿泥)) who conducted a successful raid against Later Zhao's border region.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: In 360, Murong Jun grew seriously ill, and he commissioned his capable brother Murong Ke as regent for his son Murong Wei. Murong Ping, Yang Wu, and Muyu Gen were to serve as Murong Ke's assistants. Murong Jun soon died, and Murong Wei succeeded him.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: Muyu Gen, a more senior official than Murong Ke or Murong Ping, was unwilling to submit to Murong Ke, and he falsely told the young emperor and his mother Empress Dowager Kezuhun Murong Ke and Murong Ping were planning a rebellion. Empress Dowager Kezuhun believed Muyu, but the young emperor did not and refused to authorize his actions. Murong Ke soon found out and, after consulting with Murong Ping, executed Muyu and his clan.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: Murong Ke was clearly the regent at this point, but he consulted Murong Ping on all major decisions. His regency was considered a successful one, as he governed the empire with efficiency while expanding its borders southward, at Jin's expense. Murong Ping's role in this success is unclear. In 361, the magician Ding Jin (丁進), whom Murong Wei trusted, tried to flatter Murong Ke by suggesting to him to kill Murong Ping, but Murong Ke became angry and executed Ding.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: In 366, both Murong Ke and Murong Ping offered to resign their posts and return all of their authorities to Murong Wei. Murong Wei declined.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: Murong Ping, while apparently having military abilities, was incompetent and corrupt as a regent. In 368, when four of Former Qin's dukes rebelled against the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān, they sought help from Former Yan. Many officials, including Murong Jun's brother Murong De the Prince of Fanyang, saw this as a perfect opportunity to conquer Former Qin, but Murong Ping declined to take any actions against Former Qin, so Former Qin forces crushed the four rebel dukes.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Murong Ping

Context: When Murong Chui restored the regime as Later Yan, Murong Yi (慕容懿), grandson of Murong Ping, succeeded his title as Duke of Shangyong.

Question: 慕容 評の性別は？


Kakure Kirishitan

Context: Kakure kirishitan () is a modern term for a member of the Catholic Church in Japan that went underground at the start of the Edo period in the early 17th century due to Christianity's repression by the Tokugawa shogunate.

Question: 日本に存在した最大の隠れキリシタン地区はどこ


Kakure Kirishitan

Context: Kakure kirishitan are the Catholic communities in Japan which hid themselves during the ban and persecution of Christianity by Japan in the 1600s.

Question: 日本に存在した最大の隠れキリシタン地区はどこ


Kakure Kirishitan

Context: Depictions of Mary modeled on the Buddhist deity Kannon (Avalokiteśvara), goddess of mercy, became common among kakure kirishitan, and were known as "Maria Kannon". The prayers were adapted to sound like Buddhist chant, yet retained many untranslated words from Latin, Portuguese, and Spanish. The Bible and other parts of the liturgy were passed down orally, because printed works could be confiscated by authorities.

Question: 日本に存在した最大の隠れキリシタン地区はどこ


Kakure Kirishitan

Context: The majority of kakure kirishitan rejoined the Catholic Church after renouncing unorthodox, syncretic practices. Some Kakure Kirishitan did not rejoin the Catholic Church, and became known as the hanare kirishitan (, separated Christians). Hanare Kirishitan are now primarily found in Urakami and on the Gotō Islands.

Question: 日本に存在した最大の隠れキリシタン地区はどこ


Kakure Kirishitan

Context: The Kakure Kirishitan still exist today, forming "what is arguably a separate faith, barely recognizable as the creed imported in the mid-1500s by Catholic missionaries".

Question: 日本に存在した最大の隠れキリシタン地区はどこ


History of statistics

Context: Statistics, in the modern sense of the word, began evolving in the 18th century in response to the novel needs of industrializing sovereign states. The evolution of statistics was, in particular, intimately connected with the development of European states following the peace of Westphalia (1648), and with the development of probability theory, which put statistics on a firm theoretical basis.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Thus, the original principal purpose of "Statistik" was data to be used by governmental and (often centralized) administrative bodies. The collection of data about states and localities continues, largely through national and international statistical services. In particular, censuses provide frequently updated information about the population.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The first book to have 'statistics' in its title was "Contributions to Vital Statistics" (1845) by Francis GP Neison, actuary to the Medical Invalid and General Life Office.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Basic forms of statistics have been used since the beginning of civilization. Early empires often collated censuses of the population or recorded the trade in various commodities. The Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire were some of the first states to extensively gather data on the size of the empire's population, geographical area and wealth.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The Trial of the Pyx is a test of the purity of the coinage of the Royal Mint which has been held on a regular basis since the 12th century. The Trial itself is based on statistical sampling methods. After minting a series of coins - originally from ten pounds of silver - a single coin was placed in the Pyx - a box in Westminster Abbey. After a given period - now once a year - the coins are removed and weighed. A sample of coins removed from the box are then tested for purity.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The "Nuova Cronica", a 14th-century history of Florence by the Florentine banker and official Giovanni Villani, includes much statistical information on population, ordinances, commerce and trade, education, and religious facilities and has been described as the first introduction of statistics as a positive element in history, though neither the term nor the concept of statistics as a specific field yet existed.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The arithmetic mean, although a concept known to the Greeks, was not generalised to more than two values until the 16th century. The invention of the decimal system by Simon Stevin in 1585 seems likely to have facilitated these calculations. This method was first adopted in astronomy by Tycho Brahe who was attempting to reduce the errors in his estimates of the locations of various celestial bodies.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The idea of the median originated in Edward Wright's book on navigation ("Certaine Errors in Navigation") in 1599 in a section concerning the determination of location with a compass. Wright felt that this value was the most likely to be the correct value in a series of observations.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In 1761 Thomas Bayes proved Bayes' theorem and in 1765 Joseph Priestley invented the first timeline charts.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1765 book "Anlage zur Architectonic" proposed the semicircle as a distribution of errors:

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Pierre-Simon Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the combination of observations from the principles of the theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability of errors by a curve and deduced a formula for the mean of three observations.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Laplace in 1774 noted that the frequency of an error could be expressed as an exponential function of its magnitude once its sign was disregarded. This distribution is now known as the Laplace distribution. Lagrange proposed a parabolic fractal distribution of errors in 1776.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Lagrange also suggested in 1781 two other distributions for errors - a raised cosine distribution and a logarithmic distribution.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Laplace gave (1781) a formula for the law of facility of error (a term due to Joseph Louis Lagrange, 1774), but one which led to unmanageable equations. Daniel Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle of the maximum product of the probabilities of a system of concurrent errors.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In 1786 William Playfair (1759-1823) introduced the idea of graphical representation into statistics. He invented the line chart, bar chart and histogram and incorporated them into his works on economics, the "Commercial and Political Atlas". This was followed in 1795 by his invention of the pie chart and circle chart which he used to display the evolution of England's imports and exports. These latter charts came to general attention when he published examples in his "Statistical Breviary" in 1801.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Laplace, in an investigation of the motions of Saturn and Jupiter in 1787, generalized Mayer's method by using different linear combinations of a single group of equations.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In 1791 Sir John Sinclair introduced the term 'statistics' into English in his Statistical Accounts of Scotland.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In 1802 Laplace estimated the population of France to be 28,328,612. He calculated this figure using the number of births in the previous year and census data for three communities. The census data of these communities showed that they had 2,037,615 persons and that the number of births were 71,866. Assuming that these samples were representative of France, Laplace produced his estimate for the entire population.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The method of least squares, which was used to minimize errors in data measurement, was published independently by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), Robert Adrain (1808), and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1809). Gauss had used the method in his famous 1801 prediction of the location of the dwarf planet Ceres. The observations that Gauss based his calculations on were made by the Italian monk Piazzi.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The method of least squares was preceded by the use a median regression slope. This method minimizing the sum of the absolute deviances. A method of estimating this slope was invented by Roger Joseph Boscovich in 1760 which he applied to astronomy.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The term "probable error" ("der wahrscheinliche Fehler") - the median deviation from the mean - was introduced in 1815 by the German astronomer Frederik Wilhelm Bessel. Antoine Augustin Cournot in 1843 was the first to use the term "median" ("valeur médiane") for the value that divides a probability distribution into two equal halves.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Other contributors to the theory of errors were Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Peters's (1856) formula for formula_2, the "probable error" of a single observation was widely used and inspired early robust statistics (resistant to outliers: see Peirce's criterion).

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In the 19th century authors on statistical theory included Laplace, S. Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Dedekind (1860), Helmert (1872), Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion, De Morgan and Boole.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Gustav Theodor Fechner used the median ("Centralwerth") in sociological and psychological phenomena. It had earlier been used only in astronomy and related fields. Francis Galton used the English term "median" for the first time in 1881 having earlier used the terms "middle-most value" in 1869 and the "medium" in 1880.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), another important founder of statistics, introduced the notion of the "average man" ("l'homme moyen") as a means of understanding complex social phenomena such as crime rates, marriage rates, and suicide rates.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The first tests of the normal distribution were invented by the German statistician Wilhelm Lexis in the 1870s. The only data sets available to him that he was able to show were normally distributed were birth rates.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The first statistical bodies were established in the early 19th century. The Royal Statistical Society was founded in 1834 and Florence Nightingale, its first female member, pioneered the application of statistical analysis to health problems for the furtherance of epidemiological understanding and public health practice. However, the methods then used would not be considered as modern statistics today.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Francis Galton is credited as one of the principal founders of statistical theory. His contributions to the field included introducing the concepts of standard deviation, correlation, regression and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics - height, weight, eyelash length among others. He found that many of these could be fitted to a normal curve distribution.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Galton submitted a paper to "Nature" in 1907 on the usefulness of the median. He examined the accuracy of 787 guesses of the weight of an ox at a country fair. The actual weight was 1208 pounds: the median guess was 1198. The guesses were markedly non-normally distributed.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: He also founded the statistical hypothesis testing theory, Pearson's chi-squared test and principal component analysis. In 1911 he founded the world's first university statistics department at University College London.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Other important contributions at this time included Charles Spearman's rank correlation coefficient that was a useful extension of the Pearson correlation coefficient. William Sealy Gosset, the English statistician better known under his pseudonym of "Student", introduced Student's t-distribution, a continuous probability distribution useful in situations where the sample size is small and population standard deviation is unknown.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Egon Pearson (Karl's son) and Jerzy Neyman introduced the concepts of "Type II" error, power of a test and confidence intervals. Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In 1747, while serving as surgeon on HM Bark "Salisbury", James Lind carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for scurvy. In this study his subjects' cases "were as similar as I could have them", that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. The men were paired, which provided blocking. From a modern perspective, the main thing that is missing is randomized allocation of subjects to treatments.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Lind is today often described as a one-factor-at-a-time experimenter. Similar one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experimentation was performed at the Rothamsted Research Station in the 1840s by Sir John Lawes to determine the optimal inorganic fertilizer for use on wheat.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics. In another study, Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s. Peirce also contributed the first English-language publication on an optimal design for regression-models in 1876. A pioneering optimal design for polynomial regression was suggested by Gergonne in 1815. In 1918 Kirstine Smith published optimal designs for polynomials of degree six (and less).

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The use of a sequence of experiments, where the design of each may depend on the results of previous experiments, including the possible decision to stop experimenting, was pioneered by Abraham Wald in the context of sequential tests of statistical hypotheses. Surveys are available of optimal sequential designs, and of adaptive designs. One specific type of sequential design is the "two-armed bandit", generalized to the multi-armed bandit, on which early work was done by Herbert Robbins in 1952.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by Ronald A. Fisher, in his innovative book "The Design of Experiments" (1935) which also became a standard. As an example, he described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could distinguish by flavour alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. While this sounds like a frivolous application, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design: see Lady tasting tea.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: The word "Bayesian" appeared around 1950, and by the 1960s it became the term preferred by those dissatisfied with the limitations of frequentist statistics.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In the 20th century, the ideas of Laplace were further developed in two different directions, giving rise to "objective" and "subjective" currents in Bayesian practice. In the objectivist stream, the statistical analysis depends on only the model assumed and the data analysed. No subjective decisions need to be involved. In contrast, "subjectivist" statisticians deny the possibility of fully objective analysis for the general case.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


History of statistics

Context: In the 1980s, there was a dramatic growth in research and applications of Bayesian methods, mostly attributed to the discovery of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, which removed many of the computational problems, and an increasing interest in nonstandard, complex applications. Despite growth of Bayesian research, most undergraduate teaching is still based on frequentist statistics. Nonetheless, Bayesian methods are widely accepted and used, such as for example in the field of machine learning.

Question: 統計学の先駆者は誰？


Maoism

Context: At the turn of the 20th century, the contemporary Chinese intellectual tradition was defined by two central concepts: (i) iconoclasm and (ii) nationalism.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The fall of the last imperial Chinese dynasty in 1911 marked the final failure of the Confucian moral order and it did much to make Confucianism synonymous with political and social conservatism in the minds of Chinese intellectuals. It was this association of conservatism and Confucianism which lent to the iconoclastic nature of Chinese intellectual thought during the first decades of the 20th century.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by Chen Duxiu during the New Culture Movement which occurred between 1915 and 1919. Proposing the "total destruction of the traditions and values of the past", the New Culture Movement was spearheaded by the "New Youth", a periodical which was published by Chen Duxiu and was profoundly influential on the young Mao Zedong, whose first published work appeared on the magazine's pages.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Another international event would have a large impact not only on Mao, but also on the Chinese intelligentsia. The Russian Revolution elicited great interest among Chinese intellectuals, although socialist revolution in China was not considered a viable option until after the May 4 Incident. Afterwards, "[t]o become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual to reject both the traditions of the Chinese past and Western domination of the Chinese present".

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Although the Yan'an period did answer some of the questions, both ideological and theoretical, which were raised by the Chinese Communist Revolution, it left many of the crucial questions unresolved, including how the Chinese Communist Party was supposed to launch a socialist revolution while completely separated from the urban sphere.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Mao's intellectual development can be divided into five major periods, namely (1) the initial Marxist period from 1920 to 1926; (2) the formative Maoist period from 1927 to 1935; (3) the mature Maoist period from 1935 to 1940; (4) the Civil-War period from 1940 to 1949; and (5) the post-1949 period following the revolutionary victory.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Maoism and Marxism differ in the ways in which the proletariat are defined, and in which political and economic conditions would start a communist revolution.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Although Mao Zedong Thought is still listed as one of the Four Cardinal Principles of the People's Republic of China, its historical role has been re-assessed. The Communist Party now says that Maoism was necessary to break China free from its feudal past, but it also says that the actions of Mao are seen to have led to excesses during the Cultural Revolution.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Chief responsibility for the grave 'Left' error of the 'cultural revolution,' an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong [...] [and] far from making a correct analysis of many problems, he confused right and wrong and the people with the enemy [...] herein lies his tragedy.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Scholars outside China see this re-working of the definition of Maoism as providing an ideological justification for what they see as the restoration of the essentials of capitalism in China by Deng and his successors, who sought to "eradicate all ideological and physiological obstacles to economic reform". In 1978, this led to the Sino-Albanian split when Albanian leader Enver Hoxha denounced Deng as a revisionist and formed Hoxhaism as an anti-revisionist form of Marxism.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The pro-Albanian camp would start to function as an international group as well (led by Enver Hoxha and the APL) and was also able to amalgamate many of the communist groups in Latin America, including the Communist Party of Brazil. Later, Latin American Communists such as Peru's Shining Path also embraced the tenets of Maoism.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The theory of the New Democracy was known to the Chinese revolutionaries from the late 1940s. This thesis held that for the majority of the people of the planet, the long road to socialism could only be opened by a "national, popular, democratic, anti-feudal and anti-imperialist revolution, run by the communists".

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Holding that "political power grows out of the barrel of a gun", Maoism emphasizes the "revolutionary struggle of the vast majority of people against the exploiting classes and their state structures", which Mao termed a "people's war". Mobilizing large parts of rural populations to revolt against established institutions by engaging in guerrilla warfare, Maoist Thought focuses on "surrounding the cities from the countryside".

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Building on the theory of the vanguard party by Vladimir Lenin, the theory of the mass line outlines a strategy for the revolutionary leadership of the masses, consolidation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and strengthening of the party and for the building of socialism. The mass line can be summarized by the phrase "from the masses, to the masses". It has three components or stages:

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: These three steps should be applied over and over again, reiteratively uplifting practice and knowledge to higher and higher stages.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The theory of the Cultural Revolution states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat does not wipe out bourgeois ideology; the class struggle continues and even intensifies during socialism, therefore a constant struggle against these ideologies and their social roots must be conducted. The Cultural Revolution is also directed against traditionalism.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Although Maoism is critical of urban industrial capitalist powers, it views urban industrialization as a prerequisite to expand economic development and socialist reorganization to the countryside, with the goal being the achievement of rural industrialization that would abolish the distinction between town and countryside.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Khmer Rouge of Cambodia is said to have been a replica of the Maoist regime. According to the BBC, the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) in Cambodia, better known as the Khmer Rouge, identified strongly with Maoism and it is generally labeled a Maoist movement today. However, Maoists and Marxists generally contend that the CPK strongly deviated from Marxist doctrine and the few references to Maoist China in CPK propaganda were critical of the Chinese.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: Only one Western classic communist party sided with the CCP, the Communist Party of New Zealand. Under the leadership of the CCP and Mao Zedong, a parallel international communist movement emerged to rival that of the Soviets, although it was never as formalized and homogeneous as the pro-Soviet tendency.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Progressive Youth Organization was a Maoist organization in Afghanistan. It was founded in 1965 with Akram Yari as its first leader, advocating the overthrow of the then-current order by means of people's war.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan was founded in 2004 through the merger of five MLM parties.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist) is a Maoist organisation in Australia. It was founded in 1964 as a pro-Mao split from the Australian Communist Party.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party is a Maoist party in Bangladesh. It was founded in 1968 with Siraj Sikder as its first leader. The party played a role in the Bangladesh Liberation War.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Communist Party of Ecuador – Red Sun, also known as "Puka Inti", is a small Maoist guerrilla organization in Ecuador.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Communist Party of India (Maoist) is the leading Maoist organisation in India. The CPI (Maoist) is designated as a terrorist organisation in India under Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act.

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた


Maoism

Context: The Union of Iranian Communists (Sarbedaran) was an Iran Maoist organization. The UIC (S) was formed in 1976 after the alliance of a number of Maoist groups carrying out military actions within Iran. In 1982, the UIC (S) mobilized forces in forests around Amol and launched an insurgency against the Islamist Government. The uprising was eventually a failure and many UIC (S) leaders were shot. The party dissolved in 1982

Question: マルクス・毛沢東主義はいつ生まれた