Baruch Spinoza

Context: In 1660 or 1661, Spinoza moved from Amsterdam to Rijnsburg (near Leiden), the headquarters of the Collegiants. In Rijnsburg, he began work on his "Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy"" as well as on his masterpiece, the "Ethics". In 1663, he returned briefly to Amsterdam, where he finished and published "Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy"", the only work published in his lifetime under his own name, and then moved the same year to Voorburg.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: In 1670, Spinoza moved to The Hague where he lived on a small pension from Jan de Witt and a small annuity from the brother of his dead friend, Simon de Vries. He worked on the "Ethics", wrote an unfinished Hebrew grammar, began his "Political Treatise", wrote two scientific essays ("On the Rainbow" and "On the Calculation of Chances"), and began a Dutch translation of the Bible (which he later destroyed).

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Spinoza was offered the chair of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg, but he refused it, perhaps because of the possibility that it might in some way curb his freedom of thought.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, and he died on 21 February 1677 at the age of 44. His premature death was said to be due to lung illness, possibly silicosis as a result of breathing in glass dust from the lenses that he ground. Later, a shrine was made of his home in The Hague.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: The writings of René Descartes have been described as "Spinoza's starting point". Spinoza's first publication was his 1663 geometric exposition of proofs using Euclid's model with definitions and axioms of Descartes' "Principles of Philosophy". Spinoza has been associated with Leibniz and Descartes as "rationalists" in contrast to "empiricists".

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: The "Ethics" and all other works, apart from the "Descartes' Principles of Philosophy" and the "Theologico-Political Treatise", were published after his death in the "Opera Posthuma", edited by his friends in secrecy to avoid confiscation and destruction of manuscripts. The "Ethics" contains many still-unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modelled on Euclid's geometry and has been described as a "superbly cryptic masterwork".

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: In a letter, written in December 1675 and sent to Albert Burgh, who wanted to defend Catholicism, Spinoza clearly explained his view of both Catholicism and Islam. He stated that both religions are made "to deceive the people and to constrain the minds of men". He also states that Islam far surpasses Catholicism in doing so. The "Tractatus de Deo, Homine, ejusque Felicitate" (Treatise on God, man and his happiness) was one of the last Spinoza's works to be published, between 1851 and 1862.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Spinoza's philosophy is considered part of the rationalist school of thought, which means that at its heart is the assumption that ideas correspond to reality perfectly, in the same way that mathematics is supposed to be an exact representation of the world. Following René Descartes, he aimed to understand truth through logical deductions from 'clear and distinct ideas', a process which always begins from the 'self-evident truths' of axioms.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: According to Professor Eric Schliesser, Spinoza was sceptical regarding the possibility of knowledge of nature and as a consequence at odds with scientists like Galileo and Huygens.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Given Spinoza's insistence on a completely ordered world where "necessity" reigns, Good and Evil have no absolute meaning. The world as it exists looks imperfect only because of our limited perception.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Also in the "Ethics", Spinoza discusses his beliefs about what he considers to be the three kinds of knowledge that come with perceptions:

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Martial Guéroult (1891–1976) suggested the term "panentheism", rather than "pantheism" to describe Spinoza's view of the relation between God and the world. The world is not God, but it is, in a strong sense, "in" God. Not only do finite things have God as their cause; they cannot be conceived without God. However, American panentheist philosopher Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000) insisted on the term Classical Pantheism to describe Spinoza's view.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late 18th-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them:

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: By 1879, Spinoza’s pantheism was praised by many, but was considered by some to be alarming and dangerously inimical.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Spinoza's "God or Nature" ("Deus sive Natura") provided a living, natural God, in contrast to Isaac Newton's first cause argument and the dead mechanism of Julien Offray de La Mettrie's (1709–1751) work, "Man a Machine" (")". Coleridge and Shelley saw in Spinoza's philosophy a "religion of nature". Novalis called him the "God-intoxicated man". Spinoza inspired the poet Shelley to write his essay "The Necessity of Atheism".

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Steven Nadler suggests that settling the question of Spinoza's atheism or pantheism depends on an analysis of attitudes. If pantheism is associated with religiosity, then Spinoza is not a pantheist, since Spinoza believes that the proper stance to take towards God is not one of reverence or religious awe, but instead one of objective study and reason, since taking the religious stance would leave one open to the possibility of error and superstition.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Anthony Gottlieb opined in 1999 that "Coleridge and Shelley saw in [Spinoza's ] a religion of nature. George Eliot, who translated some of the "Ethics" into English, liked Spinoza for his vehement attacks on superstition. Karl Marx liked him for what he took to be his materialistic account of the universe. Goethe could not say exactly what it was that he liked in the "Ethics", but he knew he was profoundly moved by something or other" even though Goethe admitted to not always understanding Spinoza.

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Baruch Spinoza

Context: Nietzsche respected few philosophers, but held Spinoza in high esteem without reading Spinoza's works; Nietzsche learned about Spinoza from Kuno Fischer's "History of Modern Philosophy".

Question: ما هي جنسية باروخ سبينوزا؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul's Jewish name was "Saul" (), perhaps after the biblical King Saul, the first king of Israel and like Paul a member of the Tribe of Benjamin; the Latin name Paul, meaning small, was not a result of his conversion as it is commonly believed but a second name for use in communicating with a Greco-Roman audience.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: According to the Acts of the Apostles, he was a Roman citizen. As such, he bore the Latin name "Paul" – in Latin and in biblical Greek (). It was typical for the Jews of that time to have two names: one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Jesus called him "Saul, Saul" in "the Hebrew tongue" in the Acts of the Apostles, when he had the vision which led to his conversion on the road to Damascus. Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus". When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The two main sources of information that give access to the earliest segments of Paul's career are the Acts of the Apostles and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early Christian communities. Paul was likely born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD. The Acts of the Apostles indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, but Helmut Koester takes issue with the evidence presented by the text.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: He was from a devout Jewish family based in the city of Tarsus. One of the larger centers of trade on the Mediterranean coast and renowned for its university, Tarsus had been among the most influential cities in Asia Minor since the time of Alexander the Great, who died in 323 BC.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee". The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Acts quotes Paul referring to his family by saying he was "a Pharisee, born of Pharisees". Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16. In Romans 16:7, he states that his relatives, Andronicus and Junia, were Christians before he was and were prominent among the Apostles.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The family had a history of religious piety. Apparently, the family lineage had been very attached to Pharisaic traditions and observances for generations. Acts says that he was an artisan involved in the leather crafting or tent-making profession. This was to become an initial connection with Priscilla and Aquila, with whom he would partner in tentmaking and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Although it is known (from his biography and from Acts) that Paul could and did speak Aramaic (then known as "Hebrew"), modern scholarship suggests that Koine Greek was his first language. In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul's conversion can be dated to 31–36 by his reference to it in one of his letters. In Galatians 1:16, Paul writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me." In 1 Corinthians 15:8, as he lists the order in which Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul writes, "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also."

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: According to the account in the Acts of the Apostles, it took place on the road to Damascus, where he reported having experienced a vision of the ascended Jesus. The account says that "He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, 'Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?' He asked, 'Who are you, Lord?' The reply came, 'I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting'."

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: The author of the Acts of the Apostles may have learned of Paul's conversion from the church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch, or possibly from Paul himself.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish Merkabah tradition. Similarly, Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin regard Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens (in 2 Corinthians 12)as the earliest first-person accounts that are extant of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature. Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from man, but directly by "the revelation of Jesus Christ". He claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community (possibly in the Cenacle), but agreed with it on the nature and content of the gospel. He appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various growing Gentile churches that he started. In his writings, Paul used the persecutions he endured to avow proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46, Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community. According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The author of Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey, for which Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch community, and led initially by Barnabas, took Barnabas and Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then into southern Asia Minor, and finally returning to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician who was criticizing their teachings.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Antioch served as a major Christian home base for Paul's early missionary activities, and he remained there for "a long time with the disciples" at the conclusion of his first journey. The exact duration of Paul's stay in Antioch is unknown, with estimates ranging from nine months to as long as eight years.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In Raymond Brown's "An Introduction to the New Testament" (1997), a chronology of events in Paul's life is presented, illustrated from later 20th-century writings of biblical scholars. The first missionary journey of Paul is assigned a "traditional" (and majority) dating of 46–49 AD, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of after 37 AD.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: A vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place in the year 49 by "traditional" (and majority) dating, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of 47/51. The meeting is described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1. The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised. At this meeting, Paul states in his letter to the Galatians, Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, and also in Paul's letters. For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Peter and James only). F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to Jerusalem.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "Incident at Antioch", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The "Catholic Encyclopedia" suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke". However Paul himself never mentions a victory and "From Jesus to Christianity" draws the opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as "persona non grata", never again to return".

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Around 50–52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth. The reference in Acts to Proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio Inscription). In Corinth, Paul met Priscilla and Aquila, who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: This table is adapted from White, "From Jesus to Christianity." Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: The next morning, forty Jews "bound themselves by an oath neither to eat nor drink until they had killed Paul", but the son of Paul's sister heard of the plot and notified Paul, who notified the tribune that the conspiracists were going to ambush him. The tribune ordered two centurions to "Get ready to leave by nine o'clock tonight for Caesarea with two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen. Also provide mounts for Paul to ride, and take him safely to Felix the governor."

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul was taken to Caesarea, where the governor ordered that he be kept under guard in Herod's headquarters. "Five days later the high priest Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against Paul to the governor." Both Paul and the Jewish authorities gave a statement "But Felix, who was rather well informed about the Way, adjourned the hearing with the comment, "When Lysias the tribune comes down, I will decide your case."

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman citizen to Caesar, Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita" (Malta), where the islanders showed him "unusual kindness" and where he was met by Publius. From Malta, he travelled to Rome via Syracuse, Rhegium and Puteoli.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul finally arrived in Rome around 60, where he spent another two years under house arrest. The narrative of Acts ends with Paul preaching in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Irenaeus wrote in the 2nd century that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop. Paul was not a bishop of Rome, nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there. Also, Paul wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome. Paul only played a supporting part in the life of the church in Rome.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The date of Paul's death is believed to have occurred after the Great Fire of Rome in July 64, but before the last year of Nero's reign, in 68.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Eusebius states that Paul was killed during the Neronian Persecution and, quoting from Dionysius of Corinth, argues that Peter and Paul were martyred "at the same time". Tertullian writes that Paul was beheaded like John the Baptist, a detail also contained in Lactantius,"" Jerome"," John Chrysostom"" and Sulpicius Severus"."

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Jerome in his "De Viris Illustribus" (392 AD) writing on Paul's biography, mentions that "Paul was buried in the Ostian Way at Rome".

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: 1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome around the year 90, reports this about Paul:

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul is remembered (with Peter) in the Church of England with a Festival on 29 June. Paul is considered the patron saint of London.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The New Testament offers little if any information about the physical appearance of Paul, but several descriptions can be found in apocryphal texts. In the Acts of Paul he is described as "A man of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked". In the Latin version of the Acts of Paul and Thecla it is added that he had a red, florid face.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: In "The History of the Contending of Saint Paul", his countenance is described as "ruddy with the ruddiness of the skin of the pomegranate". The Acts of Saint Peter confirms that Paul had a bald and shining head, with red hair.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: As summarised by Barnes, Chrysostom records that Paul's stature was low, his body crooked and his head bald. Lucian, in his Philopatris, describes Paul as ("he was small, contracted, crooked, of three cubits, or four feet six").

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Nicephorus claims that Paul was a little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow, with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled, and a bald head. Pseudo-Chrysostom echoes Lucian's height of Paul, referring to him as "the man of three cubits".

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Paul the Apostle

Context: In Paul's writings, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus a description of Christian spirituality. His letters have been characterized as being the most influential books of the New Testament after the Gospels of Matthew and John.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Seven of the 13 letters that bear Paul's name – Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon – are almost universally accepted as being entirely authentic (dictated by Paul himself). They are considered the best source of information on Paul's life and especially his thought.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as "the image of the invisible God", a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel. However, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul's thinking. It has been said, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters, has the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Three main reasons have been advanced by those who question Paul's authorship of 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus, also known as the Pastoral Epistles:

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Although approximately half of the Acts of the Apostles deals with Paul's life and works, Acts does not refer to Paul writing letters. Historians believe that the author of Acts did not have access to any of Paul's letters. One piece of evidence suggesting this is that Acts never directly quotes from the Pauline epistles. Discrepancies between the Pauline epistles and Acts would further support the conclusion that the author of Acts did not have access to those epistles when composing Acts.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary and theological marks. Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul's writings emphasized the crucifixion, Christ's resurrection and the Parousia or second coming of Christ. Paul saw Jesus as Lord (), the true messiah and the Son of God, who was promised by God beforehand, through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures. While being a biological descendant from David ("according to the flesh"), he was declared to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: According to E. P. Sanders, Paul "preached the death, resurrection, and lordship of Jesus Christ, and he proclaimed that faith in Jesus guarantees a share in his life."

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Sanders concludes that Paul's writings reveal what he calls the essence of the Christian message: "(1) God sent his Son; (2) the Son was crucified and resurrected for the benefit of humanity; (3) the Son would soon return; and (4) those who belonged to the Son would live with him forever. Paul's gospel, like those of others, also included (5) the admonition to live by the highest moral standard: "May your spirit and soul and body be kept sound and blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ"."

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection. His death was an expiation as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood peace is made between God and man. By grace, through faith, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: According to Sanders, Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of until 200 AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: According to Bart Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime. Paul expected that Christians who had died in the meantime would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming heavenly, imperishable bodies.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his first and second letters to the Christian community of Thessalonica. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive. This suggests an imminent end but he is unspecific about times and seasons and encourages his hearers to expect a delay. The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Before his conversion he believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of evil, and initiate a new age of righteousness; after his conversion, he believed this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the old age would continue until Jesus returns.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: The second chapter of the first letter to Timothy—one of the six disputed letters—is used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: The KJV translation of this passage taken literally says that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles vis-à-vis men.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Other scholars, such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, believe that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1 Corinthians 14 is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case where there were local problems of women, who were not allowed in that culture to become educated, asking questions or chatting during worship services. He does not believe it to be a general prohibition on any woman speaking in worship settings since in 1 Corinthians Paul affirms the right (responsibility) of women to prophesy.

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Paul the Apostle

Context: In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome".

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Paul the Apostle

Context: Margaret MacDonald argues that the "Haustafel", particularly as it appears in Ephesians, was aimed at "reducing the tension between community members and outsiders".

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: E. P. Sanders has labeled the Apostle's remark in 1 Corinthians about women not making any sound during worship as "Paul's intemperate outburst that women should be silent in the churches". Women, in fact, played a very significant part in Paul's missionary endeavors:

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Most Christian traditions say Paul clearly portrays homosexuality as sinful in two specific locations: Romans 1:26–27, and 1 Corinthians. Another passage addresses the topic more obliquely: 1 Timothy 1:8-11. Since the nineteenth century, however, most scholars have concluded that 1 Timothy (along with 2 Timothy and Titus) is not original to Paul, but rather an unknown Christian writing in Paul's name some time in the late-first-to-mid-2nd century.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Paul had a strong influence on early Christianity. Hurtado notes that Paul regarded his own Christological views and those of his predecessors and that of the Jerusalem Church as essentially similar. According to Hurtado, this "work[s] against the claims by some scholars that Pauline Christianity represents a sharp departure from the religiousness of Judean 'Jesus movements'."

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In his account of his conversion experience, Augustine of Hippo gave his life to Christ after reading Romans 13. Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In his account of his conversion Martin Luther wrote about righteousness in Romans 1 praising Romans as the perfect gospel, in which the Reformation was birthed. Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings influenced Luther's doctrine of "sola fide".

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In his commentary "The Epistle to the Romans" (Ger. "Der Römerbrief"; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Jewish interest in Paul is a recent phenomenon. Before the positive historical reevaluations of Jesus by some Jewish thinkers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, he had hardly featured in the popular Jewish imagination and little had been written about him by the religious leaders and scholars. Arguably, he is absent from the Talmud and rabbinical literature, although he makes an appearance in some variants of the medieval polemic Toledot Yeshu (as a particularly effective spy for the rabbis).

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In the second (and possibly late first) century, Gnosticism was a competing religious tradition to Christianity which shared some elements of theology.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Elaine Pagels concentrated on how the Gnostics interpreted Paul's letters and how evidence from gnostic sources may challenge the assumption that Paul wrote his letters to combat "gnostic opponents" and to repudiate their statement that they possess secret wisdom.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: Muslims have long believed that Paul purposefully corrupted the original revealed teachings of Jesus, through the introduction of such elements as paganism, the making of Christianity into a theology of the cross, and introducing original sin and the need for redemption.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In Sunni Muslim polemics, Paul plays the same role (of deliberately corrupting the early teachings of Jesus) as a later Jew, Abdullah ibn Saba', would play in seeking to destroy the message of Islam from within (by introducing proto-Shi'ite beliefs). Among those who supported this view were scholars Ibn Taymiyyah (who believed while Paul ultimately succeeded, Ibn Saba failed) and Ibn Hazm (who claimed that the Jews even admitted to Paul's sinister purpose).

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: The critics of Paul the Apostle include US president Thomas Jefferson, a Deist, who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus." Christian anarchists Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy took a similar view.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Paul the Apostle

Context: In the Baha'i faith, scholars have various viewpoints on Paul. Discussions in Bahá'í scholarship have focused on whether Paul changed the original message of Christ or delivered the true Gospel, with proponents of both positions.

Question: هل يعتبر بولس من حواري المسيح؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Mubarak stepped down during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 after 18 days of demonstrations. On 11 February 2011, then Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that both Mubarak and Suleiman had resigned and transferred authority to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Mubarak died on 25 February 2020, aged 91. He was honoured with a State funeral and buried at a family plot outside Cairo.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, Egypt. On 2 February 1949, he left the Military Academy and joined the Air Force Academy, gaining his commission as a pilot officer on 13 March 1950 and eventually receiving a bachelor's degree in aviation sciences.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Mubarak served as an Egyptian Air Force officer in various formations and units; he spent two years in a Spitfire fighter squadron. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. From February 1959 to June 1961, Mubarak undertook further training in the Soviet Union, attending a Soviet pilot training school in Moscow and another at Kant Air Base near Bishkek in the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Mubarak was injured during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli. Following Sadat's death, Mubarak became the fourth president of Egypt.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: The Israeli historian Major Efraim Karsh wrote in 2006 that in Egypt "...numberless articles, scholarly writings, books, cartoons, public statements, and radio and television programs, Jews are painted in the blackest terms imaginable". Karsh accused Mubarak of being personally antisemitic, writing he "evidently shared the premises" of his propaganda.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Egypt's heavy dependence on US aid and its hopes for US pressure on Israel for a Palestinian settlement continued under Mubarak. He quietly improved relations with the former Soviet Union. In 1987, Mubarak won an election to a second six-year term.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Because of his positions against Islamic fundamentalism and his diplomacy towards Israel, Mubarak was the target of repeated assassination attempts. According to the BBC, Mubarak survived six attempts on his life. In June 1995, there was an alleged assassination attempt involving noxious gases and Egyptian Islamic Jihad while Mubarak was in Ethiopia for a conference of the Organization of African Unity. He was also reportedly injured by a knife-wielding assailant in Port Said in September 1999.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: President Mubarak spoke out against the 2003 invasion of Iraq, arguing that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict should have been resolved first. He also said the war would cause "100 Bin Ladens". However, as President he did not support an immediate US withdrawal from Iraq because he believed it would probably lead to chaos.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: President Mubarak was re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Each time, Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by Parliament then confirmed without opposition in a referendum.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: While in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of the Interior rose dramatically. Political figures and young activists were imprisoned without trial. Illegal, undocumented, hidden detention facilities were established, and universities, mosques, and newspaper staff were rejected because of their political views.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In 2005 Freedom House, a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian government under Mubarak expanded bureaucratic regulations, registration requirements, and other controls that often feed corruption. Freedom House said, "corruption remained a significant problem under Mubarak, who promised to do much, but in fact never did anything significant to tackle it effectively".

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index report assessed Egypt with a CPI score of 3.1, based on perceptions of the degree of corruption from business people and country analysts, with 10 being very clean and 0 being highly corrupt. Egypt ranked 98th out of the 178 countries included in the report.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: During his presidency, Mubarak upheld the U.S.-brokered Camp David Accords treaty signed between Egypt and Israel in 1978. Mubarak, on occasion also hosted meetings relating to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and made a number of attempts to serve as a broker between them. Mubarak was concerned that Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson did not trust him on the issue and considered meeting him in New York.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In October 2000, Mubarak hosted an emergency summit meeting at Sharm el-Sheikh to discuss the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In attendance were: U.S. President Bill Clinton, P.L.O. Chairman Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, King Abdullah of Jordan, NATO Sec. General Javier Solana, and U.N. Sec. General Kofi Annan.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Mubarak was involved in the Arab League, supporting Arab efforts to achieve a lasting peace in the region. At the Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative, a Saudi-inspired plan to end the Arab–Israeli conflict.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In 2006, Mubarak condemned the Israeli military attack in Lebanon, but also indirectly criticised Hezbollah for harming Arab interests.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In June 2007, Mubarak held a summit meeting at Sharm el-Sheik with King Abdullah II of Jordan, President Mahmoud Abbas and Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. On 19 June 2008, the Egypt-brokered pause in hostilities between Israel and Hamas went into effect. According to "The New York Times", neither side fully respected the terms of the ceasefire.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In 2009, Mubarak's government banned the Cairo Anti-war Conference, which had criticised his lack of action against Israel.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities in January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the presidential election due in September. He also promised constitutional reform. This did not satisfy most protesters, who expected Mubarak to depart immediately. The demonstrations continued and on 2 February, violent clashes occurred between pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protesters.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 10 February, contrary to rumours, Mubarak said he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned. The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt. Discussions about the nation's future direction began. It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a caretaker government.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Two and a half hours after Mubarak's resignation, an Egyptian military member came on air and thanked Mubarak for "putting the interests of the country first." The statement, which said "The Supreme Council is currently studying the situation," did not state what the council would do next.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Mubarak made no media appearances after his resignation. Except for his family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyoneeven his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating; some reports said he was in a coma. Most sources said he was no longer interested in performing any duties and wanted to "die in Sharm El-Sheikh".

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 11 May 2013, he told "El-Watan" in his first media appearance since his resignation said, "History will judge and I am still certain that the coming generations will view me fairly." He added that President Mohammed Morsi faced a tough time and that it was too early to judge him.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters during the revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence, deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found Mubarak guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200 millionabout which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets. This was the first court ruling against Mubarak, who would next have to answer to the murder charges.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In January 2013, an appeals court overturned Mubarak's life sentence and ordered a retrial. He remained in custody and returned to court on 11 May 2013 for a retrial on charges of complicity in the murder of protesters. On 21 August 2013, a Cairo court ordered his release. Judicial sources confirmed that the court had upheld a petition from Mubarak's longtime lawyer that called for his release. A day later, interim prime minister Hazem El Beblawi ordered that Mubarak be put under house arrest.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 21 May 2014, while awaiting retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on charges of embezzlement; Mubarak was sentenced to three years in prison, while his sons received four-year sentences. The three were fined the equivalent of , and were ordered to repay .

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 27 December 2012, Mubarak was taken from Tora Prison to the Cairo military hospital after falling and breaking a rib. He was released from prison in August 2013.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 19 June 2014, Mubarak slipped in the bathroom at the military hospital in Cairo where he was being held and broke his left leg, also fracturing his left thighbone, requiring surgery. Mubarak was serving a three-year sentence for corruption, and also awaiting retrial regarding the killing of protesters during his regime. At one time, his release was ordered. However, Mubarak had remained at the military hospital since January 2014 due to his ongoing health issues.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: On 2 March 2017, the Court of Cassation, Egypt's top appeals court, acquitted Mubarak of conspiring in the killing of protesters during the 2011 uprising. He was subsequently released on 24 March 2017.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Hosni Mubarak died on 25 February 2020, in a Cairo military hospital, at the age of 91. A full-honour State funeral was held for him at the Tantawi Mosque in eastern Cairo and he was later buried in a cemery in Heliopolis. Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi participated at the funeral and extented his condolences to Mubarak's widow, Suzanne, and his sons Alaa and Gamal; three days of national mourning were subsequently proclaimed.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Following his death, President El-Sisi praised Mubarak for his role in the Yom Kippur War, but remained silent over his role as President. Similarly, government-controlled newspaper "Al-Ahram" eulogized Mubarak for his military and political career.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: Hosni Mubarak was married to Suzanne Mubarak and together they had two sons: Alaa and Gamal. Both sons served four years in Egyptian jail for corruption and were released in 2015. Through his son Alaa, Mubarak has two grandsons, Mohammed and Omar; and through his son Gamal, he has a granddaughter Farida. Mohammed died in 2009 from a cerebral hemorrhage.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Hosni Mubarak

Context: In April 2016, Alaa Mubarak was named in the Panama Papers as someone with financial interests that intersect with that of Mossack Fonseca, the firm implicated in that scandal.

Question: من هو الرئيس الرابع لجمهورية مصر العربية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Islam is the third largest religion in the United States, after Christianity and Judaism. A 2017 study estimated that 3.45 million Muslims were living in the United States, about 1.1 percent of the total U.S. population. In 2017, 20 states which were mostly in the South and Midwest reported Islam being the largest Non-Christian religion.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: While an estimated 10 to 20 percent of the slaves brought to colonial America from Africa arrived as Muslims, Islam was suppressed on plantations. Nearly all enslaved Muslims converted to Christianity during the 18th and 19th centuries. Prior to the late 19th century, the vast majority of documented non-enslaved Muslims in North America were merchants, travelers and sailors.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: From the 1880s to 1914, several thousand Muslims immigrated to the United States from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire and British India. The Muslim population of the U.S. increased dramatically in the second half of the 20th century due to the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which abolished previous immigration quotas. About 72 percent of American Muslims are immigrants or "second generation".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 2005, more people from Muslim-majority countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96,000—than there had been in any other year in the previous two decades. In 2009, more than 115,000 Muslims became legal residents of the United States.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Muslims' presence [in the United States] is affirmed in documents dated more than a century before religious liberty became the law of the land, as in a Virginia statute of 1682 which referred to "negroes, moores, molatoes, and others, born of and in heathenish, idolatrous, pagan, and Mahometan parentage and country" who "heretofore and hereafter may be purchased, procured, or otherwise obtained, as slaves."

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Records from the American Revolutionary War indicate that at least a few likely Muslims fought on the American side. Among the recorded names of American soldiers are "Yusuf ben Ali" (a member of the Turks of South Carolina community), "Bampett Muhamed" and possibly Peter Salem.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation was the Sultanate of Morocco, under its ruler Mohammed ben Abdallah, in the year 1777. He maintained several correspondences with President George Washington. On December 9, 1805, President Thomas Jefferson hosted a dinner at the White House for his guest Sidi Soliman Mellimelli, an envoy from Tunis.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: On the morning of April 5, 1865, near the end of the American Civil War, Union troops commanded by Col. Thomas M. Johnston set ablaze the University of Alabama; a copy of the Quran known as "The Koran: Commonly Called The Alcoran" was saved by one of the University's staff.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: A Greek/Syrian convert to Islam, Phillip Tedro (a name he reverted to later in life), born in Smyrna, who renamed himself Hajj Ali, 'Ali who made the pilgrimage to Mecca,' (commonly spelled as "Hi Jolly") was hired by the United States Cavalry in 1856 to tend camels in Arizona and California. He would later become a prospector in Arizona. Hajj Ali died in 1903.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Alexander Russell Webb is considered by historians to be the earliest prominent Anglo-American convert to Islam in 1888. In 1893, he was the sole representative of Islam at the first Parliament of the World's Religions. The Russian-born Muslim scholar and writer Achmed Abdullah (1881–1945) was another prominent early American Muslim.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In the 1891 Supreme Court case "In re Ross," the Court referred to “the intense hostility of the people of Muslim faith to all other sects, and particularly to Christians". Scores of Muslim immigrants were turned away at U.S. ports in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Christian immigrants suspected of secretly being Muslims were also excluded.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: It is estimated that over 50% of the slaves imported to North America came from areas where Islam was followed by at least a minority population. Thus, no less than 200,000 came from regions influenced by Islam. Substantial numbers originated from Senegambia, a region with an established community of Muslim inhabitants extending to the 11th century.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fulani jihad states, about half of the Senegambian Mandinka were converted to Islam, while as many as a third were sold into slavery to the Americas through capture in conflict.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Michael A. Gomez speculated that Muslim slaves may have accounted for "thousands, if not tens of thousands", but does not offer a precise estimate. He also suggests many non-Muslim slaves were acquainted with some tenets of Islam, due to Muslim trading and proselytizing activities.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Historical records indicate many enslaved Muslims conversed in the Arabic language. Some even composed literature (such as autobiographies) and commentaries on the Quran.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Some newly arrived Muslim slaves assembled for communal salat (prayers). Some were provided a private praying area by their owner. The two best documented Muslim slaves were Ayuba Suleiman Diallo and Omar Ibn Said. Suleiman was brought to America in 1731 and returned to Africa in 1734. Like many Muslim slaves, he often encountered impediments when attempting to perform religious rituals and was eventually allotted a private location for prayer by his master.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 1776, John Adams published "Thoughts on Government", in which he mentions the Islamic prophet Muhammad as a "sober inquirer after truth" alongside Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, and other thinkers.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 1785, George Washington stated a willingness to hire "Mahometans", as well as people of any nation or religion, to work on his private estate at Mount Vernon if they were "good workmen".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 1790, the South Carolina legislative body granted special legal status to a community of Moroccans.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 1797, President John Adams signed the Treaty of Tripoli, declaring the United States had no "character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In his autobiography, published in 1791, Benjamin Franklin stated that he "did not disapprove" of a meeting place in Pennsylvania that was designed to accommodate preachers of all religions. Franklin wrote that "even if the Mufti of Constantinople were to send a missionary to preach Mohammedanism to us, he would find a pulpit at his service".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: However, not all politicians were pleased with the religious neutrality of the Constitution, which prohibited any religious test. Anti-Federalists in the 1788 North Carolina ratifying convention opposed the new constitution; one reason was the fear that some day Catholics or Muslims might be elected president. William Lancaster said:

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Let us remember that we form a government for millions not yet in existence ... In the course of four or five hundred years, I do not know how it will work. This is most certain, that Papists may occupy that chair, and Mahometans may take it. I see nothing against it.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: According to Pew, roughly 55% of Muslims in the United States are Sunni Muslims, with Shia Muslims representing roughly 16% of the American Muslim population. The remainder identify with neither group, including some who consider themselves to be non-denominational Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Moorish Science Temple of America is an American organization founded in 1913 by Noble Drew Ali. He said they practiced the "Old Time Religion" of Islamism but he also drew inspiration from Mohammedanism, Buddhism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and Taoism. Its significant divergences from mainstream Islam and strong African-American ethnic character make its classification as an Islamic denomination a matter of debate among Muslims and scholars of religion.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Its primary tenet was the belief that they are the ancient Moabites who inhabited the Northwestern and Southwestern shores of Africa. The organization also believes that their descendants after being conquered in Spain are slaves who were captured and held in slavery from 1779–1865 by their slaveholders.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Adherents of the Moorish Science Temple of America believe that the so-called "Negroid Asiatic" was the first human inhabitant of the Western Hemisphere. In their religious texts members refer to themselves as "Asiatics", within the teachings of Noble Drew Ali, the members are taught man cannot be a Negro, Colored Folk, Black people, Ethiopians or African-Americans, because these names were given to slaves by slave holders in 1779 and lasted until 1865 during the time of slavery.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Moorish Science Temple of America's current leader is R. Jones-Bey. It was established in 1913 in New Jersey and incorporated in Illinois in 1926 and then legally changed its name in 1928, The Ahmadiyya Movement was established in 1920 and incorporated in 1948.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Nation of Islam (NOI) was created in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad. Fard drew inspiration for NOI doctrines from those of Timothy Drew's Moorish Science Temple of America. He provided three main principles which serve as the foundation of the NOI: "Allah is God, the white man is the devil and the so-called Negroes are the Asiatic Black People, the cream of the planet earth".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 1934 Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the NOI, he deified Fard, saying that he was an incarnation of God, and taught that he was a prophet who had been taught directly by God in the form of Fard. Two of the most famous people to join the NOI were Malcolm X, who became the face of the NOI in the media, and Muhammad Ali, who, while initially rejected, was accepted into the group shortly after his first world heavyweight championship victory. Both Malcolm X and Ali later became Sunni Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: It was estimated that there were at least 20,000 members in 2006. However, today the group has a wide influence in the African American community. The first Million Man March took place in Washington, D.C. in 1995 and was followed later by another one in 2000 which was smaller in size but more inclusive, welcoming individuals other than just African American men. The group sponsors cultural and academic education, economic independence, and personal and social responsibility.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Nation of Islam has received a great deal of criticism for its anti-white, anti-Christian, and anti-semitic teachings, and is listed as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Members of the group call themselves Allah's Five Percenters, which reflects the concept that ten percent of the people in the world know the truth of existence, and those elites and agents opt to keep eighty-five percent of the world in ignorance and under their controlling thumb; the remaining five percent are those who know the truth and are determined to enlighten the rest.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The United Nation of Islam (UNOI) is a group based in Kansas City, Kansas. It was founded circa 1978 by Royall Jenkins, who continues to be the leader of the group and styles himself "Royall, Allah in Person".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: After the death of Elijah Muhammad, he was succeeded by his son, Warith Deen Mohammed. Mohammed rejected many teachings of his father, such as the divinity of Fard Muhammad, and saw a white person as also a worshiper. As he took control of the organization, he quickly brought in new reforms. He renamed it the World Community of al-Islam in the West; later it became the American Society of Muslims. It was estimated that there were 200,000 followers of W. D. Mohammed at the time.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: W. D. Mohammed introduced teachings which were based on orthodox Sunni Islam. He removed the chairs in the organization's temples, and replaced the entire "temple" concept with the traditional Muslim house of worship, the mosque, also teaching how to pray the "salat", to observe the fasting of Ramadan, and to attend the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: A small number of Black Muslims however rejected these new reforms brought by Imam Mohammed. Louis Farrakhan, who broke away from the organization, re-established the Nation of Islam under the original Fardian doctrines, and remains its leader.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: An estimated 386,000 to 900,000 Shia Muslims live in the United States. They originate from South Asia, Europe, Middle East, and East Africa; and are often from the countries of: Islamic Republic of Pakistan, India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Syria, Yemen and East Africa; Shiites in the United States also make up about 25 to 30 percent of the country's total Muslim population.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The "heart of Shiism in the U.S." is placed in Dearborn, home to the Islamic Center of America. The North American Shia Ithna-Asheri Muslim Communities Organization (NASIMCO) is the largest umbrella group for North American Shias.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: 2011 research by Pew found that Non-denominational Muslims make up roughly one in seven of all American Muslims, at 15%. Non-denominational Muslims, do not have any specific affiliation with a religious body and usually describe themselves as being "just a Muslim". Muslims who were born in the US are more likely to be non-denominational than immigrant Muslims. 24% or one in four US-born Muslims are non-denominational, versus 10% of immigrant Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: There are some mosquegoers who adhere to sects and denominations that form very small minorities. Examples of such small branches include progressive Muslims, Mahdavi Muslims, Ibadi Muslims, and Ismaili Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: 25,000 Americans convert to Islam per year. The conversion rate of Americans has become 4 times more since September 11.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: According to CAIR, no scientific count of Muslims in the U.S. has been done and the larger figures should be considered accurate. Some journalists have also alleged that the higher numbers have been inflated for political purposes.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: On the other hand, according to data from the General Social Survey in the United States "32% of those raised Muslim no longer embrace Islam in adulthood, and 18% hold no religious identification". and according to Pew Research, the number of American converts to Islam is roughly equal to the number of American Muslims who leave the religion.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Since the arrival of South Asian and Arab communities during the 1990s there has been divisions with the African Americans due to the racial and cultural differences; however, since September 11, 2001, the two groups joined together when the immigrant communities looked towards the African Americans for advice on civil rights.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In many areas, a mosque may be dominated by whatever group of immigrants is the largest. Sometimes the Friday sermons, or khutbas, are given in languages like Urdu, Bengali or Arabic along with English. Areas with large Muslim populations may support a number of mosques serving different immigrant groups or varieties of belief within Sunni or Shia traditions. At present, many mosques are served by imams who immigrate from overseas, as only these imams have certificates from Muslim seminaries.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The household income levels of American Muslims are about as evenly distributed as the general American population.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: When it comes to education, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding reported in 2017 that across the board, American Muslims, Protestants, and Catholics have similar education levels. It has also been found that Muslim women (73%) are more likely than Muslim men (57%) to go on to pursue higher education beyond high school, and they are also more likely to report being in the middle class.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Islamic populations are 0.6% of the US population per Fareed Zakaria quoting Pew Research Center, 2010.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The number of mosques in the United States in 2011 was 2,106. At the time, the six states with the greatest number of mosques were: New York 257, California 246, Texas 166, Florida 118, Illinois 109, New Jersey 109.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In the United States in particular, it has been shown in a study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding that Muslim Americans who regularly attend mosques are more likely to work with their neighbors to solve community problems (49 vs. 30 percent), be registered to vote (74 vs. 49 percent), and plan to vote (92 vs. 81 percent). The study also states that “there is no correlation between Muslim attitudes toward violence and their frequency of mosque attendance.”

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Muslims in the United States have increasingly made their own culture; there are various Muslim comedy groups, rap groups, Scout troops and magazines, and Muslims have been vocal in other forms of media as well.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Within the Muslim community in the United States there exist a number of different traditions. As in the rest of the world, the Sunni Muslims are in the majority. Shia Muslims, especially those in the Iranian immigrant community, are also active in community affairs. All four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) are found among the Sunni community.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Some Muslims in the U.S. are also adherents of certain global movements within Islam such as the Salafi, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Gülen movement, and the Tablighi Jamaat.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: As of December 2013 increasing numbers of Muslim Americans are celebrating Christmas. Jesus is a holy prophet in Islam.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In Mississippi, the son of a prince in Mississippi said that “in terms of bitter regret, that his situation as a slave in America, prevents him from obeying the dictates of his religion. He is under the necessity of eating pork but denies ever tasting any kind of spirits.”

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The writer and journalist Jonathan Curiel declared by considering the consequences of 9/11 attack that "see Arab and Muslim culture as anything other than terrorism and fundamentalism".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: To date, four Muslims have served in the United States Congress, all members of the Democratic Party. The first was Keith Ellison, who took office representing Minnesota in 2007.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In the 2000 Presidential election, nearly 80 percent of Muslim Americans supported Republican candidate George W. Bush over Democratic candidate Al Gore. However, due to the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq which took place under the Bush Administration, as well as what some call an increased anti-Muslim rhetoric from the Republican Party after the September 11 attacks, support for the Republican Party among American Muslims has declined sharply.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: By 2004, Bush's Muslim support had been reduced by at least half, who would vote for Democratic candidate John Kerry or a third party candidate.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: By 2008, Democratic candidate Barack Obama got 67% to 90% of the Muslim vote depending on region. Some of his opponents question Obama's religious faith; see Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In a 2017 Survey done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, only 15% of American Muslims wanted Donald Trump to win the 2016 presidential election, compared to 54% wanting Hillary Clinton to win.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: According to a 2018 poll from the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, American Muslims were as satisfied with the American trajectory as the general public, reporting at around 27%. Regarding the 45th president of the United States, Donald Trump, Muslims are the least likely to approve of him across all faith groups including non affiliated Americans. This compares to, "17% of non-affiliated Americans, 31% of Jews, 36% of Catholics, 41% of Protestants, and 72% of white Evangelicals".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: According to the report belongs to a Boston-based organization that works to increase American Muslim education and civic engagement, "at least 145 American Muslims, virtually all of them Democrats, ran for state or national public office in 2018. Of these, 110 were first-time candidates who represent an unprecedented rise for a diverse Muslim community that is typically underrepresented in American politics.".

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: American Muslim political engagement is increasing, as 75% of American Muslims surveyed by ISPU reported being registered to vote, an increase of 15% from 2016 data. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County, New Jersey.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Islamic Information Center (IIC) is a "grass-roots" organization that has been formed for the purpose of informing the public, mainly through the media, about the real image of Islam and Muslims. The IIC is run by chairman (Hojatul-Islam) Imam Syed Rafiq Naqvi, various committees, and supported by volunteers.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was established in the U.S. in 1921, before the existence of Nation of Islam, according to its members. This sect, however, is considered heretical by mainstream Muslims and not considered a part of the Ummah, or worldwide community of Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Muslim Congress is another National Muslim Organization. It is primarily a Social Welfare organization and runs many social projects, including Food Distribution to the homeless in their "No More Hunger" project and also provides Scholarship. It is under the leadership of Islamic Scholars.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Muslim political organizations lobby on behalf of various Muslim political interests. Organizations such as the American Muslim Council are actively engaged in upholding human and civil rights for all Americans.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In addition to the organizations listed above, other Muslim organizations in the United States serve more specific needs. For example, some organizations focus almost exclusively on charity work. As a response to a crackdown on Muslim charity organizations working overseas such as the Holy Land Foundation, more Muslims have begun to focus their charity efforts within the United States.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: There are two museums dedicated to the history of Islamic culture in the U.S. and abroad. The International Museum of Muslim Cultures in Jackson, Mississippi opened in early 2001. America's Islamic Heritage Museum, in Washington, D.C., opened on April 30, 2011.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, with offices in Dearborn, MI and Washington, DC, is an independent, nonpartisan research organization specializing in addressing the most pressing challenges facing the American Muslim community and in bridging the information gap between the American Muslim community and the wider society.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: A nationwide survey conducted in 2003 by the Pew Research Center and the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life reported that the percentage of Americans with an unfavorable view of Islam increased by one percentage point between 2002 and 2003 to 34%, and then by another two percentage points in 2005 to 36%. At the same time the percentage responding that Islam was more likely than other religion to encourage violence fell from 44% in July 2003 to 36% in July 2005.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The July 2005 Pew survey also showed that 59% of American adults view Islam as "very different from their religion," down one percentage point from 2003. In the same survey 55% had a favorable opinion of Muslim Americans, up four percentage points from 51% in July 2003. A December 2004 Cornell University survey shows that 47% of Americans believe that the Islamic religion is more likely than others to encourage violence among its believers.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Pew surveys conducted in 2014, 2017, and 2019 continued this trend showing Americans had the least favorable views toward Muslims and Atheists.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: A 2016 poll found that on average; Americans believed that 17% of the US population was Muslim and that this number would rise to 23% by 2020.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: A 2021 Pew study found that 78% of Americans believe Muslims face discrimination, which was a higher percentage than for other religions.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In a 2007 survey titled "Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream", the Pew Research Center found Muslim Americans to be "largely integrated, happy with their lives, and moderate with respect to many of the issues that have divided Muslims and Westerners around the world."

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: 47% of respondents said they considered themselves Muslims first and Americans second. However, this was compared to 81% of British Muslims and 69% of German Muslims, when asked the equivalent question. A similar disparity exists in income, the percentage of American Muslims living in poverty is 2% higher than the general population, compared to an 18% disparity for French Muslims and 29% difference for Spanish Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Politically, American Muslims both supported larger government and are socially conservative. Despite their social conservatism, 71% of American Muslims expressed a preference for the Democratic Party. The Pew Research survey also showed that nearly three quarters of respondents believed that American society rewards them for hard work regardless of their religious background.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Although American Muslims do report feeling discriminated against as a religious minority, they are just as likely as the general public (81%) to say they value their American Identity. In fact, a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding asserts that, “a higher religious identity correlates with a higher American identity among all Americans, especially Muslims.”

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 2011, The Learning Channel (TLC) broadcast a television series, "All-American Muslim", depicting the lives of different American Muslims in Dearborn, Michigan.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Terrorism that involved Muslim perpetrators began in the United States with the 1993 shootings at CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia, followed by the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City. After the September 11 attacks and the start of the Afghanistan war in 2001, there was concern about the potential radicalization of American Muslims.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Between 2001 and the end of 2009, there were 46 publicly reported incidents of "domestic radicalization and recruitment to jihadist terrorism" that involved at least 125 people between 2001 and the end of 2009. There had been an average of six cases per year since 2001, but that rose to 13 in 2009.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Muslim Americans are significantly represented among those who tip authorities off to alleged plots having given 52 of the 140 documented tips regarding individuals involved in violent terrorist plots since 9/11 up to 2012.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: At least one American not of recent immigrant background, John Walker Lindh, has been imprisoned, convicted on charges of working with the Taliban and carrying weapons against American soldiers. He had converted to Islam while in the United States, moved to Yemen to study Arabic, and then went to Pakistan, where he was recruited by the Taliban.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In 2015 four U.S. Marines were killed and three injured in Chattanooga, Tennessee by a twenty four-year-old Kuwaiti man, a naturalized US citizen with an engineering degree.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: In the American Muslim Poll 2018, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding set out "to measure the level of public anti-Muslim sentiment" in the United States.

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The following graph shows data across six different faith populations in the United States, and their answers to the two questions below ("W. Evang." is short for White Evangelical, the specific demographic surveyed):

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Question 1: Some people think that for the military to target and kill civilians is sometimes justified, while others think that this kind of violence is never justified. Which is your opinion?

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: Question 2: Some people think that for an individual or a small group of people to target and kill civilians is sometimes justified, while others think that this kind of violence is never justified. Which is your opinion?

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Islam in the United States

Context: The following graph contains additional data collected by ISPU during their 2018 poll. The following statements were posed to participants and they were asked to answer on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The chart below shows the total percentage from each American faith demographic that agreed with the statements below. (Note: "W. Evang." is short for White Evangelical, the specific demographic surveyed.)

Question: متى وصل الاسلام إلى قارة أمريكا الشمالية؟


Military communications

Context: In past centuries communicating a message usually required someone to go to the destination, bringing the message. Thus, the term "communication" often implied the ability to transport people and supplies. A place under siege was one that lost communication in both senses. The association between transport and messaging declined in recent centuries.

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Military communications

Context: Present-day military forces of an informational society conduct intense and complicated communicating activities on a daily basis, using modern telecommunications and computing methods. Only a small portion of these activities are directly related to combat actions. Modern concepts of network-centric warfare (NCW) rely on network-oriented methods of communications and control to make existing forces more effective.

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Military communications

Context: Drums, horns, flags, and riders on horseback were some of the early methods the military used to send messages over distances. The advent of distinctive signals led to the formation of the signal corps, a group specialized in the tactics of military communications. The signal corps evolved into a distinctive occupation where the signaller became a highly technical job dealing with all available communications methods including civil ones.

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Military communications

Context: In the middle 20th century radio equipment came to dominate the field. Many modern pieces of military communications equipment are built to both encrypt and decode transmissions and survive rough treatment in hostile climates. They use different frequencies to send signals to other radios and to satellites.

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Military communications

Context: Cryptography is the study of methods of converting messages to a form unreadable except to one who knows how to decrypt them. This ancient military comms art gained new importance with the rise of radio systems whose signals traveled far and were easily intercepted. Cryptographic software is also widely used in civilian commerce.

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Military communications

Context: In United States military communications systems, commercial refile refers to sending a military message via a commercial communications network. The message may come from a military network, such as a tape relay network, a point-to-point telegraph network, a radio-telegraph network, or the Defense Switched Network

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Military communications

Context: Commercial refiling of a message will usually require a reformatting of the message, particularly the heading.

Question: من أول قوة عسكرية إستعملت  جهاز الاتصال أول مرة؟


Prince Henry the Navigator

Context: With this ship, Portuguese mariners freely explored uncharted waters around the Atlantic, from rivers and shallow waters to transocean voyages.

Question: من هو الابن الثالث لجواو الأول ملك البرتغال؟


Prince Henry the Navigator

Context: Referring to Sagres, sixteenth-century Portuguese mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes remarked, "from it our sailors went out well taught and provided with instruments and rules which all map makers and navigators should know."

Question: من هو الابن الثالث لجواو الأول ملك البرتغال؟


Prince Henry the Navigator

Context: The first contacts with the African slave market were made by expeditions to ransom Portuguese subjects enslaved by pirate attacks on Portuguese ships or villages.

Question: من هو الابن الثالث لجواو الأول ملك البرتغال؟


Prince Henry the Navigator

Context: A chart drawn by the Catalan cartographer, Gabriel de Vallseca of Mallorca, has been interpreted to indicate that the Azores were first discovered by Diogo de Silves in 1427. In 1431, Gonçalo Velho was dispatched with orders to determine the location of "islands" first identified by de Silves. Velho apparently got as far as the Formigas, in the eastern archipelago, before having to return to Sagres, probably due to bad weather.

Question: من هو الابن الثالث لجواو الأول ملك البرتغال؟


Prince Henry the Navigator

Context: By this time the Portuguese navigators had also reached the Sargasso Sea (western North Atlantic region), naming it after the "Sargassum" seaweed growing there ("sargaço" / "sargasso" in Portuguese).

Question: من هو الابن الثالث لجواو الأول ملك البرتغال؟


Prince Henry the Navigator

Context: "Travels in Brazil, in the Years 1817–1820: Undertaken by Command of His Majesty the King of Bavaria" by Dr. J.B. Von Spix and Dr. C.F.P. Von Martius, published 1824, refers to the introduction of sugar cane to Brazil by "the Infant Don Henrique Navegador".

Question: من هو الابن الثالث لجواو الأول ملك البرتغال؟


Bavaria

Context: A 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BC.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: Three early dukes are named in Frankish sources: Garibald I may have been appointed to the office by the Merovingian kings and married the Lombard princess Walderada when the church forbade her to King Chlothar I in 555. Their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: Garibald's successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the eastern frontier against the expansion of Slavs and Avars around 600. Tassilo's son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: After 781, however, his cousin Charlemagne began to pressure Tassilo to submit and finally deposed him in 788. The deposition was not entirely legitimate.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: Dissenters attempted a coup against Charlemagne at Tassilo's old capital of Regensburg in 792, led by his own son Pépin the Hunchback. The king had to drag Tassilo out of imprisonment to formally renounce his rights and titles at the Assembly of Frankfurt in 794. This is the last appearance of Tassilo in the sources, and he probably died a monk. As all of his family were also forced into monasteries, this was the end of the Agilolfing dynasty.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: The territory of "Ostarrichi" was elevated to a duchy in its own right and given to the Babenberger family. This event marks the founding of Austria.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: The new state also comprised the Duchies of Jülich and Berg as these on their part were in personal union with the Palatinate.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: In May 1808, a first constitution was passed by Maximilian I, being modernized in 1818. This second version established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords ("Kammer der Reichsräte") and a House of Commons ("Kammer der Abgeordneten"). That constitution was followed until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of World War I.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: "Free State" has been an adopted designation after the abolition of monarchy in the aftermath of World War I in several German states.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: On 12 November 1918, Ludwig III signed a document, the Anif declaration, releasing both civil and military officers from their oaths; the newly formed republican government, or "People's State" of Socialist premier Kurt Eisner, interpreted this as an abdication. To date, however, no member of the House of Wittelsbach has ever formally declared renunciation of the throne.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: As a manufacturing centre, Munich was heavily bombed during World War II and was occupied by U.S. troops, becoming a major part of the American Zone of Allied-occupied Germany (1945–47) and then of "Bizonia".

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: At lower elevations the climate is classified according to Köppen’s guide as “Cfb” or “Dfb” at lower altitudes, then at higher altitudes the climate becomes “Dfc” and “ET”.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: The second communal layer is made up of 71 rural districts (called ', singular ') that are comparable to counties, as well as the 25 independent cities (', singular '), both of which share the same administrative responsibilities.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: The German Greens and the center-right Free Voters have been represented in the state parliament since 1986 and 2008 respectively.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: In the 2003 elections the CSU won a ⅔ supermajority – something no party had ever achieved in postwar Germany. However, in the subsequent 2008 elections the CSU lost the absolute majority for the first time in 46 years.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: The losses were partly attributed by some to the CSU's stance for an anti-smoking bill. (A first anti-smoking law had been proposed by the CSU and passed but was watered down after the election, after which a referendum enforced a strict antismoking bill with a large majority).

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: Also American companies open a lot of research and development centers in Munich region: Apple (chip design), Google (data security), IBM (Watson technology), Intel (drones and telecommunication chips), General Electric (3D-printers and additive manufacturing), Gleason (gears manufacturing), Texas Instruments (chip design and manufacturing), Coherent (lasers).

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Bavaria

Context: The unemployment rate stood at 2.6% in October 2018, the lowest in Germany and one of the lowest in the European Union.

Question: ما هو اكبر اقاليم المانيا؟


Mehmed I

Context: Mehmed was born in 1386 or 1387 as the fourth son of Sultan Bayezid I () and one of his consorts, the slave girl Devlet Hatun. Following Ottoman custom, when he reached adolescence in 1399, he was sent to gain experience as provincial governor over the Rûm Eyalet (central northern Anatolia), recently conquered from its Eretnid rulers.

Question: متى عاش السُلطان الغازي الغيَّاثي؟


Mehmed I

Context: On 20 July 1402, his father Bayezid was defeated in the Battle of Ankara by the Turko-Mongol conqueror and ruler Timur. The brothers (with the exception of Mustafa, who was captured and taken along with Bayezid to Samarkand) were rescued from the battlefield, Mehmed being saved by Bayezid Pasha, who took him to his hometown of Amasya. Mehmed later made Bayezid Pasha his grand vizier (1413–1421).

Question: متى عاش السُلطان الغازي الغيَّاثي؟


Mehmed I

Context: However, Mehmed still faced some problems, first being the problem of his nephew Orhan, who Mehmed perceived as a threat to his rule, much like his late brothers had been. There was allegedly a plot involving him by Manuel II Palaiologos, who tried to use Orhan against Sultan Mehmed; however, the sultan found out about the plot and had Orhan blinded for betrayal, according to a common Byzantine practice.

Question: متى عاش السُلطان الغازي الغيَّاثي؟


Mehmed I

Context: In 1416, Sheikh Bedreddin started his rebellion against the throne. After a four-year struggle, he was finally captured by Mehmed's grand vizier Bayezid Pasha and hanged in the city of Serres, a city in modern-day Greece, in 1420.

Question: متى عاش السُلطان الغازي الغيَّاثي؟


Mehmed I

Context: The reign of Mehmed I as sultan of the re-united empire lasted only eight years before his death, but he had also been the most powerful brother contending for the throne and "de facto" ruler of most of the empire for nearly the whole preceding period of 11 years of the Ottoman Interregnum that passed between his father's captivity at Ankara and his own final victory over his brother Musa Çelebi at the Battle of Çamurlu.

Question: متى عاش السُلطان الغازي الغيَّاثي؟


Mehmed I

Context: Before his death, to secure passing the throne safely to his son Murad II, Mehmed blinded his nephew Orhan Çelebi (son of Süleyman), and decided to send his two sons Yusuf and Mahmud to be held as a hostage by Emperor Manuel II, hoping to ensure the continuing custody of his brother Mustafa.

Question: متى عاش السُلطان الغازي الغيَّاثي؟


Natron

Context: In modern mineralogy the term "natron" has come to mean only the sodium carbonate decahydrate (hydrated soda ash) that makes up most of the historical salt.

Question: ماذا كان المصريون القدماء يستخدمون للتحنيط؟


Natron

Context: The Pyramid Texts describe how natron pellets were used as funerary offerings in the rites for the deceased pharaoh, "N". The ceremony required two kinds of natron, one sourced from northern (Lower) and one from southern (Upper) Egypt.

Question: ماذا كان المصريون القدماء يستخدمون للتحنيط؟


Natron

Context: The term "hydrated sodium carbonate" is commonly used to encompass the monohydrate (Na2CO3·H2O), the decahydrate and the heptahydrate (Na2CO3·7H2O), but is often used in industry to refer to the decahydrate only. Both the hepta- and the decahydrate effloresce (lose water) in dry air and are partially transformed into the monohydrate thermonatrite Na2CO3·H2O.

Question: ماذا كان المصريون القدماء يستخدمون للتحنيط؟


Natron

Context: Sodium carbonate decahydrate is stable at room temperature but recrystallizes at only to sodium carbonate heptahydrate, Na2CO3·7H2O, then above to sodium carbonate monohydrate, Na2CO3·H2O. This recrystallization from decahydrate to monohydrate releases much crystal water in a mostly clear, colorless salt solution with little solid thermonatrite. The mineral natron is often found in association with thermonatrite, nahcolite, trona, halite, mirabilite, gaylussite, gypsum, and calcite.

Question: ماذا كان المصريون القدماء يستخدمون للتحنيط؟