List of smoking bans

Context: Some Singapore citizens have launched an online campaign to support the proposal to prevent the supply of tobacco to Singaporeans born from the year 2000.

Question: 喫煙が法律で禁止されている国はある？


List of smoking bans

Context: New Zealand hopes to be smoke-free in 2025. ASH New Zealand is a group of people who believe New Zealand should be smoke-free and have become popular. The Ministry of Health and the Minister of Health also are trying to promote the idea that New Zealand should be smoke-free.

Question: 喫煙が法律で禁止されている国はある？


List of smoking bans

Context: In the United Kingdom, MPs successfully passed a law on 1 October 2015 banning smoking in cars with under 18s as well as stopping passengers from smoking while an under 18 is present, this law has since been withdrawn for unknown reasons. This has been further advocated by doctors and the devolved governments of Wales and Northern Ireland.

Question: 喫煙が法律で禁止されている国はある？


List of smoking bans

Context: As of 2020, several countries have no legislation restricting smoking whatsoever, including Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, and other countries in Central and West Africa.

Question: 喫煙が法律で禁止されている国はある？


History of tea in Japan

Context: Tea consumption became popular among the gentry during the 12th century, after the publication of Eisai's "Kissa Yōjōki". Uji, with its strategic location near the capital at Kyoto, became Japan's first major tea-producing region during this period. Beginning in the 13th and 14th centuries, Japanese tea culture developed the distinctive features for which it is known today, and the Japanese tea ceremony emerged as a key component of that culture.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: In the following centuries, production increased and tea became a staple of the general public. The development of sencha in the 18th century led to the creation of distinctive new styles of green tea which now dominate tea consumption in Japan. In the 19th and 20th centuries, industrialization and automation transformed the Japanese tea industry into a highly efficient operation, capable of producing large quantities of tea despite Japan's limited arable land area.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: The first Japanese contact with tea most likely occurred in the 8th century during the Nara period, when Japan sent several diplomatic missions to Chang'an, the capital of China's Tang dynasty. These early delegations brought back knowledge of Chinese culture and practices, as well as paintings, literature, and other artifacts. The "Chakyō Shōsetsu" indicates that Emperor Shōmu served powdered tea to a hundred monks in 729, but there is some uncertainty regarding the reliability of the text.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: Soon, green tea became a staple among cultured people in Japan—a brew for the gentry and the Buddhist priesthood alike. Production grew and tea became increasingly accessible, though still a privilege enjoyed mostly by the upper classes.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: Though Hideyoshi forced Rikyū to commit seppuku in 1591, Rikyū's descendants were allowed to continue in their profession. The three main schools of the traditional Japanese tea ceremony today, the Omotesenke, Urasenke, and Mushakōjisenke, were all founded by children of Sen no Sōtan, Rikyū's grandson.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: Modern Japanese "matcha" is made by grinding loose dry tea leaves (rather than the bricks of tea originally introduced from China) into powder. Matcha's sweet flavor and deep green color are created by shading the tea leaves from the sun in the last weeks before plucking, increasing the chlorophyll and decreasing the tannin content of the leaves. This technique emerged in the 16th century among Uji tea growers. It is also used to produce "gyokuro".

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: Under the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan's Edo period (1603–1868), new forms of tea emerged, accompanied by new developments in tea culture. Influenced by China's Ming dynasty, steeped loose leaf tea emerged as an alternative to powdered tea, leading to the development of "sencha".

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: At the end of the Meiji era (1868–1912), machine manufacturing of green tea was introduced and began replacing handmade tea. Machines took over the processes of primary drying, tea rolling, secondary drying, final rolling, and steaming.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


History of tea in Japan

Context: In the 20th century, automation contributed to improved quality and reduced labour. Sensor and computer controls were introduced to machine automation so unskilled workers can produce superior tea without compromising quality.

Question: 煎茶が栽培され始めたのはいつ


Food allergy

Context: A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to food. The symptoms of the allergic reaction may range from mild to severe. They may include itchiness, swelling of the tongue, vomiting, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood pressure. This typically occurs within minutes to several hours of exposure. When the symptoms are severe, it is known as anaphylaxis. A food intolerance and food poisoning are separate conditions, not due to an immune response.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In the developed world, about 4% to 8% of people have at least one food allergy. They are more common in children than adults and appear to be increasing in frequency. Male children appear to be more commonly affected than females. Some allergies more commonly develop early in life, while others typically develop in later life. In developed countries, more people believe they have food allergies when they actually do not have them.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Serious danger regarding allergies can begin when the respiratory tract or blood circulation is affected. The former can be indicated through wheezing and cyanosis. Poor blood circulation leads to a weak pulse, pale skin and fainting.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: A severe case of an allergic reaction, caused by symptoms affecting the respiratory tract and blood circulation, is called anaphylaxis. When symptoms are related to a drop in blood pressure, the person is said to be in anaphylactic shock. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show symptoms. Those with asthma or an allergy to peanuts, tree nuts, or seafood are at greater risk for anaphylaxis.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Egg allergies affect about one in 50 children but are frequently outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically, the sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Milk from cows, goats, or sheep is another common food allergen, and many affected people are also unable to tolerate dairy products such as cheese. A small portion of children with a milk allergy, roughly 10%, have a reaction to beef because it contains small amounts of protein that are also present in cow's milk.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Seafood is one of the most common sources of food allergens; people may be allergic to proteins found in fish or to different proteins found in shellfish (crustaceans and mollusks).

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Other foods containing allergenic proteins include soy and wheat, and to a lesser frequency, fruits, vegetables, maize, spices, synthetic and natural colors, and chemical additives.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Balsam of Peru, which is in various foods, is in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Sensitization can occur through the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract and possibly the skin. Damage to the skin in conditions such as eczema has been proposed as a risk factor for sensitization.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Food allergies develop more easily in people with the atopic syndrome, a very common combination of diseases: allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, eczema, and asthma. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of allergic diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Crustaceans (shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.) and molluscs (mussel, oyster, scallop, squid, octopus, snail, etc.) are different invertebrate classes, but the allergenic protein tropomyosin is present and responsible for cross-reactivity.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: People with latex allergy often also develop allergies to bananas, kiwifruit, avocados, and some other foods.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Conditions caused by food allergies are classified into three groups according to the mechanism of the allergic response:

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Many food allergies are caused by hypersensitivities to particular proteins in different foods. Proteins have unique properties that allow them to become allergens, such as stabilizing forces in their tertiary and quaternary structures which prevent degradation during digestion. Many theoretically allergenic proteins cannot survive the destructive environment of the digestive tract, thus do not trigger hypersensitive reactions.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: After the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late-phase responses can often occur due to the migration of other leukocytes such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and macrophages to the initial site. The reaction is usually seen 2–24 hours after the original reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may also play a role in the persistence of long-term effects.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Diagnosis is usually based on a medical history, elimination diet, skin prick test, blood tests for food-specific IgE antibodies, or oral food challenge.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Food challenges, especially double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges, are the gold standard for diagnosis of food allergies, including most non-IgE-mediated reactions, but is rarely done. Blind food challenges involve packaging the suspected allergen into a capsule, giving it to the patient, and observing the patient for signs or symptoms of an allergic reaction.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: The recommended method for diagnosing food allergy is to be assessed by an allergist. The allergist will review the patient's history and the symptoms or reactions that have been noted after food ingestion. If the allergist feels the symptoms or reactions are consistent with food allergy, he/she will perform allergy tests. Additional diagnostic tools for evaluation of eosinophilic or non-IgE mediated reactions include endoscopy, colonoscopy, and biopsy.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: To avoid an allergic reaction, a strict diet can be followed. It is difficult to determine the amount of allergenic food required to elicit a reaction, so complete avoidance should be attempted. In some cases, hypersensitive reactions can be triggered by exposures to allergens through skin contact, inhalation, kissing, participation in sports, blood transfusions, cosmetics, and alcohol.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: If the food is accidentally ingested and a systemic reaction (anaphylaxis) occurs, then epinephrine should be used. A second dose of epinephrine may be required for severe reactions. The person should then be transported to the emergency room, where additional treatment can be given. Other treatments include antihistamines and steroids.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Epinephrine (adrenaline) is the first-line treatment for severe allergic reactions (anaphylaxis). If administered in a timely manner, epinephrine can reverse its effects. Epinephrine relieves airway swelling and obstruction, and improves blood circulation; blood vessels are tightened and heart rate is increased, improving circulation to body organs. Epinephrine is available by prescription in an autoinjector.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Antihistamines can alleviate some of the milder symptoms of an allergic reaction, but do not treat all symptoms of anaphylaxis. Antihistamines block the action of histamine, which causes blood vessels to dilate and become leaky to plasma proteins. Histamine also causes itchiness by acting on sensory nerve terminals. The most common antihistamine given for food allergies is diphenhydramine.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: For reasons not entirely understood, the diagnosis of food allergies has apparently become more common in Western nations recently. One possible explanation for this is the "old friends" hypothesis which suggests that non disease causing organisms, such as helminths, could protect against allergy. Therefore, reduced exposure to these organisms, particularly in developed countries, could have contributed towards the increase.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In the United States, food allergy affects as many as 5% of infants less than three years of age and 3% to 4% of adults. A similar prevalence is found in Canada.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: About 75% of children who have allergies to milk protein are able to tolerate baked-in milk products, i.e., muffins, cookies, cake, and hydrolyzed formulas.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: About 50% of children with allergies to milk, egg, soy, peanuts, tree nuts, and wheat will outgrow their allergy by the age of 6. Those who are still allergic by the age of 12 or so have less than an 8% chance of outgrowing the allergy.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Peanut and tree nut allergies are less likely to be outgrown, although evidence shows that about 20% of those with peanut allergies and 9% of those with tree nut allergies will outgrow them.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In Japan, allergy to buckwheat flour, used for soba noodles, is more common than peanuts, tree nuts or foods made from soy beans.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In the United States, an estimated 12 million people have food allergies. Food allergy affects as many as 5% of infants less than three years of age and 3% to 4% of adults. The prevalence of food allergies is rising. Food allergies cause roughly 30,000 emergency room visits and 150 deaths per year.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain priority allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: There are no labeling laws mandating declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In 2018, the US FDA issued a request for information for the consideration of labeling for sesame to help protect people who have sesame allergies. A decision was reached in November 2020 that food manufacturers voluntarily declare that when powdered sesame seeds are used as a previously unspecified spice or flavor, the label be changed to "spice (sesame)" or "flavor (sesame)."

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: Congress and the President passed a law in April 2021, the "FASTER Act", stipulating that labeling be mandatory, to be effect January 1, 2023, making it the ninth required food ingredient label.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In the United States, there is no federal mandate to address the presence of allergens in drug products. FALCPA does not apply to medicines nor to cosmetics.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: In the US, the FDA Food Code states that the person in charge in restaurants should have knowledge about major food allergens, cross-contacts, and symptoms of food allergy

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: reactions. Restaurant staff, including wait staff and kitchen staff, may not be adequately informed about allergenic ingredients, or the risk of cross-contact when kitchen utensils used to prepare food may have been in previous contact with an allergenic food. The problem may be compounded when customers have a hard time describing their food allergies or when wait staff have a hard time understanding those with food allergies when taking an order.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: A number of desensitization techniques are being studied. Areas of research include anti-IgE antibody (omalizumab), specific oral tolerance induction (SOTI, also known as OIT for oral immunotherapy), and sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT). The benefits of allergen immunotherapy for food allergies is unclear, thus is not recommended .

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: There is research on probiotics, prebiotics and the combination of the two (synbiotics) as a means of treating or preventing infant and child allergies. From reviews, there appears to be a treatment benefit for eczema, but not asthma, wheezing or rhinoconjunctivitis. The evidence was not consistent for preventing food allergies and this approach cannot yet be recommended.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


Food allergy

Context: The Food Standards Agency, in the United Kingdom, are in charge of funding research into food allergies and intolerance. Since their founding in 1994 they have funded over 45 studies. In 2005 Europe created EuroPrevall, a multi-country project dedicated to research involving allergies.

Question: 牛乳に次ぐ食物アレルギーは何？


David Chalmers

Context: David John Chalmers (; born 20 April 1966) is an Australian philosopher and cognitive scientist specializing in the areas of philosophy of mind and philosophy of language. He is a Professor of Philosophy and Neural Science at New York University, as well as co-director of NYU's Center for Mind, Brain and Consciousness (along with Ned Block). In 2006, he was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities. In 2013, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers is best known for formulating the hard problem of consciousness. He is the cofounder of PhilPapers (a database of journal articles for professionals and students in philosophy) along with David Bourget.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers was born in Sydney, New South Wales, in 1966, and subsequently grew up in Adelaide, South Australia, where he attended Unley High School.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: As a child, he experienced synesthesia. He also performed exceptionally in mathematics, and secured a bronze medal in the International Mathematical Olympiad. When Chalmers was 13 he read Douglas Hofstadter's 1979 book "Gödel, Escher, Bach", which awakened an interest in philosophy.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: In 2013, Chalmers was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences. He is an editor on topics in the philosophy of mind for the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy". In May 2018, it was announced that he would serve on the jury for the Berggruen Prize.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: After the publication of Chalmers' landmark paper, more than twenty papers in response were published in the "Journal of Consciousness Studies". These papers (by Daniel Dennett, Colin McGinn, Francisco Varela, Francis Crick, and Roger Penrose, among others) were collected and published in the book "Explaining Consciousness: The Hard Problem". John Searle critiqued Chalmers' views in "The New York Review of Books".

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: And, as also proposed by Hilary Putnam and Kripke himself, Kripke's view on names can also be applied to the reference of natural kind terms. The kind of theory of reference that is advocated by Kripke and Putnam is called the direct reference theory.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: However, Chalmers disagrees with Kripke, and all the direct reference theorists in general. He thinks that there are two kinds of intension of a natural kind term, a stance which is now called two dimensionalism. For example, the words,

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: are taken to express two distinct propositions, often referred to as a "primary intension" and a "secondary intension", which together compose its meaning.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: The primary intension of a word or sentence is its sense, i.e., is the idea or method by which we find its referent. The primary intension of "water" might be a description, such as "watery stuff". The thing picked out by the primary intension of "water" could have been otherwise. For example, on some other world where the inhabitants take "water" to mean "watery stuff", but where the chemical make-up of watery stuff is not H2O, it is not the case that water is H2O for that world.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers addressed the issue of virtual and non-virtual worlds in his 2022 book "Reality+". While Chalmers recognises that virtual reality is not the same as non-virtual reality, he does not consider virtual reality to be an illusion, but rather a “genuine reality” in its own right. Chalmers sees virtual reality as potentially offering as meaningful a life as non-virtual reality, and argues that we could already be inhabitants of a simulation without knowing it.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers proposes that computers are forming a form of “exo-cortex”, where a part of human cognition is ‘outsourced’ to corporations such as Apple and Google.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers was featured in the 2012 documentary film entitled "The Singularity" by filmmaker Doug Wolens, which focuses on the theory proposed by techno-futurist Ray Kurzweil, of that "point in time when computer intelligence exceeds human intelligence." He was a featured philosopher in the "Daily Nous" series on GPT-3, which he described as "one of the most interesting and important AI systems ever produced."

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers is the lead singer of the Zombie Blues band, which performed at the music festival Qualia Fest in 2012 in New York.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Chalmers is in a relationship with Claudia Passos Ferreira, a philosopher and psychologist from Rio de Janeiro.

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


David Chalmers

Context: Regarding religion, Chalmers has said: "I have no religious views myself and no spiritual views, except watered-down humanistic, spiritual views. And consciousness is just a fact of life. It's a natural fact of life."

Question: デイヴィド・チャーマーズはどこで哲学を勉強した


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher studied chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, and worked briefly as a research chemist, before becoming a barrister. She was elected Member of Parliament for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970–1974 government. In 1975, she defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition, the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: A polarising figure in British politics, Thatcher is nonetheless viewed favourably in historical rankings and public opinion of British prime ministers. Her tenure constituted a realignment towards neoliberal policies in Britain, with the complicated legacy attributed to Thatcherism debated into the 21st century.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Margaret Hilda Roberts was born on 13 October 1925, in Grantham, Lincolnshire. Her parents were Alfred Roberts (1892–1970), from Northamptonshire, and Beatrice Ethel Stephenson (1888–1960), from Lincolnshire. Her father's maternal grandmother, Catherine Sullivan, was born in County Kerry, Ireland.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Roberts spent her childhood in Grantham, where her father owned a tobacconist's and a grocery shop. In 1938, before the Second World War, the Roberts family briefly gave sanctuary to a teenage Jewish girl who had escaped Nazi Germany. With her elder sister Muriel, Margaret saved pocket money to help pay for the teenager's journey.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: During her time at Oxford, Roberts was noted for her isolated and serious attitude. Her first boyfriend, Tony Bray (1926–2014), recalled that she was "very thoughtful and a very good conversationalist. That's probably what interested me. She was good at general subjects". Roberts's enthusiasm for politics as a girl made him think of her as "unusual" and her parents as "slightly austere" and "very proper".

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946. She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich Hayek's "The Road to Serfdom" (1944), which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: After graduating, Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics. In 1948 she applied for a job at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), but was rejected after the personnel department assessed her as "headstrong, obstinate and dangerously self-opinionated". Jon Agar in "Notes and Records" argues that her understanding of modern scientific research later impacted her views as prime minister.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Cabinet papers later revealed that she opposed the policy but had been forced into it by the Treasury. Her decision provoked a storm of protest from Labour and the press, leading to her being notoriously nicknamed "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher". She reportedly considered leaving politics in the aftermath and later wrote in her autobiography: "I learned a valuable lesson . I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit."

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher became Conservative Party leader and Leader of the Opposition on 11 February 1975; she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath was never reconciled to Thatcher's leadership of the party.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Television critic Clive James, writing in "The Observer" prior to her election as Conservative Party leader, compared her voice of 1973 to "a cat sliding down a blackboard". Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece, a former television producer. By chance, Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier, who arranged lessons with the National Theatre's voice coach.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In domestic affairs, Thatcher opposed Scottish devolution (home rule) and the creation of a Scottish Assembly. She instructed Conservative MPs to vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976, which was successfully defeated, and then when new Bills were proposed she supported amending the legislation to allow the English to vote in the 1979 referendum on Scottish devolution.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher became prime minister on 4 May 1979. Arriving at Downing Street she said, paraphrasing the Prayer of Saint Francis:

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In office throughout the 1980s, Thatcher was frequently referred to as the most powerful woman in the world.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: As prime minister, Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business, and their relationship came under scrutiny. states:

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Michael Shea, the Queen's press secretary, in 1986 leaked stories of a deep rift to "The Sunday Times". He said that she felt Thatcher's policies were "uncaring, confrontational and socially divisive". Thatcher later wrote: "I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct [...] stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were just too good not to make up."

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet, the so-called "wets", expressed doubt over Thatcher's policies. The 1981 England riots resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U-turn. At the 1980 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly, with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar, that notably included the following lines:

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: By 1982, the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery; inflation was down to 8.6% from a high of 18%, but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s. By 1983, overall economic growth was stronger, and inflation and mortgage rates had fallen to their lowest levels in 13 years, although manufacturing employment as a share of total employment fell to just over 30%, with total unemployment remaining high, peaking at 3.3 million in 1984.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: During the 1982 Conservative Party Conference, Thatcher said: "We have done more to roll back the frontiers of socialism than any previous Conservative Government." She said at the Party Conference the following year that the British people had completely rejected state socialism and understood "the state has no source of money other than money which people earn themselves [...] There is no such thing as public money; there is only taxpayers' money."

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: By 1987, unemployment was falling, the economy was stable and strong, and inflation was low. Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead, and local council election results had also been successful, prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year, despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away. The election saw Thatcher re-elected for a third successive term.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher had been firmly opposed to British membership of the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM, a precursor to European Economic and Monetary Union), believing that it would constrain the British economy, despite the urging of both Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe; in October 1990 she was persuaded by John Major, Lawson's successor as Chancellor, to join the ERM at what proved to be too high a rate.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In March 1984, the National Coal Board (NCB) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state-owned mines and cut 20,000 jobs out of 187,000. Two-thirds of the country's miners, led by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) under Arthur Scargill, downed tools in protest. However, Scargill refused to hold a ballot on the strike, having previously lost three ballots on a national strike (in January and October 1982, and March 1983). This led to the strike being declared illegal by the High Court of Justice.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher refused to meet the union's demands and compared the miners' dispute to the Falklands War, declaring in a speech in 1984: "We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands. We always have to be aware of the enemy within, which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty." Thatcher's opponents misrepresented her words as indicating contempt for the working class and have been employed in criticism of her ever since.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: After a year out on strike in March 1985, the NUM leadership conceded without a deal. The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £1.5 billion, and the strike was blamed for much of the pound's fall against the US dollar. Thatcher reflected on the end of the strike in her statement that "if anyone has won" it was "the miners who stayed at work" and all those "that have kept Britain going".

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: The policy of privatisation has been called "a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism". After the 1983 election the sale of state utilities accelerated; more than £29 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries, and another £18 billion from the sale of council houses. The process of privatisation, especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation, was associated with marked improvements in performance, particularly in terms of labour productivity.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In most cases, privatisation benefited consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency, but results overall have been mixed. Not all privatised companies have had successful share price trajectories in the longer term. A 2010 review by the IEA states: "[I]t does seem to be the case that once competition and/or effective regulation was introduced, performance improved markedly [...] But I hasten to emphasise again that the literature is not unanimous."

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher always resisted privatising British Rail and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley: "Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government. Please never mention the railways to me again." Shortly before her resignation in 1990, she accepted the arguments for privatisation, which her successor John Major implemented in 1994.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation to fuel economic growth. Chancellor Geoffrey Howe abolished the UK's exchange controls in 1979, which allowed more capital to be invested in foreign markets, and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher supported an active climate protection policy; she was instrumental in the passing of the Environmental Protection Act 1990, the founding of the Hadley Centre for Climate Research and Prediction, the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the ratification of the Montreal Protocol on preserving the ozone.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher helped to put climate change, acid rain and general pollution in the British mainstream in the late 1980s, calling for a global treaty on climate change in 1989. Her speeches included one to the Royal Society in 1988, followed by another to the UN General Assembly in 1989.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: The "Financial Times" reported in 2011 that her government had secretly supplied Ba'athist Iraq under Saddam Hussein with "non-lethal" military equipment since 1981.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Following Reagan–Gorbachev summit meetings and reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR, she declared in November 1988 that "We're not in a Cold War now", but rather in a "new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was". She went on a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1984 and met with Gorbachev and Council of Ministers chairman Nikolai Ryzhkov.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Despite opposite personalities, Thatcher bonded quickly with US president Ronald Reagan. She gave strong support to the Reagan administration's Cold War policies based on their shared distrust of communism. A sharp disagreement came in 1983 when Reagan did not consult with her on the invasion of Grenada.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In April 1986 she permitted US F-111s to use Royal Air Force bases for the bombing of Libya in retaliation for the alleged Libyan bombing of a Berlin discothèque, citing the right of self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter. Polls suggested that fewer than one in three British citizens approved of her decision.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher, sharing the concerns of French president François Mitterrand, was initially opposed to German reunification, telling Gorbachev that it "would lead to a change to postwar borders, and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security". She expressed concern that a united Germany would align itself more closely with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: During the same month, German chancellor Helmut Kohl reassured Thatcher that he would keep her "informed of all his intentions about unification", and that he was prepared to disclose "matters which even his cabinet would not know".

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: During her premiership Thatcher had the second-lowest average approval rating (40%) of any post-war prime minister. Since Nigel Lawson's resignation as Chancellor in October 1989, polls consistently showed that she was less popular than her party. A self-described conviction politician, Thatcher always insisted that she did not care about her poll ratings and pointed instead to her unbeaten election record.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In December 1989, Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by the little-known backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer. Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote, 314 voted for Thatcher and 33 for Meyer. Her supporters in the party viewed the result as a success and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the party.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Opinion polls in September 1990 reported that Labour had established a 14% lead over the Conservatives, and by November, the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months. These ratings, together with Thatcher's combative personality and tendency to override collegiate opinion, contributed to further discontent within her party.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In July 1989, Thatcher removed Geoffrey Howe as foreign secretary after he and Lawson had forced her to agree to a plan for Britain to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Britain joined the ERM in October 1990.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: On 1 November 1990, Howe, by then the last remaining member of Thatcher's original 1979 cabinet, resigned as deputy prime minister, ostensibly over her open hostility to moves towards European monetary union. In his resignation speech on 13 November, which was instrumental in Thatcher's downfall, Howe attacked Thatcher's openly dismissive attitude to the government's proposal for a new European currency competing against existing currencies (a "hard ECU"):

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher was replaced as head of government and party leader by Chancellor John Major, whose lead over Heseltine in the second ballot was sufficient for Heseltine to drop out. Major oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading to the 1992 general election, and led the party to a fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992. Thatcher had lobbied for Major in the leadership contest against Heseltine, but her support for him waned in later years.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher returned to the backbenches as a constituency parliamentarian after leaving the premiership. Her domestic approval rating recovered after her resignation, though public opinion remained divided on whether her government had been good for the country. Aged 66, she retired from the House of Commons at the 1992 general election, saying that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: On leaving the Commons, Thatcher became the first former British prime minister to set up a foundation; the British wing of the Margaret Thatcher Foundation was dissolved in 2005 due to financial difficulties. She wrote two volumes of memoirs, "The Downing Street Years" (1993) and "The Path to Power" (1995). In 1991, she and her husband Denis moved to a house in Chester Square, a residential garden square in central London's Belgravia district.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher was hired by the tobacco company Philip Morris as a "geopolitical consultant" in July 1992, for $250,000 per year and an annual contribution of $250,000 to her foundation. Thatcher earned $50,000 for each speech she delivered.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher became an advocate of Croatian and Slovenian independence. Commenting on the Yugoslav Wars, in a 1991 interview for Croatian Radiotelevision, she was critical of Western governments for not recognising the breakaway republics of Croatia and Slovenia as independent and for not supplying them with arms after the Serbian-led Yugoslav Army attacked.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In August 1992 she called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo, to end ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War, comparing the situation in Bosnia–Herzegovina to "the barbarities of Hitler's and Stalin's".

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty, describing it as "a treaty too far" and stated: "I could never have signed this treaty." She cited A. V. Dicey when arguing that, as all three main parties were in favour of the treaty, the people should have their say in a referendum.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher served as honorary chancellor of the College of William & Mary in Virginia from 1993 to 2000, while also serving as chancellor of the private University of Buckingham from 1992 to 1998, a university she had formally opened in 1976 as the former education secretary.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: After Tony Blair's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher praised Blair as "probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell", adding: "I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved." Blair responded in kind: "She was a thoroughly determined person, and that is an admirable quality."

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In 1998, Thatcher called for the release of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet when Spain had him arrested and sought to try him for human rights violations. She cited the help he gave Britain during the Falklands War. In 1999, she visited him while he was under house arrest near London. Pinochet was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by Home Secretary Jack Straw.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: At the 2001 general election, Thatcher supported the Conservative campaign, as she had done in 1992 and 1997, and in the Conservative leadership election following its defeat, she endorsed Iain Duncan Smith over Kenneth Clarke. In 2002 she encouraged George W. Bush to aggressively tackle the "unfinished business" of Iraq under Saddam Hussein, and praised Blair for his "strong, bold leadership" in standing with Bush in the Iraq War.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Following several small strokes she was advised by her doctors not to engage in further public speaking. In March 2002 she announced that, on doctors' advice, she would cancel all planned speaking engagements and accept no more.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: On 26 June 2003, Thatcher's husband Sir Denis died aged 88; he was cremated on 3 July at Mortlake Crematorium in London.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: On 11 June 2004, Thatcher (against doctors' orders) attended the state funeral service for Ronald Reagan. She delivered her eulogy via videotape; in view of her health, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier. Thatcher flew to California with the Reagan entourage, and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for the president at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher was a public supporter of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism and the resulting Prague Process, and sent a public letter of support to its preceding conference.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: After collapsing at a House of Lords dinner, Thatcher, suffering low blood pressure, was admitted to St Thomas' Hospital in central London on 7 March 2008 for tests. In 2009 she was hospitalised again when she fell and broke her arm. Thatcher returned to 10 Downing Street in late November 2009 for the unveiling of an official portrait by artist Richard Stone, an unusual honour for a living former prime minister. Stone was previously commissioned to paint portraits of the Queen and Queen Mother.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: On 4 July 2011, Thatcher was to attend a ceremony for the unveiling of a statue to Ronald Reagan, outside the US Embassy in London, but was unable to attend due to her frail health. She last attended a sitting of the House of Lords on 19 July 2010, and on 30 July 2011 it was announced that her office in the Lords had been closed. Earlier that month, Thatcher was named the most competent prime minister of the past 30 years in an Ipsos MORI poll.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher's daughter Carol that her mother had dementia in 2005, saying "Mum doesn't read much any more because of her memory loss". In her 2008 memoir, Carol wrote that her mother "could hardly remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she got to the end". She later recounted how she was first struck by her mother's dementia when, in conversation, Thatcher confused the Falklands and Yugoslav conflicts; she recalled the pain of needing to tell her mother repeatedly that her husband Denis was dead.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher died on 8 April 2013, at the age of 87, after suffering a stroke. She had been staying at a suite in the Ritz Hotel in London since December 2012 after having difficulty with stairs at her Chester Square home in Belgravia. Her death certificate listed the primary causes of death as a "cerebrovascular accident" and "repeated transient ischaemic attack"; secondary causes were listed as a "carcinoma of the bladder" and dementia.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: were mixed across the UK, ranging from tributes lauding her as Britain's greatest-ever peacetime prime minister to public celebrations of her death and expressions of hatred and personalised vitriol.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Details of Thatcher's funeral had been agreed with her in advance. She received a ceremonial funeral, including full military honours, with a church service at St Paul's Cathedral on 17 April.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh attended her funeral, marking only the second time in the Queen's reign that she attended the funeral of any of her former prime ministers, after that of Winston Churchill, who received a state funeral in 1965.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: After the service at St Paul's, Thatcher's body was cremated at Mortlake, where her husband had been cremated. On 28 September, a service for Thatcher was held in the All Saints Chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea's Margaret Thatcher Infirmary. In a private ceremony, Thatcher's ashes were interred in the hospital's grounds, next to her husband's.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcherism represented a systematic and decisive overhaul of the post-war consensus, whereby the major political parties largely agreed on the central themes of Keynesianism, the welfare state, nationalised industry, and close regulation of the economy, and high taxes. Thatcher generally supported the welfare state while proposing to rid it of abuses.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher defined her own political philosophy, in a major and controversial break with the one-nation conservatism of her predecessor Edward Heath, in a 1987 interview published in "Woman's Own" magazine:

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Speaking in Scotland in 2009, Thatcher insisted she had no regrets and was right to introduce the poll tax and withdraw subsidies from "outdated industries, whose markets were in terminal decline", subsidies that created "the culture of dependency, which had done such damage to Britain". Political economist Susan Strange termed the neoliberal financial growth model "casino capitalism", reflecting her view that speculation and financial trading were becoming more important to the economy than industry.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Critics on the left describe her as divisive and say she condoned greed and selfishness. Leading Welsh politician Rhodri Morgan, among others, characterised Thatcher as a "Marmite" figure. Journalist Michael White, writing in the aftermath of the 2007–08 financial crisis, challenged the view that her reforms were still a net benefit. Others consider her approach to have been "a mixed bag" and " Curate's egg".

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Shortly after Thatcher's death in 2013, Scottish first minister Alex Salmond argued that her policies had the "unintended consequence" of encouraging Scottish devolution. Lord Foulkes of Cumnock agreed on "Scotland Tonight" that she had provided "the impetus" for devolution. Writing for "The Scotsman" in 1997, Thatcher argued against devolution on the basis that it would eventually lead to Scottish independence.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher's tenure of 11 years and 209 days as British prime minister was the longest since Lord Salisbury (13 years and 252 days, in three spells) and the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool (14 years and 305 days).

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Having led the Conservative Party to victory in three consecutive general elections, twice in a landslide, she ranks among the most popular party leaders in British history in terms of votes cast for the winning party; over 40 million ballots were cast in total for the Conservatives under her leadership. Her electoral successes were dubbed a "historic hat trick" by the British press in 1987.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher was the subject or the inspiration for 1980s protest songs. Musicians Billy Bragg and Paul Weller helped to form the Red Wedge collective to support Labour in opposition to Thatcher. Known as "Maggie" by supporters and opponents alike, the chant song "Maggie Out" became a signature rallying cry among the left during the latter half of her premiership.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Wells parodied Thatcher in several media. He collaborated with Richard Ingrams on the spoof "Dear Bill" letters, which ran as a column in "Private Eye" magazine; they were also published in book form and became a West End stage revue titled "Anyone for Denis?", with Wells in the role of Thatcher's husband. It was followed by a 1982 TV special directed by Dick Clement, in which Thatcher was played by Angela Thorne.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher became a privy counsellor (PC) on becoming a secretary of state in 1970. She was the first woman entitled to full membership rights as an honorary member of the Carlton Club on becoming Leader of the Conservative Party in 1975.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Two weeks after her resignation, Thatcher was appointed Member of the Order of Merit (OM) by the Queen. Her husband Denis was made a hereditary baronet at the same time; as his wife, Thatcher was entitled to use the honorific style "Lady", an automatically conferred title that she declined to use. She would be made Lady Thatcher in her own right on her subsequent ennoblement in the House of Lords.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In the Falklands, Margaret Thatcher Day has been marked each 10 January since 1992, commemorating her first visit to the Islands in January 1983, six months after the end of the Falklands War in June 1982.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: Thatcher became a member of the House of Lords in 1992 with a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire. Subsequently, the College of Arms granted her usage of a personal coat of arms; she was allowed to revise these arms on her appointment as Lady of the Order of the Garter (LG) in 1995, the highest order of chivalry.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


Margaret Thatcher

Context: In the US, Thatcher received the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award from the Reagan Presidential Foundation in 1998; she was designated a patron of the Heritage Foundation in 2006, where she established the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom.

Question: サッチャー女男爵マーガレット・ヒルダ・サッチャーは暗殺未遂されたことはありますか？


William T. G. Morton

Context: In December 1846, Morton applied to Congress for "national recompense" of $100,000, but this too was complicated by the claims of Jackson and Wells as discoverers of ether, and so Morton's application proved fruitless. He made similar applications in 1849, 1851, and 1853, and all failed. He later sought remuneration for his achievement through a futile attempt to sue the United States government. The lawyer who represented him was Richard Henry Dana Jr.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: In 1852, he received an honorary degree from the Washington University of Medicine in Baltimore, which later became the College of Physicians and Surgeons.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: In the spring of 1857, Amos Lawrence, a wealthy Bostonian, together with the medical professionals and influential citizens of Boston, developed a plan to raise $100,000 as a national testimonial to Morton, receiving contributions from both public and private citizens.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: Morton's notoriety only increased when he served as the star defense witness in one of the most notable trials of the nineteenth century, that of John White Webster, who had been accused of the murder of George Parkman. Morton's rival, Dr Jackson, testified for the prosecution, and the residents of Boston were anxious to witness these nemeses in courtroom combat.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: Morton performed public service yet again in the autumn of 1862 when he joined the Army of the Potomac as a volunteer surgeon, and applied ether to more than two thousand wounded soldiers during the battles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: Morton was in New York City in July 1868. He was riding in a carriage with his wife when he suddenly demanded the carriage to stop, and he ran into the lake in Central Park "to cool off". This peculiar behavior was because he had suffered a major stroke (cerebrovascular accident) which proved fatal soon after.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: Morton was taken to nearby St. Luke's. It is reported by his wife that upon recognizing Morton, the chief surgeon made the following remark to his students:Young gentlemen, you see lying before you a man who has done more for humanity and for the relief of suffering than any man who has ever lived.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: In 1871, a committee of those involved in raising the aforementioned national testimonial published "The Historical Memoranda Relative to the Discovery of Etherization" to establish Morton as the inventor and revealer of anesthetic inhalation and to justify pecuniary reward to Morton's family for the "fearful moral and legal responsibility he assumed in pursuit of this discovery."

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: Morton's life and work were later to become the subject of the 1944 Paramount Pictures film "The Great Moment" (based on the 1940 book "Triumph Over Pain" by René Fülöp-Miller).

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: The first use of ether as an anesthetic is commemorated in the Ether Monument in the Boston Public Garden, but the designers were careful not to choose sides in the debate over whom should deserve credit for the discovery. Instead, the statue depicts a doctor in mediaeval Moorish robes and turban.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


William T. G. Morton

Context: Read Victory over Pain by Betty MacQuitty for evidence that Dr. Charles T Jackson was not the discoverer of Ether as an anesthetic.

Question: 麻酔を発明したのは誰？


Repressed memory

Context: One of the studies published in his essay involved a young woman by the name of Anna O. Among her many ailments, she suffered from stiff paralysis on the right side of her body. Freud stated her symptoms to be attached to psychological traumas. The painful memories had separated from her consciousness and brought harm to her body. Freud used hypnosis to treat Anna O. She is reported to have gained slight mobility on her right side.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: Not all therapists agree that false memories are a major risk of psychotherapy and they argue that this idea overstates the data and is untested. Several studies have reported high percentages of the corroboration of recovered memories, and some authors have claimed that among skeptics of idea of recovered memory there is a "tendency to conceal or omit evidence of corroboration" of recovered memories.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: A difficult issue for the field is that there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between true and false memories. Some believe that memories "recovered" under hypnosis are particularly likely to be false.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: According to The Council on Scientific Affairs for the American Medical Association, recollections obtained during hypnosis can involve confabulations and pseudomemories and appear to be less reliable than nonhypnotic recall.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: Those who argue in favor of the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memory have identified three mechanisms of normal memory that may explain how memory repression may occur: retrieval inhibition, motivated forgetting, and state-dependent remembering.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: Serious issues arise when recovered but false memories result in public allegations; false complaints carry serious consequences for the accused. A special type of false allegation, false memory syndrome, arises typically within therapy, when people report the "recovery" of childhood memories of previously unknown abuse. The influence of practitioners' beliefs and practices in the eliciting of false "memories" and of false complaints has come under particular criticism.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: Some criminal cases have been based on a witness's testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some jurisdictions, the statute of limitations for child abuse cases has been extended to accommodate the phenomena of repressed memories as well as other factors. The repressed memory concept came into wider public awareness in the 1980s and 1990s followed by a reduction of public attention after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: A U.S. District Court accepted repressed memories as admissible evidence in a specific case. Dalenberg argues that the evidence shows that recovered memory cases should be allowed to be prosecuted in court.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: The apparent willingness of courts to credit the recovered memories of complainants but not the absence of memories by defendants has been commented on: "It seems apparent that the courts need better guidelines around the issue of dissociative amnesia in both populations."

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: In a 1996 ruling, a U.S. District Court allowed repressed memories entered into evidence in court cases. Jennifer Freyd writes that Ross E. Cheit's case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: On December 16, 2005, the Irish Court of Criminal Appeal issued a certificate confirming a Miscarriage of Justice to a former nun, Nora Wall whose 1999 conviction for child rape was partly based on repressed-memory evidence. The judgement stated that:

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: There was no scientific evidence of any sort adduced to explain the phenomenon of "flashbacks" and/or "retrieved memory", nor was the applicant in any position to meet such a case in the absence of prior notification thereof.

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


Repressed memory

Context: The Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Child Abuse of the American Psychological Association reached five key conclusions:

Question: 抑圧された記憶を提唱したのは誰


History of molecular theory

Context: In chemistry, the history of molecular theory traces the origins of the concept or idea of the existence of strong chemical bonds between two or more atoms.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1680, using the corpuscular theory as a basis, French chemist Nicolas Lemery stipulated that the acidity of any substance consisted in its pointed particles, while alkalis were endowed with pores of various sizes. A molecule, according to this view, consisted of corpuscles united through a geometric locking of points and pores.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: These were lists, prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents. These tables retained their vogue for the rest of the century, until displaced by the profounder conceptions introduced by CL Berthollet.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1789, William Higgins published views on what he called combinations of "ultimate" particles, which foreshadowed the concept of valency bonds. If, for example, according to Higgins, the force between the ultimate particle of oxygen and the ultimate particle of nitrogen were 6, then the strength of the force would be divided accordingly, and similarly for the other combinations of ultimate particles:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Similar to these views, in 1803 John Dalton took the atomic weight of hydrogen, the lightest element, as unity, and determined, for example, that the ratio for nitrous anhydride was 2 to 3 which gives the formula N2O3. Dalton incorrectly imagined that atoms "hooked" together to form molecules. Later, in 1808, Dalton published his famous diagram of combined "atoms":

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Amedeo Avogadro created the word "molecule". His 1811 paper "Essay on Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies", he essentially states, i.e. according to Partington's "A Short History of Chemistry", that:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Note that this quote is not a literal translation. Avogadro uses the name "molecule" for both atoms and molecules. Specifically, he uses the name "elementary molecule" when referring to atoms and to complicate the matter also speaks of "compound molecules" and "composite molecules".

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In coordination with these concepts, in 1833 the French chemist Marc Antoine Auguste Gaudin presented a clear account of Avogadro's hypothesis, regarding atomic weights, by making use of "volume diagrams", which clearly show both semi-correct molecular geometries, such as a linear water molecule, and correct molecular formulas, such as H2O:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In two papers outlining his "theory of atomicity of the elements" (1857–58), Friedrich August Kekulé was the first to offer a theory of how every atom in an organic molecule was bonded to every other atom. He proposed that carbon atoms were tetravalent, and could bond to themselves to form the carbon skeletons of organic molecules.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1861, an unknown Vienna high-school teacher named Joseph Loschmidt published, at his own expense, a booklet entitled "Chemische Studien I", containing pioneering molecular images which showed both "ringed" structures as well as double-bonded structures, such as:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Loschmidt also suggested a possible formula for benzene, but left the issue open. The first proposal of the modern structure for benzene was due to Kekulé, in 1865. The cyclic nature of benzene was finally confirmed by the crystallographer Kathleen Lonsdale. Benzene presents a special problem in that, to account for all the bonds, there must be alternating double carbon bonds:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1865, German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann was the first to make stick-and-ball molecular models, which he used in lecture at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, such as methane shown below:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: The basis of this model followed the earlier 1855 suggestion by his colleague William Odling that carbon is tetravalent. Hofmann's color scheme, to note, is still used to this day: nitrogen = blue, oxygen = red, chlorine = green, sulfur = yellow, hydrogen = white. The deficiencies in Hofmann's model were essentially geometric: carbon bonding was shown as planar, rather than tetrahedral, and the atoms were out of proportion, e.g. carbon was smaller in size than the hydrogen.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1864, Scottish organic chemist Alexander Crum Brown began to draw pictures of molecules, in which he enclosed the symbols for atoms in circles, and used broken lines to connect the atoms together in a way that satisfied each atom's valence.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: The year 1873, by many accounts, was a seminal point in the history of the development of the concept of the "molecule". In this year, the renowned Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell published his famous thirteen page article 'Molecules' in the September issue of "Nature". In the opening section to this article, Maxwell clearly states:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Achille Le Bel independently proposed that the phenomenon of optical activity could be explained by assuming that the chemical bonds between carbon atoms and their neighbors were directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron. This led to a better understanding of the three-dimensional nature of molecules.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Emil Fischer developed the Fischer projection technique for viewing 3-D molecules on a 2-D sheet of paper:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Moreover, noting that a cube has eight corners Lewis envisioned an atom as having eight sides available for electrons, like the corner of a cube. Subsequently, in 1902 he devised a conception in which cubic atoms can bond on their sides to form cubic-structured molecules.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In other words, electron-pair bonds are formed when two atoms share an edge, as in structure C below. This results in the sharing of two electrons. Similarly, charged ionic-bonds are formed by the transfer of an electron from one cube to another, without sharing an edge A. An intermediate state B where only one corner is shared was also postulated by Lewis.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Hence, double bonds are formed by sharing a face between two cubic atoms. This results in the sharing of four electrons.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: On these views, in his famous 1916 article "The Atom and the Molecule", Lewis introduced the "Lewis structure" to represent atoms and molecules, where dots represent electrons and lines represent covalent bonds. In this article, he developed the concept of the electron-pair bond, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Moreover, he proposed that an atom tended to form an ion by gaining or losing the number of electrons needed to complete a cube. Thus, Lewis structures show each atom in the structure of the molecule using its chemical symbol. Lines are drawn between atoms that are bonded to one another; occasionally, pairs of dots are used instead of lines. Excess electrons that form lone pairs are represented as pair of dots, and are placed next to the atoms on which they reside:

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1927, the physicists Fritz London and Walter Heitler applied the new quantum mechanics to the deal with the saturable, nondynamic forces of attraction and repulsion, i.e., exchange forces, of the hydrogen molecule. Their valence bond treatment of this problem, in their joint paper, was a landmark in that it brought chemistry under quantum mechanics. Their work was an influence on Pauling, who had just received his doctorate and visited Heitler and London in Zürich on a Guggenheim Fellowship.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: Owing to these exceptional theories, Pauling won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Notably he has been the only person to ever win two unshared Nobel prizes, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1963.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1926, French physicist Jean Perrin received the Nobel Prize in physics for proving, conclusively, the existence of molecules. He did this by calculating Avogadro's number using three different methods, all involving liquid phase systems. First, he used a gamboge soap-like emulsion, second by doing experimental work on Brownian motion, and third by confirming Einstein's theory of particle rotation in the liquid phase.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1937, chemist K.L. Wolf introduced the concept of supermolecules ("Übermoleküle") to describe hydrogen bonding in acetic acid dimers. This would eventually lead to the area of supermolecular chemistry, which is the study of non-covalent bonding.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1951, physicist Erwin Wilhelm Müller invents the field ion microscope and is the first to see atoms, e.g. bonded atomic arrangements at the tip of a metal point.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna reported results from experiments on wave-particle duality for C60 molecules. The data published by Zeilinger et al. were consistent with de Broglie wave interference for C60 molecules. This experiment was noted for extending the applicability of wave–particle duality by about one order of magnitude in the macroscopic direction.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


History of molecular theory

Context: In 2009, researchers from IBM managed to take the first picture of a real molecule. Using an atomic force microscope every single atom and bond of a pentacene molecule could be imaged.

Question: 分子を発見したのは誰？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: The was the main fighter aircraft used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force up until 1940. Its Allied nickname was "Nate", although it was called "Abdul" in the "China Burma India" (CBI) theater by many post war sources; Allied Intelligence had reserved that name for the nonexistent Mitsubishi Navy Type 97 fighter, expected to be the successor to the carrier-borne Type 96 (Mitsubishi A5M) with retractable landing gear and an enclosed cockpit.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: In 1935, the Imperial Japanese Army held a competition between Nakajima, Mitsubishi, and Kawasaki to design a low-wing monoplane to replace the Kawasaki Ki-10 (Army Type 95 Fighter) biplane. The new fighter was to have also a better performance than the experimental Mitsubishi Ki-18.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: The type was officially accepted into service in 1937 as the Army Type 97 Fighter. In addition to Nakajima, the Ki-27 was also manufactured by Tachikawa Aircraft Company Ltd and Manshukoku Hikoki Seizo KK, with a total of 3,368 built before production ended in 1942.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: The Ki-27 was the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's main fighter until the start of World War II. When placed into combat service over northern China in March 1938, the Ki-27 enjoyed air superiority until the introduction of the faster Soviet-built Polikarpov I-16 fighters by the Chinese.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: The preference of Japanese fighter pilots for the Ki-27's high rate of turn caused the Army to focus excessively on manoeuvrability, a decision which later handicapped the development of faster and more heavily armed fighters. The Ki-27 served until the beginning of World War II in the Pacific, escorting bombers attacking Malaya, Singapore, Netherlands East Indies, Burma and the Philippines (where it initially fared poorly against the Brewster F2A Buffalo).

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: The type also saw extensive action against the American Volunteer Group in the early months of the war. Soon outclassed by the American Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, the Ki-27 was replaced in front line service by the Nakajima Ki-43, while surviving examples continued to serve as a trainer.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: The Ki-27 was also exported for use with Manchukuo and Thai armed forces, seeing combat with both. In Thai service, Ki-27s reportedly damaged two North American P-51 Mustangs and shot down one Lockheed P-38 Lightning and one North American P-51 Mustang.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: Improved canopy, oil cooler and provision for 4 × 25 kg (55 lb) bombs or fuel tanks under the wings. A total of 1,492 built, including 50 by Tachikawa Aircraft Company Ltd.

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: Experimental lightened version developed as an interim solution when Ki-43 development was delayed, top speed 475 km/h (295 mph); two aircraft built).

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Nakajima Ki-27

Context: Trainer version, built by Manshūkoku Hikōki Seizo KK with a 510 hp Hitachi Ha.13a-I or Ha.13a-III engine. A total of 1,329 aircraft built in four sub-versions (The single seat Ki-79a (Ha.13a-I) and Ki-79c (Ha.13a-III) and the two-seat Ki-79b (Ha.13a-I) and Ki-79d (Ha.13a-III)).

Question: 九七式戦闘機はいつ完成した？


Novel

Context: A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, typically written in prose and published as a book. The present English word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itself from the , a singular noun use of the neuter plural of "novellus", diminutive of "novus", meaning "new". Some novelists, including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Ann Radcliffe, John Cowper Powys, preferred the term "romance" to describe their novels.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Works of fiction that include marvellous or uncommon incidents are also novels, including "The Lord of the Rings", "To Kill a Mockingbird", and "Frankenstein". "Romances" are works of fiction whose main emphasis is on marvellous or unusual incidents, and should not be confused with the romance novel, a type of genre fiction that focuses on romantic love.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Recent technological developments have led to many novels also being published in non-print media: this includes audio books, web novels, and ebooks. Another non-traditional fiction format can be found in some graphic novels. While these comic book versions of works of fiction have their origins in the 19th century, they have only become popular more recently.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: A novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. The novel in the modern era usually makes use of a literary prose style. The development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations in printing, and the introduction of cheap paper in the 15th century.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella. However, in the 17th century, critics saw the romance as of epic length and the novel as its short rival. A precise definition of the differences in length between these types of fiction, is, however, not possible. The philosopher and literary critic György Lukács argued that the requirement of length is connected with the notion that a novel should encompass the totality of life.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty (960–1279) China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into fictional novels by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Parallel European developments did not occur until after the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439, and the rise of the publishing industry over a century later allowed for similar opportunities. The modern European novel is often said to have begun with "Don Quixote" in 1605.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo-Norman and Occitan, later, in English, Italian and German. During the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The "Prose Lancelot" or "Vulgate Cycle" includes passages from that period. This collection indirectly led to Thomas Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" of the early 1470s. Prose became increasingly attractive because it enabled writers to associate popular stories with serious histories traditionally composed in prose, and could also be more easily translated.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but with ironic, satiric or burlesque intent. Romances reworked legends, fairy tales, and history, but by about 1600 they were out of fashion, and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in "Don Quixote" (1605). Still, the modern image of the medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word "medieval" evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and such tropes.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The term "chapbook" is also in use for present-day publications, commonly short, inexpensive booklets.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Heroic Romance is a genre of imaginative literature, which flourished in the 17th century, principally in France.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich Wittenwiler's "Ring" (c. 1410) and to François Rabelais' "Gargantua and Pantagruel" (1532–1564), which parodied and satirized heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. "Don Quixote" modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Other important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron's "Roman Comique" (1651–57), the anonymous French "Rozelli" with its satire on Europe's religions, Alain-René Lesage's "Gil Blas" (1715–1735), Henry Fielding's "Joseph Andrews" (1742) and "Tom Jones" (1749), and Denis Diderot's "Jacques the Fatalist" (1773, printed posthumously in 1796).

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: A market of literature in the modern sense of the word, that is a separate market for fiction and poetry, did not exist until the late seventeenth century. All books were sold under the rubric of "History and politicks" in the early 18th century, including pamphlets, memoirs, travel literature, political analysis, serious histories, romances, poetry, and novels.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: That fictional histories shared the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate, however, changed in the 1670s.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The rise of the modern novel as an alternative to the chivalric romance began with the publication of Miguel de Cervantes' "Novelas Exemplares" (1613). It continued with Scarron's "Roman Comique" (the first part of which appeared in 1651), whose heroes noted the rivalry between French romances and the new Spanish genre.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Late 17th-century critics looked back on the history of prose fiction, proud of the generic shift that had taken place, leading towards the modern novel/novella. The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La Fayette's "Spanish history" "Zayde" (1670). The development finally led to her "Princesse de Clèves" (1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The idea of the "rise of the novel" in the 18th century is especially associated with Ian Watt's influential study "The Rise of the Novel" (1957). In Watt's conception, a rise in fictional realism during the 18th century came to distinguish the novel from earlier prose narratives.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The rising status of the novel in eighteenth century can be seen in the development of philosophical and experimental novels.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives and his "Republic" is an early example of a Utopia. Ibn Tufail's 12th century "Philosophus Autodidacticus" with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island, and the 13th century response by Ibn al-Nafis, "Theologus Autodidactus" are both didactic narrative works that can be though of as early examples of a philosophical and a theological novel, respectively.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The rise of the word novel at the cost of its rival, the romance, remained a Spanish and English phenomenon, and though readers all over Western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century, only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the romance.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The late 18th century brought an answer with the Romantic Movement's readiness to reclaim the word romance, with the gothic romance, and the historical novels of Walter Scott. "Robinson Crusoe" now became a "novel" in this period, that is a work of the new realistic fiction created in the 18th century.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Sentimental novels relied on emotional responses, and feature scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot is arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result is a valorization of "fine feeling", displaying the characters as models of refined, sensitive emotional affect. The ability to display such feelings was thought at this time to show character and experience, and to help shape positive social life and relationships.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: An example of this genre is Samuel Richardson's "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes", which focuses on a potential victim, a heroine that has all the modern virtues and who is vulnerable because her low social status and her occupation as servant of a libertine who falls in love with her. She, however, ends in reforming her antagonist.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in the 1760s. Laurence Sterne's Yorick, the hero of the "Sentimental Journey" (1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield" (1766) and Henry Mackenzie's "Man of Feeling" (1771) produced the far more serious role models.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: These works inspired a sub- and counterculture of pornographic novels, for which Greek and Latin authors in translations had provided elegant models from the last century. Pornography includes John Cleland's "Fanny Hill" (1748), which offered an almost exact reversal of the plot of novels that emphasised virtue. The prostitute Fanny Hill learns to enjoy her work and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual, in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Less virtuous protagonists can also be found in satirical novels, like Richard Head's "English Rogue" (1665), that feature brothels, while women authors like Aphra Behn had offered their heroines alternative careers as precursors of the 19th-century femmes fatales.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The genre evolves in the 1770s with, for example, Werther in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "The Sorrows of Young Werther" (1774) realising that it is impossible for him to integrate into the new conformist society, and Pierre Choderlos de Laclos in "Les Liaisons dangereuses" (1782) showing a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality..

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s when works by French authors were published in Holland out of the reach of French censors. Dutch publishing houses pirated fashionable books from France and created a new market of political and scandalous fiction. This led to a market of European rather than French fashions in the early 18th century.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: An important development in Britain, at the beginning of the century, was that new journals like "The Spectator" and "The Tatler" reviewed novels. In Germany Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's "Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend" (1758) appeared in the middle of the century with reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s such reviews played had an important role in introducing new works of fiction to the public.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The very word romanticism is connected to the idea of romance, and the romance genre experienced a revival, at the end of the 18th century, with gothic fiction, that began in 1764 with Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto", subtitled (in its second edition) "A Gothic Story". Subsequent important gothic works are Ann Radcliffe's "The Mysteries of Udolpho" (1794) and 'Monk' Lewis's "The Monk" (1795).

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The new romances challenged the idea that the novel involved a realistic depiction of life, and destabilized the difference the critics had been trying to establish, between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances exploited the grotesque, and some critics thought that their subject matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The romances of de Sade, "Les 120 Journées de Sodome" (1785), Poe's "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque" (1840), Mary Shelley, "Frankenstein" (1818), and E.T.A. Hoffmann, "Die Elixiere des Teufels" (1815), would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images for 20th- and 21st-century horror films, love romances, fantasy novels, role-playing computer games, and the surrealists.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: A number of European novelists were similarly influenced during this period by the earlier romance tradition, along with the Romanticism, including Victor Hugo, with novels like "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame" (1831) and "Les Misérables" (1862), and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov with "A Hero of Our Time" (1840).

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: As the novel became a platform of modern debate, national literatures were developed that link the present with the past in the form of the historical novel. Alessandro Manzoni's "I Promessi Sposi" (1827) did this for Italy, while novelists in Russia and the surrounding Slavonic countries, as well as Scandinavia, did likewise.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Later works like Samuel Beckett's trilogy "Molloy" (1951), "Malone Dies" (1951) and "The Unnamable" (1953), as well as Julio Cortázar's "Rayuela" (1963) and Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow" (1973) all make use of the stream-of-consciousness technique. On the other hand, Robert Coover is an example of those authors who, in the 1960s, fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structural concepts.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: While the reader of so-called serious literature will follow public discussions of novels, popular fiction production employs more direct and short-term marketing strategies by openly declaring a work's genre. Popular novels are based entirely on the expectations for the particular genre, and this includes the creation of a series of novels with an identifiable brand name. e.g. the Sherlock Holmes series by Arthur Conan Doyle.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Popular literature holds a larger market share. Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in the US book market in 2007. Inspirational literature/religious literature followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650 million and then classic literary fiction with $466 million.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Crime became a major subject of 20th and 21st century genre novelists and crime fiction reflects the realities of modern industrialized societies. Crime is both a personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations; detectives, see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations. Paul Auster's "New York Trilogy" (1985–1986) is an example of experimental postmodernist literature based on this genre.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Fantasy is another major area of commercial fiction, and a major example is J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" (1954/55), a work originally written for young readers that became a major cultural artefact. Tolkien in fact revived the tradition of European epic literature in the tradition of Beowulf, the North Germanic Edda and the Arthurian Cycles.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: A major development in this century has been novels published as ebooks, and the growth of web fiction, which is available primarily or solely on the Internet. A common type is the web serial: unlike most modern novels, web fiction novels are frequently published in parts over time. Ebooks are often published with a paper version. Audio books (a recording of a book reading) have also become common this century.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: Audiobooks have been available since the 1930s in schools and public libraries, and to a lesser extent in music shops. Since the 1980s this medium has become more widely available, including more recently online.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: The development of ebooks and web novels has led to a rapid expansion of self-published works in recent years. Authors who self-publish can make more money than through a traditional publisher.

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Novel

Context: However, despite the challenges from digital media print remains "the most popular book format among U.S. consumers, with more than 60 percent of adults having read a print book in the last twelve months".

Question: 小説の起源はいつ


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: It is one of 54 countries worldwide applying it, and was the first to develop lethal injection as a method of execution, which has since been adopted by five other countries. The Philippines has since abolished executions, and Guatemala has done so for civil offenses, leaving the United States as one of four countries to still use this method (along with China, Thailand, and Vietnam). It is common practice for the condemned to be administered sedatives prior to execution, regardless of the method used.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The Human Rights Measurement Initiative gives the US a score of 4.4 out of 10 for the right to freedom from the death penalty.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The first recorded death sentence in the British North American colonies was carried out in 1608 on Captain George Kendall, who was executed by firing squad at the Jamestown colony for spying on behalf of the Spanish government. Executions in colonial America were also carried out by hanging. The hangman's noose was one of the various banishments the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony applied to enforce religious and intellectual conformity on the whole community.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The Bill of Rights adopted in 1789 included the Eighth Amendment which prohibited cruel and unusual punishment. The Fifth Amendment was drafted with language implying a possible use of the death penalty, requiring a grand jury indictment for "capital crime" and a due process of law for deprivation of "life" by the government. The Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868 also requires a due process of law for deprivation of life by any states.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: The "Espy file", compiled by M. Watt Espy and John Ortiz Smykla, lists 15,269 people executed in the United States and its predecessor colonies between 1608 and 1991. From 1930 to 2002, there were 4,661 executions in the U.S., about two-thirds of them in the first 20 years. Additionally, the United States Army executed 135 soldiers between 1916 and 1961 (the most recent).

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？


Capital punishment in the United States

Context: Three states abolished the death penalty for murder during the 19th century: Michigan (which has never executed a prisoner since achieving statehood), in 1847, Wisconsin, in 1853 and Maine, in 1887. Rhode Island is also a state with a long abolitionist background, having repealed the death penalty in 1852, though it was theoretically available for murder committed by a prisoner between 1872 and 1984.

Question: アメリカ合衆国で初めて死刑が実行されたのはいつ？